Design and Implementation of UWB Vivaldi Antenna: by Sammar Askari Registration # 265 Ameera Akhtar Registration # 242

Design and Implementation of UWB Vivaldi Antenna
By
Sammar Askari Registration # 265
Ameera Akhtar Registration # 242
A Project report submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirement for the degree of
Bachelors in Information and Communication System Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
1
School of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science
National University of Sciences & Technology
Islamabad, Pakistan
2012
CERTIFICATE
It is certified that the contents and form of thesis entitled “ Design and Implementation
of UWB Vivaldi Antenna ” submitted by Sammar Askari (Reg#265) and Ameera
Akhtar ( Reg# 242) have been found satisfactory for the requirement of the degree.
Advisor: ______________________________
( Mr. Yasir Iqbal )
Co-Advisor: ______________________________
( Mr. Ahsan Azhar )
UWB Vivaldi Antenna Page 2

DEDICATION
To Allah the Almighty
&
To my Parents and Faculty
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply thankful to my advisor and Co-Advisor, Mr. Yasir Iqbal, and Mr.
Ahsan Azhar for helping me throughout the course in accomplishing my final project.
Their guidance, support and motivation enabled me in achieving the objectives of the
project.
I am also thankful to my committee members ….. and … for their valuable

feedback. Apart from them I am also thankful to …… for her help, at the crucial stages
of the project. Finally, I am extremely thankful to…..(Research Associate,), for guiding
me through emails and sparing her valuable time for me.

Table of Contents
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................... vii
INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................viii
1.1 Importance.................................................................................................................viii
1.2 Project Goal ................................................................................................................ ix
1.3 Scope of this project .................................................................................................... ix
1.4 Report Organization ..................................................................................................... x
COMMUNICATION HISTORY ...................................................................................... xi
2.1 Early History ................................................................................................................ xi
2.2 Voice Transmission ...................................................................................................... xi
2.3 Early Radio Communication Laws ............................................................................... xii
2.4 Advancements ........................................................................................................... xii
2.5 FCC Regulations.......................................................................................................... xiii
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. xiv
3.1 Introduction to Antenna ............................................................................................. xiv
3.2 History of Antenna ..................................................................................................... xiv
3.3 Basic Parameters of Antenna ..................................................................................... xvii
3.3.1 R ADIATION P ATTERN ........................................................................................ xvii
3.3.2 DIRECTIVITY ...................................................................................................... xix
3.3.3 GAIN ................................................................................................................... xix
3.3.4 BEAM WIDTH .......................................................................................................xx
3.3.5 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY ....................................................................................... xxi
3.3.6 BANDWIDTH ....................................................................................................... xxi
3.3.7 IMPEDANCE ....................................................................................................... xxii
3.3.8 R ETURN LOSS .................................................................................................... xxii
3.3.9 EFFECTIVE APERTURE ....................................................................................... xxii
3.3.10 P OLARIZATION ................................................................................................. xxii
3.4 Types of Antenna ..................................................................................................... xxiii
3.4.1 WIRED ANTENNAS ............................................................................................ xxiii
3.5 Antenna Classification ............................................................................................. xxvii
3.6 Antenna Applications .......................................................................................... xxvii

3.6.1 W IRELESS COMMUNICATIONS ......................................................................... xxvii
3.6.3 W IRELESS RADIOMETRY [PASSIVE REMOTE SENSING- RECEIVE EMISSIONS] xxviii
3.7 History of Ultra-Wideband (UWB) .......................................................................... xxviii
3.8 Introduction to UWB ................................................................................................. xxx
3.8.1 FCC REGULATION ............................................................................................ xxxi
3.9 Theoretical Discussion ............................................................................................. xxxii
3.10 UWB Properties .................................................................................................. xxxiii
3.11 Applications of UWB ............................................................................................. xxxiv
3.12 UWB Antennas ..................................................................................................... xxxvi
3.12.1 UWB ANTENNAS INTRODUCTION ............................................................... xxxvii
3.12.2 S YSTEM REQUIREMENTS & ANTENNA P ARAMETERS ................................. xxxvii
3.12.3 IMPORTANCE OF UWB ANTENNAS .............................................................xxxviii
3.13 CHALLENGES IN ANTENNA DESIGN ................................................................ xxxix
3.14 APPLICATIONS OF UWB ANTENNAS ............................................................... xxxix
3.15 Vivaldi Antennas........................................................................................................ xl
3.15.1 VIVALDI ANTENNAS INTRODUCTION ................................................................ xl
3.15.3 OVERVIEW OF VIVALDI ANTENNA DESIGN ...................................................... xlii
3.15.4 T APERED S LOT ANTENNA ................................................................................ xlii
3.15.5 T APER P ROFILES .............................................................................................. xliii
3.16 The Vivaldi Exponential Flare .................................................................................... xlv
3.17 Antipodal Vivaldi antenna......................................................................................... xlv
3.18 Feeding technique ................................................................................................... xlvi
3.19 Antipodal Slotline .................................................................................................... xlvi
3.20 Applications of UWB Vivaldi Antenna .................................................................... xlviii
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... xlix
4.1 Ansoft HFSS ............................................................................................................... xlix
4.2 Flow chart of Design methodology ................................................................................ l
4.3 Antenna Designs .......................................................................................................... li
4.4 Simulation Results ...................................................................................................... liii
References ......................................................................................................................... 1
Figures ............................................................................................................................... 3

ABSTRACT
Since the release by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) of a bandwidth

3.1GHz to 10.6GHz for ultra-wideband wireless communications, UWB is rapidly
advancing as a high data rate wireless communication technology. As in the
conventional wireless communication systems, an antenna plays a very crucial role in
UWB systems which brings more challenges in designing a UWB antenna than a narrow
band one. A suitable UWB antenna is capable of operating over an ultra wide bandwidth
as allocated by the FCC, and has satisfactory radiation properties over the entire
frequency range. The primary requirement of the UWB antenna is a good time domain
performance, i.e. good impulse response with minimal distortion.
UWB Vivaldi antennas are end-fire tapered antennas with a large bandwidth and gain.
In this project we designed Antipodal Vivaldi antenna whose structure consists of a
smooth transition between twin line and micro strip line. Improved Vivaldi antenna
parameters will be used in order to optimize the size, and radiation bandwidth with a
usable gain response, along with the whole operating band (including lower
frequencies).

