Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers and Computer System

CHAPTER – ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS AND COMPUTER SYSTEM
1.1 Definition of Computer?
The word computer generated from a Latin word “compute” which means “to calculate” and can
be applied to abacus or any adding machine as to the modern computer. A computer is any
calculating device or machine, which is electrical, mechanical or electromechanical. But that
doesn’t mean that computer performs only calculation. However, the term “Computer” has come
to mean a special electronic device having certain definite characteristics.
Generally, a computer is an electronic device that takes an input, process it under a set of
instructions called program, produce an output and store the result for future use. A computer is
composed of hardware and software, and can exist in a variety of Size and configurations.
What a computer does in general is:
 It takes input in various forms from different input devices;
 Processes according to a given set of instructions called program;
 Produce an output in required form (such as printed on paper or soft copy) and gives to the
end users;
 Storage/ keeps the results for future use and later processing
 Controlling/ coordinates all the activities that are carried out inside the computer.
1.2 Why We Use Computers?
The following are some of the capabilities and potential of Computers, which are reasons for using
Computers.
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability
 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
 Making simple and complex calculation, make comparisons;
 Transmit information across distant location via communication channels;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 make statistical analysis
 For research purposes
 Listening music and watching movies
 To systematically and quickly store and process information
 To grade examination for colleges, university
 For drawing purposes … etc
Therefore, computers are needed for any functions, task or process that requires these abilities.
1.3 Characteristics of Computers
The characteristics of a computer show the capability and the potential of the computer for
processing data. This saves time, space, money, labor etc. The following are the basic
characteristics of computer.
 Speed: The most important characteristic of a computer is its speed. Computer works only one
step at a time. Its speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a
basic operation. Computer speed measured in terms of micro second (10-6 i.e. one millionths),
nano second (10-9 i.e. one billionths), and pico second (10-12 i.e. one trillionths).

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 Storage: You can imagine how much space a paper of seconds or data of a census it needs.
Not only the space, but also the time it took to get or retrieve specific information from such
vast amount of data is not negligible.
However, a computer can store such huge amount of information in a few numbers of disks.
And the time it took to retrieve or process single information is not more than a micro or a
nano seconds. In general, a computer has a capacity to store a very large amount of information
in organized manner so that accessing information is very fast.
 Accuracy: Nowadays, computers are being used for surgical purposes which need almost
hundred percent accuracy. From this we can understand that computer is accurate and
consistent. Computers probably do fewer mistakes and produce more accurate results than
human beings unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable program the computer
processes.
 Versatility: Computer has the potential to perform or solve varieties of tasks and problems, as
long as the problem or the task can be put or reduced in the form of logical steps.
 Diligence: Man suffers from physical and mental fatigue, lack of concentration and laziness
which do not permit him to carry on his task at the same level of speed and accuracy through
the entire day. The computer , on the other hand is capable of operating at exactly the same
level of speed and accuracy even if it has to carry out the most voluminous and complex
operations for a long period of time. This means computers can do tasks for long period of
time without tired and any grumbling.
 Reliability: is measurement of performance of computer. The reason behind reliability of the
computers is that, it does not require human intervention between its processing.
 No IQ. A computer is not a magical device. It can only perform tasks that a human being can.
The difference is that it performs these tasks with unthinkable speed and accuracy. It possesses
no intelligence of its own. Its I.Q. is zero. It has to be told what to do and in what sequence.
Hence, only the user can determine what tasks a computer will perform.
 No Feelings. Computers are devoid of emotion. They have no feelings and no instinct because
they are machines. Computers cannot make judgments on their own. Their judgment is based
on the instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us.

1.4 Types Of Computers (Classifications)

Today, computers are available in different sizes and types. Computer also differ based on their
data processing abilities. In general, computers can be classified according to:
 Purpose
 Data Handling technique(Based on Operation) and
 Functionality
Classification of Computer by Purpose:
Computers are designed for different purposes. According to the basis of purpose, computers can
be classified into two. These are:
A. General Purpose Computers and
B. Special purposes Computers.
A) General Purpose Computers
 They are designed to solve variety of problems or can be used for different purposes
 They are more flexible and versatile
 They generally lack in speed and efficiency
 Examples: Laptops, Desktop, Supercomputers, etc.

