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Solving Metabolic Flux Analysis: Equations
Solving a set of material balance equations for a biochemical reaction network:
Example: The incomplete combustion of CH4 to CO2, CO and H2O is shown in the following set
of chemical reactions:
Input Output
CH 4 + O2 → CO2 + CO + H 2 O
Known reactions :
CH 4 + 2O2 ⎯⎯
→ CO2 + 2 H 2 O
2CH 4 + 3O2 ⎯⎯
→ 2CO + 4 H 2 O
If all the inputs and outputs (i.e. amount of CH4, O2 consumed and that of CO2, CO, H2O
produced) are completely balanced, the fraction of CH4 going to both reactions can be
determined. On the other hand, if the material balance is not closed, there will be uncertainty
about the solution, and the distribution of materials can only be estimated. The following
outlines the steps need to be followed for Metabolic Flux Analysis:
1. List all reactions and chemical species
The chemical species for this problem are: CH4, O2, CO, CO2, H2O
CH 4 + 2O2 ⎯⎯
J1
→ CO2 + 2 H 2O
2CH 4 + 3O2 ⎯⎯
J2
→ 2CO + 4 H 2O
The Stoichiometric coefficients are:
CH 4 O2 CO CO2 H 2O
J
1 −1 −2 0 2 2
J2 −1 −3 2 0 4
2. Set up Material Balance Equations for every species:
We will set up material balance equations for this chemical reaction network. The symbol q is
used to represent external fluxes measured. Remember any flux out of the system is negative,
while any flux into the system is taken as positive.
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dCH 4
= qCH 4 − J1 − 2 J 2 (1)
dt
dO2
= qO2 − 2 J1 − 3 J 2
dt
dCO
= − qCO + 2 J 2
dt
dCO2
= − qCO2 + 2 J1
dt
dH 2 O
= − q H 2O + 2 J 1 + 4 J 2
dt
If pseudo‐steady state is assumed, then all the left hand terms of the ODE’s will become zero
and the system of equations can re‐written as:
J1 + 2 J 2 = qCH 4 (2)
2 J1 + 3J 2 = qO2
2 J 2 = qCO
2 J1 = qCO2
2 J 1 + 4 J 2 = q H 2O
The system of equations can be written in the matrix form as:
⎡1 2⎤ ⎡ qCH 4 ⎤
⎢2 ⎢ ⎥
3⎥ ⎢ qO2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎡J ⎤
⎢0 2 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ = ⎢ qCO ⎥ ⇒ AX = Q (3)
⎢ ⎥ J ⎢ ⎥
⎢2 0 ⎥ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎢ qCO2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ qH 2O ⎥⎦
The matrix A of the left hand side of equation 3 is referred to as the stoichiometric matrix, the
vector X on the left hand side is the flux vector, the vector Q on the right hand side is the
external interaction matrix, as discussed later. If in given reaction network, a compound exists
only internally, the element in the corresponding vector is zero.
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3. Solving the system of equations:
Let us consider a general case. Generally, a metabolic network contains m compounds and n
reactions, all transient material balances can be represented by the following expression:
dY
= AX (t ) − Q (t )
dt
Where
Y: m dimensional vector of intracellular concentrations (denoted as ci for the ith species) of
intermediates, metabolites and nutrients
X: n metabolic fluxes (denoted as Ji)
A: Stoichiometric matrix m×n (denoted as aij)
Q: vector of m specific substrate consumption or product formation (denoted as qi) or material
flow in and out of the system being evaluated
⎡ c1 ⎤ ⎡ J1 ⎤ ⎡ q1 ⎤
⎢c ⎥ ⎢J ⎥ ⎛ a11 K a1n ⎞ ⎢q ⎥
Y = ⎢ 2⎥ X = ⎢ 2⎥ A = ⎜⎜ M O M ⎟⎟ Q = ⎢ 2⎥
⎢M ⎥ ⎢M ⎥ ⎜a ⎟ ⎢M ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎝ m1 L amn ⎠ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ cn ⎦ ⎣Jn ⎦ ⎣ qn ⎦
In the equation, the dilution due to cell volume change caused by growth (due to cell division) is
considered negligible. The specific rate refers to the metabolic rate based on per cell or per unit
biomass. In general, we are interested in how materials flow in the metabolic system, so we are
interested in how materials are distributed in each cell. For this purpose, the metabolic rates
used in general can be converted to be on a per unit cell mass basis.
The time constants characterizing the metabolic transients are typically very rapid compared to
the time constants of cell growth and process dynamics, therefore, the mass balances can be
simplified to only consider the steady‐state behavior. Eliminating the derivative yields:
⎡ J1 ⎤ ⎡ q1 ⎤
⎛ a11 K a1n ⎞ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
AX (t ) = Q(t ) or ⎜ M O M ⎟ ⎢ J 2 ⎥ = ⎢ q2 ⎥
⎜ ⎟ ⎢M ⎥ ⎢M ⎥
⎜a ⎟
⎝ m1 L amn ⎠ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ J n ⎦ ⎣ qn ⎦
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This form is similar to what was derived in previous example as shown in equation 3. Depending
on the number of fluxes q’s are measured, there may be different number of unknowns (in
addition to J1 and J2). There are three possible cases:
• Fully specified system: The system has same number of equations as variables. There
exists only one solution. If m=n, where rank(A)=m is the number of linearly independent
equations, then X has a unique solution. For example: if only two of the external fluxes
are known, and we are interested in estimating J1 and J2 only, then the above set of
equations becomes a fully‐specified 2×2 system. In the following we discuss the Gauss‐
Elimination method to solve such a system of equations.