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
After the regulation for the frequency usage of low power Ultra-Wide Band (UWB)
systems, UWB based technologies have become the most sought-after among the short-
range communication systems. The UWB behavior means relatively large operational
bandwidth and the following characteristics of the impulse response by the antenna,
high peak value of the pulse envelope, narrow width of the pulses, short duration of
ringing and a stable group delay.
Vivaldi antennas have received considerable attention due to their high gain, relatively
wide band, simple structure, easy fabrication, and wide use in UWB applications. It is
one of the best candidates due to its planar structure, low profile, light weight, and ultra-
wide bandwidth. The Vivaldi tapered slot antenna (TSA) generally consists of two
different structures, i.e., coplanar and antipodal geometry. In our project we are working
on antipodal exponential tapered slot line geometry.
In order to improve the antenna parameters, new design solutions for Vivaldi antennas
were employed. The innovation is based on the formulation of the design curves, which
are used in the construction of the antenna. The new design method was tested for
different substrates and different frequency limits and it shows much better responses,
in addition to maintaining the smallest possible dimensions.
1.1 Importance
Vivaldi antennas belong to the class of tapered slot antennas (TSA), and have several
advantages such as light weight, easy fabrication, high efficiency, wide bandwidth and
end fire radiation. This antenna has good performance in the band 3.1GHZ to 10.6GHZ
which is assigned to Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) wireless communication by FCC. They

are used for many applications such as, satellite communications systems and multi-
beam arrays. Recently, they were found very useful in UWB pulse transmission.
In the short pulse wireless communication systems, since the information may be
included in the shape of short pulses, the pulse distortion should be reduced to a
minimum. Vivaldi antenna satisfies the requirements of UWB and is easy to integrate
with radiating or transmitting elements on one circuit.
1.2 Project Goal
The goal of our project is to:
 Design an Antipodal UWB Vivaldi Antenna whose structure is tapered

slot line.
 Achieve the frequency range as 3-8 GHz, Gain 6-8 dBi approximately,
with the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) less than 2.0.
 Use FR4 substrate, and HFSS for the simulations.
 Analyze and optimize the performance of antenna.
 Implementation of the Antenna with the above given specifications.
1.3 Scope of this project
The scope of this work is to design, fabricate an antipodal tapered slot line Vivaldi
antenna which can be used for UWB applications according to the FCC specifications.
That requires operating frequency band ranging from 3 to 8 GHz and the smallest
possible distortion of the UWB pulse. The antenna should be small and easy-to-
manufacture with available laboratory equipment. The voltage standing wave ratio
(VSWR) should be less than 2.0 within the UWB range. Other aspects, such as
beamwidth, side lobes and directivity, were not considered during the design stage;
however, they were evaluated for the final design. Special attention had been paid to the

influence of the dimensions and optimization of the antenna. Several strategies on how
to increase the gain were then suggested and utilized in the final design.
1.4 Report Organization
Chapter 2: Communication History
Chapter 3: Literature Review

Chapter 2
COMMUNICATION HISTORY
The move toward worldwide wireless communications continues at a remarkable pace,

and the antenna element of the technology is crucial to its success. The history of the
radio, or wireless telegraph, dates back more than a century. Advancements over time,
including voice transmissions, have led to the radios that exist today. Early radio
communications were limited to simple Morse Code transmissions. Like television,
radio broadcasts must follow specific Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
regulations. In order to broadcast legally on the radio, a person must obtain a license
from the FCC. [20]
2.1 Early History
The invention of the radio, also known at the time as a "wireless telegraph," has its roots
in both the telephone and telegraph machine. A German physicist by the name of
Heinrich Hertz first discovered the existence of radio waves in 1887. On December
12th, 1901, Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi and his assistants were able to transmit
across the Atlantic without the use of wires, which at the time was considered
impossible. This breakthrough in technology gave way to radio communication.
2.2 Voice Transmission
The transmission across the Atlantic achieved by Guglielmo and his assistants was in
the form of Morse code, tapping out the letter "S," however the first voice transmission
occurred on December 24th, 1906. Canadian engineer Reginald Fessenden, who had

worked with Thomas Edison prior, became convinced that the "wireless telegraph"
could not only transmit Morse Code, but the human voice as well. The transmission
included Fessenden reading from the Bible, playing the violin, and a phonograph
recording of "Largo."
2.3 Early Radio Communication Laws
In 1910, the United States government made it mandatory for all ships to contain a
wireless telegraph, as well as a wireless telegraph operator, on board in case of
emergency. The sinking of the Titanic led to the Radio Act of 1912, which required all
ships to have two wireless telegraph operators on board at all times. The Radio Act of
1927 was enacted to control the "chaos" being created by amateur radio broadcasters.
As a result, The Federal Radio Commission (FRC) was formed and given the
responsibility of either granting, or denying, a person a license to broadcast on the radio.
In 1934, the FRC gave way to the FCC. [20]
2.4 Advancements
Major advancements in technology have transformed the way radio signals are not only
broadcast, but also received. In 1992, the FCC established the Digital Audio Radio
Service (DARS). American Mobile Radio, now known as XM Radio, purchased a
license to use the new frequencies for $93 million. CD Radio, now known as Sirius
Satellite Radio, also purchased rights for $89 million. XM Radio was officially launched
in 2001, and Sirius was launched in 2002.

2.5 FCC Regulations
The FCC regulates radio broadcasts .The FCC has the responsibility of determining
what can, and cannot be said on the radio, as well as who can legally broadcast. The
FCC has the right to take away a stations license if they air indecent, profane, or obscene
material defined by the FCC. [20]

Chapter 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 Introduction to Antenna
An antenna is any device that converts electronic signals to electromagnetic waves (and
vice versa) efficiently with minimum loss of signals. Antennas are basic components of
all equipment that uses radio. It concentrates incoming wave onto a sensor (receiving
case) and launches waves from a guiding structure into space or air (transmitting case).
Antennas are employed in different systems in different forms. In some systems the
characteristics of the system are designed around the directional properties of the
antennas or in some others systems, the antennas are used simply to emit
electromagnetic energy in an omni-directional or lastly in some systems for point-to-
point communication purpose in which amplified gain and reduced wave interference
are essential. They are not limited to electromagnetic waves. Antenna is a passive
device, it does not increase the signals, and it only directs the signal energy in a specific
direction in reference with isotropic antenna. [26]
3.2 History of Antenna
In 1830s Faraday was the one to conduct the first experimentation that involved the
coupling of electricity and magnetism and showed an ultimate relationship by sliding a
magnet around the coils of a wire attached to galvanometer, this movement created the
time-varying magnetic field, which consequently must have had a time-varying electric
field (Maxwell's Equations). The coil received the electromagnetic radiation detected
by the galvanometer, so the coil acted as a loop antenna.

In 1886 wireless communication system was developed by Heinrich Hertz. He enforced
an electrical spark to arise in the space of a dipole antenna. By using a loop antenna as
a receiver, and observed a similar deflection in the galvanometer.
In 1901 Marconi sent information across the Atlantic using a number of perpendicular
wires attached to the ground that acted as a transmit antenna. The receiving antenna was
a long wire approximately 200meters long, was held up by a kite.
In 1920 Yagi antenna was invented in Japan. Its gain is greater than 10 dB; bandwidth
is relatively small and operates in the HF to UHF bands (3 MHz to 3 GHz).
Figure 1 a) Yagi antenna b) Geometry of Yagi-Uda antenna
In 1939 Horn antennas were invented. They operate at UHF (300 MHz-3 GHz) and
HF (140 GHz). Horn antennas have high gain (10-20 dB), also 25 dB in some cases.
They often have a directional radiation pattern. Examples of a horn antenna are H-plane
horn and E-plane horn. The most popular horn antenna is flared in both planes.
In 1940s Antenna array was established. Antenna array is a set of 2 or more antennas.
The signals from the antennas are processed to achieve better performance. The antenna
array can be used to:

 amplify the overall gain
 endow with diversity reception
 nullify interference
 steer the array to make it sensitive in a particular direction
 determine the direction of arrival of the incoming signals
 maximize the Signal to Interference Plus Noise Ratio (SINR)
In 1950s Satellite dish antennas were developed. They have high gain (30-40dB) and
low cross polarization. Small dish antennas operate between 2 to 28GHz and large dish
antennas operate in VHF region i-e 30-300MHz.
Figure2. a)Stanford university dish antenna. B) 70m dish antenna at NASA

laboratory
In 1970s Microstrip antennas were invented. These antennas are becoming very
common within the mobile phone market because they are low cost, have a low profile
and are easily fabricated.
In 1980s PIFA was discovered. The Planar Inverted-F Antenna is increasingly used in
mobile phone market because it has a low profile and an Omni-directional pattern.
Nowadays a lot of work is being performed on optimization of antennas, mainly in

wireless communication devices (e.g. cell phones). Research is also being done in