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B) Special Purpose Computers

 They are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a single task.
 However, being designed for specific tasks, they can provide the result very quickly and
efficiently.
 These computers are used for: Airplane Reservation, Satellite Tracking, Air traffic control,
Public telephone box, etc.
 Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
Classification by the Method of Operation (Processing)
 Different types of computers process the data in different manner.
1. According to the basis of data handling technique, computers can be classified into three
categories. These are: Analog Computer, Digital Computer and Hybrid Computer
1. Analog Computer
 Analog computers are special purpose computers that represent and store data in
continuously varying physical quantities such as current, voltage or frequency.
 Analog computers operates by measuring
 These computers are programmed for measuring physical quantities like pressure,
temperature, speed etc. and to perform computations on these measurements.
 Analog computers are mainly used for scientific and engineering purposes because they deal
with quantities that vary constantly.
 Some of these examples of analog computers are given below:
a) Thermometer: It is a simple analog computer used to measure temperature. In
thermometer, the mercury moves up and down as the temperature varies.
b) Speedometer: Car’s speedometer is another example of analog computer where the
position of the needle on dial represents the speed of the car.
2. Digital Computers
 Digital computers are mainly general purpose computers
 They process digital data
 They operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other
special symbols.
 That represents and store data in discrete quantities and numbers.
 They operates by counting rather than measuring
 Almost all the computers use now days are digital computers
 They have high accuracy and speed than analog ones
 Examples: All personal computers, Laptops, supercomputers, mainframe computer, etc.
3. Hybrid Computers
 The best features of analog and digital machines are combined together to create hybrid
computing system.
 They have the speed of analog computers and the accuracy of digital computers.
 These computers store and process analog signals which have been converted into discrete
numbers using analog – to – digital convectors.
 They can also converts the digital numbers into analog signals or physical properties using digital
– to – analog convertors.
 Hybrid computers processes the information by:
 Collecting input data with analog method
 Covert it into digital quantities
 Processes the digital values and

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 Convert the output from digital to analog computer

 Hybrid computers mainly used in artificial intelligence (robotics) and computer aided
manufacturing ( e.g. Process control)
 E.g. of these types of Computer are: - Computer used in Hospital, Computer used in Jet-
plane etc.
Classification by Physical Size, Price, Capacity and Performance
 Based on physical size, cost, performance, capacity and application areas, the computer are
generally classified into four major categories: Supercomputer, Mainframe computer,
Minicomputer and Microcomputer
1. Supercomputer
 It is the biggest and fastest computer, which is mainly designed for complex scientific
applications.
 It is the most powerful, expensive and sophisticated computer that execute complex calculation
at the fastest speed
 Supercomputers process billions of instructions per second
Generally, Supercomputer is typically used for the following applications:
 Weather forecasting
 Petroleum exploration and production
 Defense
 Nuclear energy research
 Electronic design
 Real-time animation
 Medicine
 Special effects for movies
2. Mainframe Computer
 Mainframe computer is very large and fast computer but smaller and slower than
supercomputer.
 Mainframe computers are capable of processing data at very high speeds – hundreds of
millions instructions per second.
 They are also expensive computer.
 They used in a centralized location where many terminals (input/output devices) are
connected with one Central Processing Unit and thus. Allow different users to share the
single CPU.
Applications of Mainframe Computer: They are mainly used for the following applications-
A) Railway and Airline reservation
B) Banking applications
C) Commercial applications of large industries/companies
Some of the examples of mainframe computers are: IBM 3090, 4381 & 4300, IBM ES 2000 &
9000 and DEC 10,000, etc.

3. Minicomputers

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o Minicomputers are medium – scale, smaller and generally slower than mainframe computers.
o Like mainframe, they have many terminals, which are connected with one CPU and can
support many users.
o They are lower to mainframe computers, in terms of speed and storage capacity
o The minicomputers were developed with the objective of bringing out low cost computers.
o Hence the performance of minicomputer is less than that of the mainframe
o However, the mini computer market has diminished somewhat as buyers have moved towards
less expensive but increasingly powerful personal computers
o Some of the examples of minicomputers are: PDP – 1, DEC Micro VAX, IBM AS/400, etc.
4. Microcomputers
 Microcomputer is the smallest digital computer, which uses a microprocessor as its CPU.
 The invention of microprocessor (single chip CPU) gave birth to the microcomputers.
 They several times cheaper than minicomputers
 Microcomputer is popularly called as Personal Computer (PC)
 Microcomputers are becoming very popular now - a - days due to very high processing power and
memory
 Microcomputers are either of desktop or portable models.
 Portable computers can be carried from one place to another.
 Some of the models are called as Laptops while others as Notebook computers.
 Notebook computers are smaller, lighter and costlier than laptops.
 Desktop computers fit on a desktop and are used widely in offices and homes.
 Workstations are also desktop machines mainly used for intensive graphical applications.
 They are more processor speed than that of personal computers.
 Workstations are used for executing numerical and graphical intensive applications such as
Computer Aided Design (CAD), simulation of complex systems and visualizing the results of
simulation.
 Some of the examples of microcomputers are: Laptops, Desktops, PDA, Notebooks, etc.
1.5 Application Areas Of Computers
The main areas of computer applications are categorized in to:
Commercial or Business Applications
 Emphasis on data processing.
 It involves the use of computers for clerical, administrative, production and business use.
Example: Text processing, accounting and finance management, inventory control, database
management, statistical analysis etc.
Scientific, Engineering and Research applications
 Emphasis on scientific processing.
 Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design work,
and analysis of experimental data/results and control of physical systems.
Examples: space technology, meteorological observatory system, nuclear control system,
astronomical investigations system etc. Let’s see some particular application areas of computers.
Computers in education
 For instruction and administration purpose.
 Can guide a user through a course of instruction.
 Can guide /provide instruction and ask questions of the user.
 CAE (Computer Assisted Education), online teaching, training, conferencing, and distance
learning are good examples of computer applications in the fields of education.