• Over‐specified system: This occurs when m>n, where rank(A)=m is the number of
linearly independent equation in the system of equations, the solution to the problem is
unique and obtained via a Least‐square fitting scheme. In general, biological systems are
over‐specified, as a particular metabolite can participate in numerous pathways. For
example, if three of the external fluxes for say CO2, CO and O2 are known, then the
system becomes over specified. In the following we discuss the Least squares method to
solve such a system of equations.
• Under‐specified system: In this case there are more number of unknowns as compared
to the number of equations. This occurs if rank(A)=m, where m<n. Biological systems are
rarely underspecified. For example, if only qCO is known, while we are interested to
estimate J1 and J2, then the system becomes underspecified.
Fully specified system or Unique solution case: Simple Gauss Elimination
method
For a fully‐specified system where the number of equations equals the number of variables, the
system of linear equations can be solved using the Gauss‐Elimination method. The following
shows the steps followed for solving a general system AX=Q using the Gauss‐Elimination
method.
At the first step in the elimination process, we multiply the first equation by –ai1/a11 and add it
to the ith equation for i=1,2,…n. The result is:
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a11(1) J1 + a12 (1) J 2 + L L + a1n J n = q1(1) (5)
a22 (2) J 2 + L L + a2 n (2) J n = q2 (2)
M M M
an 2(2) J 2 + L L + ann (2) J n = qn (2)
As you may notice, that the coefficients in the first equation are unchanged and are denoted by
aij(1) to distinguish them from the coefficients in equations i=2,…n which have transformed
coefficients, given by:
ai1(1) (1)
aij (2) = aij (1) − a1 j , i, j = 2,3,...., n (6)
a11
(1)
a
bi (2) = bi (1) − i1
b1(1) , i = 2,3,...., n
a11
In the next step, the second equation is multiplied by –ai2(2)/a22(2) and the result is added to the
ith equation for i=3,4,…,n. This eliminates the J2 term in equations i=3,4,…,n and generates the
following set of equations:
In a similar manner, continuation of this process transforms the set of linear equations into the
upper triangular problem:
a11(1) J1 + a12 (1) J 2 + L L + a1n J n = q1(1) (8)
a22 J 2 + L
(2)
L + a2 n J n = q2
(2) (2)
a33(3) J 3 + L L + a3n (3) J n = q3(3)
M M
ann ( n ) J n = qn ( n )
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Wei‐Shou Hu
Thus, in this method, the system of equations AX=Q is transformed to a form UX=b, such that U
is a upper triangular matrix of the form shown in the following.
u11 J1 + u12 J 2 + L L +u1n J n = b1 (9)
u22 J 2 + L L +u2 n J n = b2
M M M
un−1,n−1 J n−1 + un−1,n J n = bn−1
unn J n = bn
Symbolically, these equations can be represented in the following figure, where the triangle
represents the matrix U and the vertical lines represent the vector X and b.
The solution can be determined by back substitution, namely:
bn
Jn = (10)
unn
bn−1 − un−1,n J n
J n−1 =
un−1,n−1
M
In a similar way, the system of equations AX=Q can be transformed to LX=b, where L is a lower
diagonal matrix, using the forward substitution method, namely:
b1
Jn = (11)
l11
b2 − u21 J1
J n−1 =
l22
M
Lets solve the example we derived in equation 3. Lets suppose qCH4=3 mM/s and qO2=4 mM/s,
⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎡ J1 ⎤ ⎡ qCH 4 ⎤ ⎡5 ⎤ ⎡1 2⎤ ⎡5 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥= ⇒ = = =
⎢2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ J 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ qO2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 4⎥ ⎢2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 4 ⎥ (3a )
AX Q where A and Q
⎣ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎣ ⎦
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Then the system of equations becomes as shown in equation 3a. Now, lets apply Gauss‐
Elimination method to this 2×2 system.
J1 + 2 J 2 = 3
2 J1 + 3 J 2 = 4
In the first step, we will multiply the first equation with ‐a21/a11 =‐2, the result is:
J1 + 2 J 2 = 3
− J 2 = −2
Now using back substitution, we can obtain the fluxes J1 and J2.
J 2 = 2mM / s
J1 = 5 − 2 J 2 = 5 − 4 = 1mM / s
In this case, the values of flux obtained are positive, which implies that the direction of flux is
same as was assumed. A negative flux implies the direction of flux is opposite to what was
assumed.