Numerical modeling of antennas so that their properties can be predicted before they
are built and tested. Current research on antennas involves Met materials [27].
3.3 Basic Parameters of Antenna
3.3.1 RADIATION PATTERN
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a graphical description of the field strength

transmitted from or received by the antenna. The patterns are generally represented in
polar or rectilinear form with a dB strength scale.
The two types of antenna fields are:
• Reactive field - the portion of the antenna field characterized by standing waves
which represent stored energy.
• Radiation field - the portion of the antenna field characterized by radiating
waves which represent transmitted energy.
Antenna field regions are of two types:
• Near-Field - it is expressed as R< 2D2 / λ, and D is the maximum antenna

dimension. It shows the region between the reactive nearfield and the far-field
where the radiation fields are dominant and the field distribution is dependent
on the distance from the antenna.
• Far-Field - it is expressed as R> 2D2 / λ, which shows the region extreme away
from the antenna where the field distribution is independent of the distance from
the antenna.

Figure 3. near and far field patterns.
There are many radiation patterns like isotropic, directional, Omni-directional and
principal plane. In Isotropic pattern equal power is radiated in all directions, no real
antenna has this pattern, but it is produced by an isotropic radiator which used as a
reference pattern to compare other antenna radiation patterns with. Omni-directional
pattern is uniform in a given plane. The radiation is more efficient in one direction than
the other in Directional Pattern (all physically realizable antennas are directional
antennas). Principal Plane Patterns are the E-plane and H-plane patterns of a linearly
polarized antenna. E-plane – is the plane containing the electric field vector and the
direction of maximum radiation. H-plane – is the plane containing the magnetic field
vector and the direction of maximum radiation.
The radiation pattern parameters are Radiation lobe, Major lobe, Minor lobe, Side lobe
and Back lobe. Radiation Lobe is a clear peak in the radiation intensity surrounded by
regions of weaker radiation intensity. Major Lobe is radiation lobe in the direction of
maximum radiation. Minor Lobe is any radiation lobe other than the main lobe. Side
Lobes are small lobes. A Back Lobe is the radiation lobe opposite to the main lobe.

Figure 4. Antenna radiation parameters.
3.3.2 DIRECTIVITY
The directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a certain direction
from the antenna to the average of radiation intensity in all directions. It’s a
dimensionless quantity and is usually expressed in dBi. The radiation pattern helps in
estimating the directivity of the antenna. The directivity of the antenna with narrow
main lobe would be greater than the one which has a broad main lobe.
3.3.3 GAIN
An antenna that radiates badly has low “gain”. And it emits radiation with about the
same power in all directions, whereas a higher-gain antenna will radiate in particular
directions. Gain of an antenna is the increase in signal strength as the signal is routed
by the antenna for a certain incident angle. It is expressed in dB and it can be negative.
It is a passive phenomenon; antenna does not add the power but it redistributes to supply
further radiated power in a particular direction than the power transmitted by an
isotropic antenna. Thus being dependent on the total power send to the antenna input
terminals, antenna gain accounts for the ohmic losses in the antenna while being

dependent on the total radiated power, the antenna directivity does not include the effect
of Ohmic losses.
3.3.4 BEAM WIDTH
The beamwidth is considered as the angular width of the half power radiated within a
certain cut through the main beam of the antenna where most of the power is radiating.
The peak radiation intensity of the radiation pattern which is the peak of main beam, the
half power level is -3dB below such a peak where two points on the main beam are
located; these points are on two sides of the peak, which separate the angular width of
the half power. The angular distance between the half power points is defined as the
beamwidth. Half the power expressed in decibels is -3dB so the half power beamwidth
is referred as -3dB beamwidth.
Figure 5. Beamwidth of antenna.

3.3.5 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY
It is a measure of antennas ability to transmit the input power into radiation. It is

basically a ratio of transmitted power to the input power. Different types of efficiencies
contribute to the total antenna efficiency. The total efficiency is a multiple of all these
efficiencies. Efficiency is affected by the losses within the antenna itself and the
reflection due to the mismatch at the antenna terminal. The total power send to the
antenna terminals is less than that offered from the generator given the effects of
mismatch at the source/transmission line connection, losses in the t-line, and mismatch
at the t-line/antenna connection. Radiation in antenna is caused by radiation resistance,
which can only be measured as part of total resistance, including loss resistance. Loss
resistance results in heat generation rather than radiation and reduces efficiency.
Efficiency is mathematically calculated as radiation resistance divided by total
resistance.
3.3.6 BANDWIDTH
The Bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies in which the performance of

the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a specified standard.
The Bandwidth of a broadband antenna is the ratio of the upper frequency to the lower
frequency of suitable operation.
The Bandwidth of a narrowband antenna is the percentage of the difference in

frequency over the center frequency.

3.3.7 IMPEDANCE
The impedance of an antenna is the ratio of voltage to current at any point. In order to
transfer maximum power from transmitter into free space antenna must be terminating
with 50 Ohm impedance.
3.3.8 R ETURN LOSS
The Return Loss is the amount of power that is lost and is not returned as a reflection.
It indicates that how efficiently antenna is transmitting/receiving electromagnetic wave
over particular band of frequencies. For perfect matching between the transmitter and
the antenna, Γ = 0 and RL = ∞ which implies no power would be reflected back, whereas
a Γ = 1 has a RL = 0 dB, which means that all incident power is reflected.
3.3.9 EFFECTIVE APERTURE
Effective aperture of the antenna is that aperture that will take part in transmission and
reception of electromagnetic waves.
3.3.10 POLARIZATION
The polarization of the antenna in a given direction is defined as the polarization of the
wave radiated in that direction by the antenna or polarization is the orientation of the E
and H waves transmitted or received by the antenna. Reflection generally affects
polarization. The most important reflector of radio waves is the ionosphere. Polarization
cannot be relied upon for the signals that are reflected from ionosphere. But for Line of
Sight communications polarizations can be relied upon; having the transmitter and the

receiver use the same polarization can make a huge difference in signal quality.
Polarization is largely predictable from antenna construction, especially in directional
antennas. Polarization of side lobes is different from main propagating lobe. Two special
cases of polarization are:
– Linear polarization: It includes vertical, horizontal or slant (any angle)