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Computers in Medicine
 Used as an aid to medical research by analyzing data produced from the trial of drugs.
 Used as an aid for diagnosis.
 Used to hold details of patients etc.
Computers in manufacturing
 Stock and production control
 Engineering design
 Design, manufacturing and testing processes are all in computerized.
Other application of computer
Information Utilities
Information utilities companies use large computers that store huge amount of information about
many different subjects. These computer systems and their vast amount of data are available for
personal use. For example: information utilities can allow a computer user to read the daily news,
research published works, send a letter to a friend, play games, make airline reservations, obtain
the latest stock market quotations, and perform many other activities. E.g. Internet
Ethiopian airline is a member of World-Wide reservation system called Gabriel system.
 The main database is located at Atlanta, Georgia
 More than 48 airlines including EAL share /extract/transmit information using Gabriel
Facilities included:
 Booking of passengers on Domestic and International flight on EAL or Other carrier (EX.
Lufthansa).
 Making hotel reservation for the travelers (i.e. the system is connected with major hotels &
travel agents)
 Massage correspondence with all stations which are members of Gabriel (i.e. reconfirmation
space availability, etc)
Elements involved in the reservation system are:
 Computer Network;
 Computer terminal;
 Communication Channels ( telephone lines, satellite, etc)
 Modems
Electronic Banking and Service:
Example:-
 Teller Machine (customers are issued cards that permit them to use other banks teller
machine’s)
 Online banking (A bank customer can use his/ her computer to check account balances,
transfer funds, pay bills)
Shopping from Home: Individual may now shop by computer in the comfort of their home.
Household Control: A growing number of the newer houses hold devices are computers
controlled. For example: Security systems, refrigerators, microwave ovens, washers, stereos, and
televisions. This computer controlled home security system monitors movements, broken glass,
unlawful entry without a security code, and so on, and alerts the local police department.

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Weather and Environment: Computer equipment may show temperature ranges, precipitation
levels and wind flow and can be used in weather forecasting. Computer can also help in
overcoming environmental hazards.
Transportation: Computers have affected almost every kind of transportation. Many aircraft can
fly under the control of the computer; in this situation, the captain simply serves as a manger by
telling the computer what to do. In Cars, computers have provided functional controls such as
spark and fuel control.
Medical and Health Care: Computers have long been used by hospitals for routine record
keeping. Today, however, many people owe their lives to the computer. Computers are used in
hospitals as sensors (device that detect changes in blood pressure, heart rate, temperature), testing
(scan the body and provide 3-D figure), patient treatment.
Routine and Dangerous Tasks: Computers are used in routine tasks. And they can perform task
in environments too dangerous for human workers.
Consultant (Expert system): An Expert system is a computer program, which can solve problems
from a specific knowledge base. These systems don't replace expert humans because the
knowledge base of expert system is given from the skilled specialist.
Example: Mycin (a medical diagnostic program by using sophisticated decision making process).
1.6 Limitations of computer
Although computers can be applied in different areas, there are activities that computers can’t
perform. For example, a computer can’t do the following.
 Computers can’t decide how to be programmed. It is always humans that are responsible for
programming the computers.
 Computers do not provide their own inputs unless people provide it with the inputs.
 Interpretation of data and implementation of decisions is always left for humans. That is, a
computer doesn’t interpret the information it produces and it doesn’t implement decisions
based on the information obtained.
 It is electricity dependent.
 No heuristics
 It requires regular checking
 Computers cannot store data unless they are given instructions.
 Computer is a very expensive to install and maintain that it would be difficult to afford it for
everybody.
 Can perform tasks that are only programmed to do, etc.
1.7 Introduction to computer system
A System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or procedures that work in a
coordination fashion to achieve some objective. System is a composition or group of different
integrated components that work together to achieve a common goal.
The computer system refers to the computer itself and all the components interconnected to it.
Basically, the computer system is categorized into two components.
1. Hardware – the physical architecture of the computer or the physical devices that carry
out the activities of capturing, processing, storing and communicating to other computer.