Over‐specified system
For this case, the solution is obtained using a least‐square error fit method. Let us assume, the
optimum solution is given by X=J1, J2,J3,…Jn. For the ith equation, let fi represent the following:
n
fi = ai1 J1 + ai 2 J 2 + ... + ain J n = ∑ aij J j (12)
j =1
Then the residual or error is given by:
n
Ri = fi − bi = ∑a J
j =1
ij j − bi (13)
The sum of the square of the residuals or error is given by:
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2
m m m ⎛ n ⎞
S = ∑ Ri = ∑ ( bi − fi ) = ∑ ⎜ bi − ∑ aij J j ⎟ ,
2
2
where m > n (14)
i =1 i =1 i =1 ⎝ j =1 ⎠
Which depends on the variables J1, J2, J3,…Jn. A necessary condition for S to be a minimum is:
dS n ⎛ n ⎞
= −∑ 2 ⎜ bi − ∑ aij J j ⎟ ai1 =0 (15)
dJ1 i =1 ⎝ j =1 ⎠
dS n ⎛ n ⎞
= −∑ 2 ⎜ bi − ∑ aij J j ⎟ ai 2 =0
dJ 2 i =1 ⎝ j =1 ⎠
M
dS n ⎛ n ⎞
= −∑ 2 ⎜ bi − ∑ aij J j ⎟ ain =0
dJ n i =1 ⎝ j =1 ⎠
This is a n×n system of linear equations, which is fully specified and can be solved using the
Gauss‐Elimination method discussed before. Lets again solve the previous example of methane
combustion, if we now have three equations and 2 unknowns. Let us suppose qCH4=3 mM/s,
qO2=4 mM/s and qCO2=1 mM/s. The system of equations becomes:
J1 + 2 J 2 = 3
2 J1 + 3 J 2 = 4
2 J1 =1
Then the squared sum of residuals becomes:
S = ( 3 − J1 − 2 J 2 ) + ( 4 − 2 J1 − 3 J 2 ) + (1 − 2 J1 )
2 2 2
Minimizing S gives us two equations:
dS
= 0 ⇒ 9 J1 + 8 J 2 = 13
dJ1
dS
= 0 ⇒ 8 J1 + 13 J 2 = 18
dJ 2
Now we can solve these two equations using Gauss‐Elimination method. Again, multiplying the
first equation with ‐9/8 and adding to the second equation. The transformed equations are
shown in the following. Now, using back substitution we obtain the best fit solution.
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Example: Pentose phosphate pathway
In the next section, we discuss the example of a metabolic pathway called the Pentose
Phosphate pathway as shown in the following. Let us suppose the influx of glyceraldehyde‐6‐
phosphate into the pentose phosphate pathway is 100 moles/s, the rate of outflux of Ribose‐5‐
Phosphate is 50 moles/s and that of CO2 is 12 moles/s.
Figure 1 Pentose phosphate pathway
A simplified figure of the pentose phosphate pathway is shown below, which would be used for the
Metabolic Flux Analysis (MFA). Lets write down the mass balance for each species. The system of
equations in (16) shows the steady state mass balance equations.
Figure 2 Simplified figure for MFA
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1.G 6 P : J +J =q (16)
1 10 G6P
2.CO 2 : J =q
1 CO2
{also NADPH : 2 J1= q NADPH }
3.Ribu 5 P : J −J −J =q
1 4 5 Ribu 5 P
4.R 5 P : J −J =q
4 6 R5P
5. X 5 P : J −J −J =q
5 6 8 X 5P
6. S 7 P : J −J =q
6 7 S 7P
7.G 3 P : J − J + J + 2J = q
6 7 8 9 G 3P
8. F 6 P : J +J −J +J =q
7 8 9 10 F 6P
9. E 4 P : J −J =q
7 8 E 4P
Hence, we eliminate one of the equations, specifically we eliminate the equation (eq 7) corresponding
to G3P to obtain a set of linearly independent equations and solve for the following:
⎡1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ J1 ⎤ ⎡ qG 6 P ⎤ ⎡100 ⎤
⎢1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢ J 4 ⎥ ⎢ qCO2 ⎥ ⎢⎢12 ⎥⎥
⎢1 −1 −1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ J 5 ⎥ ⎢ qribu 5 P ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ J 6 ⎥ ⎢ qR 5 P ⎥ ⎢50 ⎥
= =
⎢0 0 1 −1 0 −1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ J 7 ⎥ ⎢ q X 5 P ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 1 −1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ J 8 ⎥ ⎢ qS 7 P ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 1 1 −1 1 ⎥ ⎢ J 9 ⎥ ⎢⎢ qF 6 P ⎥⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 1 −1 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ J10 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ qE 4 P ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 ⎥⎦
This equation is of the form AX=Q. Solving the set of equations in MATLAB, the flux J1,…,J10 can be
estimated. The values of flux are:
J1= 12.0000
J4= 37.0000
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J5= ‐26.0000
J6= ‐13.0000
J7= ‐13.0000
J8= ‐13.0000
J9= 62.0000
J10= 88.0000