–Circular polarization: It includes right- and left-hand circular (also elliptical). [27]
3.4 Types of Antenna
3.4.1 WIRED ANTENNAS
Wire antennas are used at or near resonance. Sometimes it is not useful to put up the
whole resonant length. The physical length can be decreased by using loading
techniques
• Inductive load: e.g. centre, base or top coil (usually adjustable)

• Capacitive load: e.g. capacitance “hats” (flat top at one or both ends)
Types of wired antennas are: Dipole, Loop, Folded dipoles, Helical antenna, Yagi (array
of dipoles), Corner reflectorand many more types
Figure 6.wired antenna

3.4.2 APERTURE ANTENNAS
Aperture antennas transmit and receive energy from its aperture and collects power over
a well-defined aperture. The analysis of aperture antennas is different than the analysis
of wire antennas. The fields within the aperture are used to determine the antenna
radiation patterns rather than using the antenna current distribution to determine the
radiated fields. Aperture antennas are commonly used in aircraft or spacecraft
applications. The aperture can be set up with the surface of the vehicle, and the opening
can be covered with a dielectric which allows electromagnetic energy to pass through.
Various types of aperture antennas are:
• Wire antennas
• Horn Antenna
• Satellite dish antenna
• Cass grain antenna
3.4.2 HORN ANTENNAS
The horn antenna represents a transition or matching section from the guided mode
inside the waveguide to the unguided (free-space) mode outside the waveguide. The
horn antenna, as a matching section, reduces reflections and leads to a lower standing
wave ratio. There are three basic types of horn antennas:
• E-plane sectoral horn (flared in the direction of the E-plane only)

• H-plane sectoral horn (flared in the direction of the H-plane only)
• pyramidal horn antenna (flared in both the E-plane and H-plane)

Figure7 a) E-plane horn antenna b) H-plane horn antenna c) Pyramidal horn
antenna
The flare of the horns considered here is assumed to be linear although some horn
antennas are formed by other flare types such as an exponential flare. The horn antenna
is mounted on a waveguide that is almost always excited in single-mode operation. That
is, the waveguide is operated at a frequency above the cutoff frequency of the TE10
mode but below the cutoff frequency of the next highest mode.
3.4.3 REFLECTOR ANTENNAS
A reflector antenna utilizes some sort of reflecting (conducting) surface to increase the
gain of the antenna. A typical reflector antenna couples a small feed antenna with a
reflecting surface that is large relative to wavelength. Reflector antennas can achieve
very high gains and are commonly used in such applications as long distance
communications, radio astronomy and high-resolution radar. A variety of reflecting
surface shapes are utilized in reflector antennas. Some reflector antennas employ a

parabolic cylinder as the reflecting surface while a more common reflecting surface
shape is the paraboloid (parabolic dish antenna). The so-called Cassegrain antenna uses
dual reflecting surfaces (the main reflector is a paraboloid, the sub reflector is a
hyperboloid).
3.4.4 ANTENNA ARRAYS
Antennas with a given radiation pattern may be arranged in a pattern (line, circle, plane,
etc.) to yield a different radiation pattern. It’s a configuration of multiple antennas
(elements) arranged to achieve a given radiation pattern.
• Linear array - antenna elements arranged along a straight line.

• Circular array - antenna elements arranged around a circular ring.
• Planar array - antenna elements arranged over some planar surface (example –
rectangular array).
• Conformal array - antenna elements arranged to conform to some non-planar
surface (such as an aircraft skin).
Figure 8. Cell tower antenna array

3.5 Antenna Classification
An antenna can be classified on the basis of:

Radiation - Isotropic, Omni directional, Directional, Hemispherical antenna
Frequency & Size - VLF, LF, HF, VHF, UHF, Microwave & Millimeter wave antenna
Apertures - Wire, Parabolic Dish, Microstrip Patch antenna
Polarization - Linear (Vertical/Horizontal), Circular polarization antenna. [4]
3.6 Antenna Applications
3.6.1 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
• Personal Communications Systems (PCS)

• Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) Systems
• Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN)
• Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) Television
• Mobile Communications
• Telephone Microwave/Satellite Links
• Broadcast Television and Radio, etc.
3.6.2 REMOTE SENSING
• Radar [active remote sensing - radiate and receive]

 Military applications (target search and tracking)
 Weather radar, Air traffic control
 Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
• Automobile speed detection
• Traffic control (magnetometer)
• Agricultural applications

3.6.3 WIRELESS RADIOMETRY [PASSIVE REMOTE SENSING- RECEIVE EMISSIONS]
• Military applications (threat avoidance, signal interception)[5]
Figure9. a) Astronomical antenna b) Radiometry antenna
3.7 History of Ultra-Wideband (UWB)
In the late 1950's, there was an effort made by Lincoln Laboratory and Sperry to develop
phased array radar systems. Sperry's Electronic Scanning Radar (ESR) employed a so
called Butler Hybrid Phasing Matrix which was an interconnection of 3 dB branch line
couplers connected in such a manner that it formed a 2-N port network. Each input port
corresponded to a particular phase taper across the output N-ports which, when
connected to antenna elements, corresponded to a particular direction in space. In
attempting to understand the wideband properties of this network, efforts were made to
reference the properties of the four port interconnection of quarter wave TEM mode
lines which formed the branch line coupler. It was astonishing to find that no such
analysis existed. And so it began. It started with the analysis of the general microwave
2-N port, the so called biconjugate network. Since the impulse response of these
networks was a train of weighted and equally spaced impulses, the response resembled
what one would find at the output of a sampled data system. About the same time,

Schmidt and RWP King were measuring the impulse response of the dipole and resonant
ring radiating elements in the time-domain. Here, too, the response in the far field and
the driving ports was approximately a train of uniformly spaced impulses. This
correlated well with the work of Hallen who found in the frequency domain that this
class of radiating element had a periodic amplitude spectrum when measured by a swept
frequency source.
The work was then moved to the former Sperry Research Center (SRC), Sudbury, MA
in 1965 where this writer formed a group of very talented engineers to help with the
further development of "time domain electromagnetic".
Dr. J. Lamar Allen expanded the analysis of linear and non-reciprocal microwave
networks and antennas to ferrite devices. Dr. Harry Cronson later extended the work to
time domain metrology where the frequency domain properties of passive microwave
networks were found via their impulse response and Fourier transforms. Both the US
Air Force at Rome Labs and the US Army in Huntsville, Alabama supported this work.
At about the same time, Drs. David Lamensdorf and Leon Susman started the analysis
of antennas using time domain techniques. Dr. DeLorenzo invented the time domain
scattering range, which proved to be a powerful tool for both the scattering analyses of
targets and antennas. Ohio State investigators using individual frequencies and
combining the amplitude and phase data by computer also did a significant amount of
work on scattering using DeLorenzo's scattering range concepts. Dr. A. Murray
Nicolson of the tunnel diode constant false alarm rate (CFAR) receiver. An improved
version of the CFAR detector is still in use today. With all the system blocks in place, a
short range radar sensor was developed as a pre-collision sensor for the airbag then
being touted for use in cars (1972). The range of this sensor was about 8 feet.
In the metrology area (1970-1980), this writer together with Dr. Nicolson developed a
narrow baseband pulse fixture in conjunction with FFT techniques to measure the
stealthy properties of microwave absorbing materials directly from a single pulse
measurement. Most of the development of stealthy materials done at Wright Patterson
AFB used this approach until the Hewlett Packard network analyzer became available.