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2. Software – the program or instructions that control the system.

1.7.1 Computer Hardware

Hardware is the term used to describe the actual (physical) parts attached to the computer. i.e., all
the internal and external parts or devices connected to the computer like input and the output
devices etc. It is the part of the computer that you see and touch.
Computer Hardware has four categories: Processors (CPU), Input devices, Output devices and
Storage devices

1. Central Processing Unit(Processor):

 CPU is the heart of the computer system.
 It is part of computer hardware that executes program instructions.
 The CPU is like the human brain and it oversee and control all of the activities of the computer.
 The CPU manages and coordinates the entire computer including the input and output units.
 The CPU is the collection of electronic circuits made up of millions of transistors placed into
integrated circuits.
 Integrated circuits are also called chips or microchips
 Each transistor is an electrical switch that can be in one of the two states: “on” or “off”.
 Small transistors allow more transistors to be packed in one single chip, thus eliminate the need
for separate chips.
CPU Architecture
The CPU consists of a control unit, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers.
1. Control Unit (CU)
 All computer activities are carried out to instructions the control unit issue select and interprets
program instructions and supervises that they are executed.
 It has special purpose register and a decoder to perform these activities.
 Those special purpose register are instruction registers and the program control register which
hold the current instruction and the address of next instructions to be executed, respectively.
 The decoder has the necessary circuitry to decode and interpret the meaning of every
instruction supported by the CPU.
 Each instruction is a companied by microcode – very basic directions, that tell the CPU how
to do (execute) the instructions.
 The control unit serves as the central nervous system, but it doesn’t actually execute instruction
or performs mathematical calculations.
 The control unit does not actually execute the instruction (just as the brain does not do the
walking or the talking) rather it instructs or directs other processing elements to do so.

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Instructions are detailed description of the actions to be carried out during input, processing,
output, storage and transmission.
In general tasks carried out by CU are listed below:
 Decoding the instructions within a computer.
 Sequencing the reading and writing of data within the CPU and externally on the data bus.
 Controlling the sequence in which instructions are executed.
 Controlling the operations performed by the ALU.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 It is the other component of CPU which contains the electronic circuitry that performs the two
activities which is computing capabilities such as Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction,
division or multiplication) and Logical operations (comparison between two elements either
less than, greater than or equal to the other).
 Every CPU has built-in ability to execute a particular set of machine instruction set or
instruction set.
 Most CPU has 200 or more instruction (such as add, subtract, compare) in their instruction set.
 As each processor has a unique instruction set machine language program written for one
computer, it will generally not run on another computer with a different CPU.
 CPU made by different manufacturer has different instructions set.
 When a new CPU is developed, it is ensured that its instruction set include all the instruction
set of its predecessor CPU plus some new ones, thus manufacturing strategy is known as
upward compatibility and the new CPU is said to be upward comparable with its predecessors.
3. Registers
 Are high speed storage area used to temporarily hold small units of program instructions and
data immediately before, during and after execution by the CPU.
 As instruction are integrated and executed by the CPU, there is a moment of integration
between the various units of the computer systems.
 To handle these process properly and to facilitate the speed of information transfer, CPU uses
special memory unit called registers.
 Registers are used to hold information on temporary basis.
 It is part of the CPU (not part of the main memory)
 The length of a register equals the number of bits it can store.
 Most CPU today have 32-bit or 64-bit registers.
 The size of the registers which is sometime called the word size or word length indicates the
amount of data it store.
2. Input Devices
Input devices accept user commands and send them to the computer for processing. It convert from
human readable in to computer can understand. Typical input devices are Keyboards, Mouse,
Scanners, Microphones, Tracker Ball, Joystick, Light Pen, Digital Camera, OMR (Optical
Mark Reader), Video Digitizer, Barcode reader, etc... The most common input devices used by
the computer are the keyboard and the mouse. The keyboard allows the entry of textual
information while the mouse allows the selection of a point on the screen by moving a screen
cursor to the point and pressing a mouse button.