Aircraft Company. Later this technique was expanded to measure liquid levels in a tank.
It appears others have recently rediscovered this work. Work in radar continued in the
1990's with the development of synchronized arrays of short pulse sources.
Some of the first radio transmissions (spark-gap generators) were wideband, carrier less
transmissions! Quickly, wireless communications moved to carrier-modulated
transmissions, and forgot about UWB but then returned first in radar applications from
the 1940’s onwards. First “modern” UWB designs were based on impulse radio.[17]
3.8 Introduction to UWB
The world of ultra-wide band (UWB) has changed dramatically in very recent history.
In the past 20 years, UWB was used for radar, sensing, military communications and
niche applications.
A substantial change occurred in February 2002, when the FCC issued a rule that UWB
could be used for data communications as well as for radar and safety purposes.
Recently UWB technology has been focused on consumer electronics and
Communications. Ideal targets for UWB systems are low power, low cost precise
positioning capability and extremely low interface.
UWB is a form of relatively high spread spectrum where RF energy is spread over Giga
hertz of spectrum. It is wider than any narrow band system in orders of magnitude and
its power seen by a narrow band system is a fraction of total power. UWB signals are
designed to look like imperceptible random noise to conventional radios.

Figure 10. Ultra-wideband communications spread transmitting energy across a
wide spectrum of frequency.
3.8.1 FCC REGULATION
Ultra-Wideband (UWB) refers to technology having bandwidth exceeding 500 MHz,

according to Federal Communications Commission (FCC). A February 14, 2002 Report
and Order by the FCC authorizes the unlicensed use of UWB in the range of 3.1 to
10.6 GHz. The FCC power spectral density emission limit for UWB emitters operating
in the UWB band is -41.3 dBm/MHz. This is the same limit that applies to unintentional
emitters in the UWB band. FCC allows UWB technology to coexist with existing radio
services without causing interference. [17]

FCC first report and order authorizes five types of devices.
3.9 Theoretical Discussion
One performance measure of a radio in applications like communication, locating,

tracking, and radar, is the channel capacity for a given bandwidth and signaling format.
Channel capacity is the theoretical maximum possible number of bits per second of
information that can be conveyed through one or more links in an area. According to
the Shannon–Hartley theorem, channel capacity of a properly encoded signal is
proportional to the bandwidth of the channel and to the logarithm of signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR)—assuming the noise is additive white Gaussian noise. Thus channel capacity
increases linearly by increasing bandwidth of the channel to the maximum value
available, or equivalently in a fixed channel bandwidth by increasing the signal power
exponentially. By virtue of the huge bandwidths inherent to UWB systems, huge
channel capacities could be achieved in principle (given sufficient SNR).
Shannon showed that the system capacity C of a channel perturbed by AWGN is:

C= B log 2(1 = 𝑆/𝑁)
Where:
C= Max Channel Capacity (bits/sec)
B= channel Bandwidth (hertz)
S = signal power (Watts)
N = noise power (Watts)
Ultra-wide band is so effective because as the bandwidth increases its channel capacity
also increases. [25]
3.10 UWB Properties
 The UWB characteristics are very well suited to short-distance

applications.
 It is extremely difficult to detect by unintended users and is highly
secured.
 It is non-interfering to other communication systems and appears like
noise for other systems.
 UWB can operate on both line of sight and non line of sight operation
and can pass through walls and doors.
 Another valuable aspect of pulse-based UWB is that the pulses are very
short in space (less than 60 cm for a 500 MHz wide pulse, less than
23 cm for a 1.3 GHz bandwidth pulse), so most signal reflections do not
overlap the original pulse, and thus the traditional multipath fading of
narrow band signals does not exist.
 It has a very common architecture for communication, radar and
positioning.
 It has low cost, low power and nearly all digital and single chip
architecture.
 UWB has a very high data rate.[16]

Figure 11. Standards for range and data rate.
3.11 Applications of UWB
Due to the extremely low emission levels currently allowed by regulatory agencies,
UWB systems tend to be short-range and indoors applications. However, due to the
short duration of the UWB pulses, it is easier to engineer extremely high data rates. High
data rate UWB can enable wireless monitors, the efficient transfer of data from digital
camcorders, wireless printing of digital pictures from a camera without the need for an
intervening personal computer, and the transfer of files among cell phone handsets and
other handheld devices like personal digital audio and video players.
UWB is used as a part of location systems and real time location systems. The precision
capabilities combined with the very low power makes it ideal for certain radio frequency
sensitive environments such as hospitals and healthcare. Another benefit of UWB is the
short broadcast time which enables implementers of the technology to install orders of

magnitude more transmitter tags in an environment relative to competitive technologies.
[15]
Ultra-wideband is the contortionist of the wireless world. It is flexible enough to work

in many different ways while still maintaining its character. The applications are
distributed in three different categories:
 Communications and sensors

 Position location and tracking
 Radar
Figure 12. Applications of UWB

Figure13. Consumer applications of UWB
3.12 UWB Antennas
Ultra-wideband (UWB) radio has a long history from the 1960s, in radar and
communication applications, but mostly for military purpose. To permit the marketing
and operation of new products that incorporate UWB technology, Federal
Communications Commission (FCC), USA amended the rules on February 14, 2002.
The revised order specifies different technical standards and operation restrictions for
three types of UWB products, namely imaging systems, vehicular radar systems, and
communication & measurement systems. Among them only wireless communication
systems are of concern in this paper. UWB Antenna shares the same history with UWB
radio since it is an indispensable component in UWB systems. The past century
witnessed the development of an incredibly wide variety of UWB antennas.[18]

3.12.1 UWB ANTENNAS INTRODUCTION
“Ultra-wideband” has its roots in the original “spark-gap” transmitters that pioneered
radio technology. This history is well-known and has been well documented in both
professional and in popular treatments. The development of UWB antennas has not been
subjected to similar scrutiny. As a consequence, designs have been forgotten and then
re-discovered by later investigators.
Traditional antenna parameters are suitable for narrowband applications, but

inconvenient for ultra-wideband systems. For the design of antennas in UWB wireless
communication systems, some of parameters cannot be used directly. [1]
3.12.2 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS & ANTENNA PARAMETERS
From a systems point of view, there are at least four typical requirements anticipated for
antennas in wireless communication systems, regardless of narrowband or ultra-
wideband.
1. High efficiency
2. Acceptable emission levels in free space to comply with regulator's limits
3. Detectable signals at a receiver
4. Specified radiation pattern depending on applications
In narrowband systems, traditional antenna parameters such as gain, impedance

matching, and polarization are enough to assess the performance of an antenna. But, in
the world of UWB radio, the situation is complicated and these antenna parameters are
inadequate to fully describe an antenna. Therefore, additional parameters such as the
radiation efficiency, Gain, impedance Bandwidth, emission Level fidelity, power
pattern, and fidelity pattern have been introduced to evaluate the performance of antenna
systems and should be introduced to guide antenna engineers engaging in UWB wireless
communication systems.[3]

The UWB antenna requirements can be summarized in the following table:
VSWR Bandwidth 3.1 – 10.6 GHz
Radiation Efficiency High (>70%)
Phase Nearly linear constant group delay
Radiation Pattern Omni directional
Directivity and Gain Low
Half Power Beamwidth Wide (> 60 °)
Physical Profile Small, Compact, Planar
Table 1: UWB Antenna Requirements
3.12.3 IMPORTANCE OF UWB ANTENNAS
The imminent widespread commercial deployment of ultra-wideband (UWB) systems

have sparked renewed interest in the subject of ultra-wideband antennas. The power
levels authorized by the FCC mean that every dB counts in a UWB system as much as
or perhaps even more so than in a standard narrowband system. Thus, an effective UWB
antenna is a critical part of an overall UWB system design. UWB antennas have been
in active commercial use for decades. In a sense, even the venerable AM broadcast
band antenna is “UWB” since it covers a band from 535-1705 kHz for a fractional
bandwidth in excess of 100%. Because a high quality broadcast AM antenna is really a
tuned antenna designed to pick up an individual narrowband (10 kHz) channel, the
effective fractional bandwidth is really only 0.6-1.9% and only one channel can be
received at a time.

3.13 C HALLENGES IN ANTENNA DESIGN
UWB has had a substantial effect on antenna design. Given that antenna research for
most narrowband systems is relatively mature, coupled with the fact that the antenna
has been a fundamental challenge of the UWB radio system, UWB has piqued a surge
of interest in antenna design by providing new challenges and opportunities for antenna
designers. The main challenge in UWB antenna design is achieving the wide impedance
bandwidth while still maintaining high radiation efficiency. Spanning 7.5 GHz, almost
a decade of frequency, this bandwidth goes beyond the typical definition of a wideband
antenna. UWB antennas are typically required to attain a bandwidth, which reaches
greater than 100% of the center frequency to ensure a sufficient impedance match is
attained throughout the band such that a power loss less than 10% due to reflections
occurs at the antenna terminals. Aside from attaining a sufficient impedance bandwidth,
linear phase is also required for optimal wave reception, which corresponds to near
constant group delay. This minimizes pulse distortion during transmission. Also, high
radiation efficiency is required especially for UWB applications. Since the transmit
power is so low (below the noise floor), power loss due to dielectrics and conductor
losses must be minimized. Typically, antennas sold commercially achieve efficiencies
of 50-60% due to lossy dielectrics. A power loss of 50% is not acceptable for UWB
since the receive end architecture already 12 must be exceptionally sensitive to receive
a UWB signal. Extra losses could compromise the functionality of the system. The
physical constraints require compatibility with portable electronic devices and
integrated circuits. As such, a small and compact antenna is required.
3.14 APPLICATIONS OF UWB ANTENNAS
For many years, ultra-wide band (UWB) antennas have had many applications in
communication systems with broadband and spread-spectrum features in radar systems.
The UWB performances of antennas result from excitation by impulse or non sinusoidal
signals with rapidly time-varying performances.

A new balanced antipodal Vivaldi antenna for UWB applications with ultra wide
bandwidth (1.3–20 GHz) with respect to 10-dB impedance has been proposed. Recently,
a new version of ultra-wideband monocone antenna has been designed for UWB
channel measurement, and the transient responses of a logarithmic periodic dipole and
a Vivaldi antenna are presented for the characterization of a UWB antenna. [4]
3.15 Vivaldi Antennas
The Vivaldi antenna is slow-wave, leaky, end-fire, traveling-wave antenna.

Theoretically, the Vivaldi antenna has an unlimited operating frequency range, with
constant beamwidth over the entire bandwidth. The Vivaldi antenna is a type of a
traveling-wave antenna of the “surface-type”. The waves travel down the curved path
of the flare along the antenna. In the region where the separation between the conductors
is small when compared to the free-space wavelength, the waves are tightly bound and
as the separation increases, the bond becomes progressively weaker and the waves get
radiated away from the antenna.
3.15.1 VIVALDI ANTENNAS INTRODUCTION
With the development of communication technologies, the usage of UWB (Ultra Wide
Band) wireless communications system gets more and more extensive, while
requirements of the ultra-wideband antenna are brought forward. The Vivaldi antenna
has a history of twenty eight years dating back to Gibson in which he introduces the
antenna as an amalgamation of slot and Beverage (traveling wave) antenna design, with
a theoretically unlimited instantaneous bandwidth. The first major modification of the
Gibson design was developed by Langley et al in which a balanced design was created
to reduce cross-polarization, while maintaining the wide bandwidth behavior.
Guillanton et al improved the low frequency cutoff to 1.3GHz by increasing the

dimensions of the metallization at the distal portion of the radiating elements of the
antenna.[1]
Vivaldi antenna is a kind of slot-line UWB antennas, which is a slot with smoothly
transition from narrow end to another wide end. The slot curve on the medium board
gradually changes wider in terms of index, leading to a horn receiving or transmitting
electromagnetic (EM) waves. At various frequencies, it radiates or receives
electromagnetic wave using corresponding part of the horn. The planar aperture of the
different parts of a horn in the Vivaldi antenna has constant electric size for the relevant
frequency. This is the reason why this kind of antenna has so wide working frequency
band. Theoretically, it has an infinite wide frequency band. What’s more, Vivaldi
antenna is a kind of high-gain and linearly polarized antenna. And its gain remains
constant with frequency change.
Vivaldi antenna is a kind of high-gain and linearly polarized antenna. And its gain
remains constant with frequency changed. Compared with Twin Cone antenna, cone-
shaped LPD antenna, and other ultra-wideband antenna, Vivaldi antenna has more
compact shape and it is more suitable for portable devices. In addition, Vivaldi antenna,
which has the features of low side lobe, moderate gain, beam width adjustable, small
size, low cost, simple structure, easy to be processed and others, is very suitable for
printing circuits.[1]
Vivaldi antenna has been widely used from the beginning when it was brought out. It
has been applied in many areas, such as:
 Satellite communications
 Earth-detection radar
 EM measurements
3.15.2 INTRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT OF VIVALDI ANTENNA
The development of Vivaldi antenna is divided into the following three stages:

 Traditional Vivaldi antenna
 Antipodal Vivaldi antenna
 Balanced Vivaldi antenna.
In this project, Antipodal Vivaldi antenna would be considered. [1]
3.15.3 OVERVIEW OF VIVALDI ANTENNA DESIGN
3.15.3.1 Construction
Figure 13 structure of Vivaldi antenna
3.15.4 T APERED SLOT ANTENNA
The Vivaldi antenna is a member of a class of a-periodic continuously scaled traveling-

wave antenna structure. The terms “tapered-notch”, “flared-slot”, “tapered slot”
antennas have been used interchangeably in the literature. These antennas consist of a
tapered slot etched onto a thin film of metal. This is done either with or without a
dielectric substrate on one side of the film. Besides being efficient and lightweight, the
more attractive features of TSAs are that they can work over a large frequency
bandwidth and produce a symmetrical end-fire beam with appreciable gain and low side
lobe. An important step in the design of the antenna is to find suitable feeding techniques
for the Vivaldi. Understanding the characteristics of the Vivaldi is fundamental and

would help a great deal in designing the antenna. From research journals on the TSA,
we can confirm that TSAs generally have wide bandwidth, high directivity and are able
to produce symmetrical radiation patterns. The feature that is common to all the different
designs of this antenna is the exponentially flared slot. This aspect is particularly
analogous to the standard TEM horn antenna, the width of the flare increases with
distance from the antenna feed. In fact, we could say that the Vivaldi is the printed-
circuit equivalent of the horn. The wave-guiding structure here is the printed slotline
that is tapered exponentially outwards. [2]
3.15.5 T APER PROFILES
3.15.5.1 Types
Many taper profiles exist for a normal TSA. Figure shows different planar designs and
we can observe that each antenna differs from the other only in the taper profile of the
slot. Planar tapered slot antennas have two common features. The radiating slot acts as
the ground plane for the antenna and the antenna is fed by a balanced slotline. However,
drawbacks for a planar TSA come in the form of using a low dielectric constant substrate
and obtaining an impedance match for the slotline. By fabricating on a low dielectric
constant substrate, relatively high impedance is obtained for the slotline. If a micro strip
feed is chosen, it makes matching very difficult. Thus, the micro strip to slot transition
will limit the operating bandwidth of the TSA.

Figure14. Taper styles
Experiments have shown that the curvature of tapered profile has a significant impact
on the gain, beamwidth and bandwidth of tapered slot antennas. In fact, it was shown
that the half-power beamwidth (HPBW) on the E-plane increases with a decrease in the
radius of curvature while the opposite is true on the H-plane. [2]
3.15.5.2 Effect of curvature on the TSA
Previous Experiments have shown that the curvature of tapered profile has a significant
impact on the gain, beamwidth and bandwidth of tapered slot antennas. In fact, it was
shown that the half-power beamwidth (HPBW) on the E-plane increases with a decrease
in the radius of curvature while the opposite is true on the H plane. The cross
polarization is generally improved with the decrease in the radius of the curvature except
for the E-plane, which will not show any improvement.

3.16 The Vivaldi Exponential Flare
The shape of the conventional Vivaldi exponential flare is defined by the equation,
𝒚 = 𝒂𝒆𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄
At a wavelength λ, the antenna radiates from a point on the exponential flare defined
by,
y =λ/4
In practice, the antenna does not radiate from a single point for a given frequency, but
from a small section along the curve of the flare. The requirement for constant
beamwidth is that the length of this section be in direct proportion to the wavelength.
Thus, the gradient of the flare must be proportional to wavelength. The exponential flare
of the Vivaldi antenna satisfies this requirement.[1]
3.17 Antipodal Vivaldi antenna
The Vivaldi antenna is usually constructed on PCB and a number of variations exist.
The traditional form of Vivaldi antenna is fed from a slotline. To feed the slotline of the
Vivaldi antenna from a stripline or microstrip circuit a transition is required. Such
transitions can take a number of forms, but typically include quarter-wavelength
sections. These limit overall antenna performance to a few octaves because of the
frequency dependent nature of the transition. The antipodal version of the Vivaldi
antenna overcomes the problem of the bandwidth limiting transition. This uses a tapered
microstrip to symmetric double-sided stripline transition. A development of the
antipodal Vivaldi is the balanced antipodal Vivaldi. This uses a stripline to balanced
slotline transition.
The antipodal Vivaldi antenna based upon a two-part exponential curve has improved
the high frequency gain performance over a standard antipodal Vivaldi.

3.18 Feeding technique
Theoretically the bandwidth of the Vivaldi antenna is infinite the only limitation on the
bandwidth is the physical size of the antenna and the fabrication capabilities. In fact, the
feed determines the high frequency limit while the aperture sizes the low frequency
limit. In or project we are more concerned about microstrip slotline feeding
technique.[2]
Figure 15 Microstrip Feeding Technique
3.19 Antipodal Slotline
The symmetric double-sided slotline, also referred to as the antipodal slotline was first
suggested by Gazit. In this case, the transition from the microstrip to the slotline was
realized through a parallel stripline as shown in Figure. The microstrip was used as the
input feed, the slotline for radiating purposes while the paired-strip served primarily as
the transition region thus critically affecting the antenna performance. It has also
empirically discovered that the transition region should be three to five wavelengths
long to prevent a sharp discontinuity between the feed and the radiating regions.[2]

Figure 16. Antipodal Vivaldi Antenna
3.19.1 BALANCED ANTIPODAL S LOTLINE
It was found that the previous design did not have a really good cross-polarization
characteristic. The improvement in the cross-polarization performance was brought
about by converting the usual antipodal Vivaldi into a triplate-based structure, by adding
an additional dielectric and metallization layer that balances the E-field distribution in
the flared-slot.[2] The antenna starts in a stripline. One side of the board has the input
track that is then flared to produce one half of a conventional Vivaldi. On the other side,
the ground planes are reduced to a balanced set of lines that are flared-out in the opposite
direction to form the overall balanced structure.
Figure 17. Balanced Antipodal Vivaldi Antenna

3.20 Applications of UWB Vivaldi Antenna
 The ultra-wideband Vivaldi antenna is attractive as a lightweight, low-cost

versatile antenna.
 An ultra-wideband Vivaldi with known performance can be used as an
instrumentation or multi-service antenna.
 A single installed antenna element that can be connected to a variety of systems
operating at any frequency across a wide spectrum will reduce installation and
upgrade costs.
 The antenna may be connected to multiple narrow-band receivers for a multi-
purpose system. With increasing pressure on the spectrum from both radar and
communications, ultra-wideband systems will be important in the future and an
ultra-wideband antenna is an important enabling technology.
 A move towards low-power ultra-wideband systems using, for example, Direct
Sequence coding spread spectrum techniques to provide high processing gain
will allow the spectrum to be shared by many users, each using different coding
techniques.
 It should be noted that the Vivaldi is a dispersive antenna. The point of radiation
changes depending upon frequency.
 Ultra-wideband antipodal Vivaldi antenna has many application-specific uses
where a small lightweight antenna is important, for example, highly mobile ESM
systems.[2]

Chapter 4
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Ansoft HFSS software is used for antenna design and simulations because it is easy to
learn and use.
4.1 Ansoft HFSS
HFSS (High Frequency Structure Simulator) is a high-performance full-wave

electromagnetic (EM) field simulator for arbitrary 3D volumetric passive device
modeling. It integrates simulation, visualization, solid modeling, and automation in an
easy-to-use environment where solutions to your 3D EM problems are quickly and
accurately obtained.
HFSS employs the Finite Element Method (FEM), adaptive meshing, and brilliant
graphics to give you unparalleled performance and insight to all of your 3D EM
problems. Ansoft HFSS can be used to calculate parameters such as S-parameters,
resonant frequency and fields.

4.2 Flow chart of Design methodology

4.3 Antenna Designs
The antenna designs which give results in the desired range are as follows:
Design: 01

Design: 02

Design: 03
This design gives some results only at the central frequency with VSWR less than 2
and s11 less than -10 dB.
4.4 Simulation Results
The following are the simulation results of VSWR, Gain and S11 and Z11 of design 3.

REFERENCES
[1] Raviprakash Rajaraman B.E. (Electronics & Communications Engg.), Coimbatore Inst.
of Tech, India, 2001DESIGN OF AWIDEBAND VIVALDI ANTENNA ARRAY FOR

THE SNOW RADAR
[2] Josef Nevrly DIPLOMA THESIS Design of Vivaldi Antenna.
[3] Jianxin Liang Antenna Study and Design for Ultra Wideband Communication
Applications
[4] Conductor J. Y. Siddiqui, Member, IEEE, Y.M. M. Antar, Fellow, IEEE, A. P.
Freundorfer, Senior Member, IEEE, E. C. Smith, G. A. Morin, and T. Thayaparan, Senior

Member, IEEE Design of an Ultrawideband Antipodal Tapered Slot Antenna Using
Elliptical Strip
[5] Matthias John, Max J. Ammann and Patrick McEvoy Jian Bai, Shouyuan Shi, and Dennis
W. Prather, Senior Member, IEEE UWB VIVALDI ANTENNA BASED ON A SPLINE

GEOMETRY WITH FREQUENCY BAND-NOTCH Modified Compact Antipodal
Vivaldi Antenna for 4–50-GHz UWB Application
[6] Antenna Li Tianming Rao Yuping Niu Zhongxia (Information Engineering University,
Zhengzhou 450002China)Analysis and Design ofUWB Vivaldi

[7] Otar Javashvili Department of Technology, University of Gävle, Sweden SaburTalo Street
44, Fl. 49, Tbilisi, GeorgiaNew method for Design Implementation of Vivaldi Antennas
to Improve its UWB Behaviour (EuCAP 2010)
[8] Imaging Xiaodong Zhuge, Alexander Yarovoy International Research Centre for
Telecommunications and Radar (IRCTR), Delft University of Technology Design of Low

Profile Antipodal Vivaldi Antenna for Ultra-Wideband Near-Field
[9] J.D.S. Langley P.S. Hall P. Newham Balanced antipodal Vivaldi antenna for wide
bandwidth phased arrays

[10] http://www.jacksons.net/tac/First%20Term/A_Brief_History_of_UWB_Communications
.pdf
[11] NIIAhttp://www.ntia.doc.gov/legacy/osmhome/uwbtestplan/barret_history_%28pw-
figs%29.pdf
[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-wideband
1
[13] HansGregorySchantz(http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=130177
0&tag=1)
[14] http://mtlweb.mit.edu/researchgroups/icsystems/pubs/theses/johnna_sm_ 004.pdf
[15] http://www.coe.montana.edu/ee/rwolff/ee548/ee548s06/uwb/history_uwb_antennas.pdf
[16] http://media.wiley.com/assets/350/15/UWB_Article.pdf
[17] M.ChiappeandG.L.lragnani(http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1
397274&userType=i)
[18] radio communication http://www.ehow.com/about_6510622_radio-communication-
history.html
[19] Design and Application of Vivaldi Antenna Array Li Ying, Chen Axin
[20] http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4735195
[21] JürgLeckebusch(http://ursitest.intec.ugent.be/files/URSIGA08/papers/BP20p8.pdf)
[22] http://www.roke.co.uk/resources/papers/Analysis-of-a-Ultra-wideband-Antipodal-
Vivaldi-Antenna.pdf
[23] Student, IEEE, Enrique Garcia, Vicente González-Posadas http://www.skads-
eu.org/PDF/DifferentiallyFedTaperedSlotAntenna.pdf
[24] By Nicholas Fourikis
http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=Ve9PsDJWfZsC&pg=PA265&lpg=PA265&dq=an
tipodal+antenna&source=bl&ots=s5FIF3F6Zn&sig=8adkRXoaSImnbmljcipqNOXsPI&h
l=en&ei=HsvTTtqdCYWHrAeDtt26DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&
ved=0CFoQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=antipodal%20antenna&f=false
[25] Nicholas Cravotta, \Ultrawideband: the next wireless panacea?", October 17 2002,EDN,
www.edn.com
[26] Ahmed.A.Khishk, Fundamentals of antenna, Centre of Electromagnetic System Research
(CEDAR), University of Mississippi

[27] Balanis, Constantine. "Antenna Theory: A Review", Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 80,
January 1992.
[28] Antenna Technologies for Wireless Solutions Steven C. Olson (solson@ball.com)
Director Of Engineering Ball Wireless Communications September 10, 1998
2
FIGURES
[1] http://www.antenna-theory.com/antennas/travelling/yagi.php
[2]. http://www.antenna-theory.com/antennas/reflectors/dish.php
[3] http://www.ko4bb.com/Test_Equipment/Antenna_Measurements
[4] http://www.antentop.org/007/tr007.htm
[5]
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://content.answcdn.com/main/content/img/McGraw
Hill/Aviation/f0100-02.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.answers.com/topic/beam-width
[6] http://www.iw5edi.com/ham-radio/?instructions-for-putting-up-a-long-wire-antenna,116
[7] http://www.antenna-theory.com/arrays/main.php
[8] Image source: Pramod Dhande/Antennas and its Applications

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Ameera Akhtar Registration # 242

A Project report submitted in partial fulfillment

Department of Electrical Engineering

( Mr. Yasir Iqbal )

( Mr. Ahsan Azhar )

UWB Vivaldi Antenna Page 2

To Allah the Almighty

To my Parents and Faculty

UWB Vivaldi Antenna Page 3

I am also thankful to my committee members ….. and … for their valuable

UWB Vivaldi Antenna Page 4

UWB Vivaldi Antenna Page 5

UWB Vivaldi Antenna Page 6

Since the release by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) of a bandwidth

UWB Vivaldi Antenna Page 7

UWB Vivaldi Antenna Page 8

1.2 Project Goal

The goal of our project is to:

 Design an Antipodal UWB Vivaldi Antenna whose structure is tapered

1.3 Scope of this project

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1.4 Report Organization

Chapter 2: Communication History

Chapter 3: Literature Review

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The move toward worldwide wireless communications continues at a remarkable pace,

2.1 Early History

2.2 Voice Transmission

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2.3 Early Radio Communication Laws

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3.1 Introduction to Antenna

3.2 History of Antenna

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Figure 1 a) Yagi antenna b) Geometry of Yagi-Uda antenna

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Figure2. a)Stanford university dish antenna. B) 70m dish antenna at NASA

Nowadays a lot of work is being performed on optimization of antennas, mainly in

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3.3 Basic Parameters of Antenna

3.3.1 RADIATION PATTERN

The radiation pattern of an antenna is a graphical description of the field strength

The two types of antenna fields are:

Antenna field regions are of two types:

• Near-Field - it is expressed as R< 2D2 / λ, and D is the maximum antenna

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3.3.4 BEAM WIDTH

Figure 5. Beamwidth of antenna.

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It is a measure of antennas ability to transmit the input power into radiation. It is

The Bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies in which the performance of

The Bandwidth of a narrowband antenna is the percentage of the difference in

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3.3.8 R ETURN LOSS

3.3.9 EFFECTIVE APERTURE

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– Linear polarization: It includes vertical, horizontal or slant (any angle)

3.4 Types of Antenna