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Keyboard: This is a flat board that contains a grid of buttons. Each button can be programmed to
follow instructions. An overlay sheet is placed on the grid with an explanation for each button.
Keyboards are designed for the input of text and characters and also to control the operation of a
computer. Pressing a key on the keyboard generates a code that represents the character associated
with the key. The key press generated by the keyboard is converted to ASCII format then processed
by the computer. The most popular keyboard used today is the101-keys called QWERTY keyboard
The keys on the keyboard are often classified as follows.
 Typing Keys: these keys work just like a conventional typewriter. These keys include English
Alphabets A-Z, digits 0-9, the Enter key, Space, the backspace key, the Shift key, the Caps
Lock key, etc.
 Function Keys: these keys perform different tasks based on the type of software being used.
These keys are labeled as F1, F2… and F12.
 Numeric Keys: these keys let you enter numerical data more easily when you are working on
number intensive tasks. To use this section of the keyboard make sure that the Num lock key
is on.
 Navigation Keys: these are keys that are used to navigate through your document. The
following are navigation keys.
Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, ,,,, etc.
 Computer Keys: these are keys not found on typewriters. They perform different tasks when
used alone or in conjunction with other keys.
Esc, Alt, Ctrl, Print Screen, Scroll lock, Pause, Insert, Delete
Mouse: is a small object that can be rolled along a rough flat surface .its name derived from its
shape ,which looks a bit a mouse; its connecting wire that one can imagine to be the mouse’s tail.
When a user rolls the mouse a cross a flat surface, such as on the top of the table on which the
computer is placed, the graphic s cursor moves on the screen of the video display terminal in the
direction of the mouse’s movement. The graphics cursor, which is used to point and draw, is placed
on the screen as a variety of symbols, such as arrow, a wrist with a pointing finger, etc. You can
move the graphics cursor at a menu item or an icon by moving the mouse. Mouse can have as
many as three buttons whose function depends on what program is running. Mouse translates
movements and button clicks into bits, which are sent into the CPU.
A cursor: a blinking line on the computer screen, indicates the point at which data or information
will be input. The following are some of the devices that are commonly used to input data to the
computer: Types of mouse
1. Mechanical:-has a rubber or metal ball that could rotate in any direction and came as part of
the hardware package. Mechanical sensor within the mouse detects the direction the ball is
rolling and moves the screen pointer accordingly.
2. Optical mouse uses a light-emitting diode and photodiodes to detect movement relative to the
underlying surface, rather than moving some of its parts as in mechanical mouse. Optical mice
have no rolling parts.
Opto-mechanical: the same as mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect motion of the
ball.

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Scanner: is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate into
Digital form.
Digital Camera: is an electronic device used to capture(take pictures) and store photographs
electronically in a digital format that can be read by a computer, instead of using photographic
film like conventional cameras, or recording images in an analog format to magnetic tape like
many video cameras.You can then transfer the images directly from your camera on to your
computer.
Microphone: - A microphone is a device to input sound information and can be used with a voice
recognition system which processes the information i.e. used to record sound. The sound is then
saved as a sound file on the computer.
Video Digitizer: - this takes an image from a video camera or television and converts it so that it
can be used by, and stored on, a computer. Video sequences captured using video digitizers are
often used in multimedia presentations.
Barcode Reader: - Barcodes are different groups of vertical bars that can be read by a barcode
reader. Bar codes provide a quick method of recording the sale of items. A bar code is a pattern
printed in lines of differing thickness. The system gives fast and error-free entry of information
into the computer.
MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader): - magnetic ink characters are the strange looking
numbers that appear at the bottom of cheques. Banks use MICR to read the numbers from the
bottom of cheques to obtain data such as name, branch, account numbers and bank sort codes.
OMR (Optical Mark Reader): - this reads marks made by pencil on a printed form into the
computer. OMR systems are suited to reading pre-printed forms and check-boxes such as National
Lottery number selection sheets and multiple-choice exam papers.
3. Output Devices
Output devices accept results or data generated by the computer and present this information to
the user in a variety of different means (both audio and visual). It display in human readable form
in soft copy or hard copy.
1. Soft copy output:-it is electronic copy &Temporary in nature.
2. Hard copy output:-paper based & permanent in nature.
The different types of output devices available are Visual display unit, Printer, projectors, etc. The
most common output device is a monitor which is usually a Cathode Ray Tube device which can display
text and graphics. If hard-copy output is required then some form of printer is used.
Monitors or Visual Display Units (VDUs): it displays information in soft copy. It translates bits
sent to it into shapes and colors you can see on the screen.
Visual Display Units (VDU) or monitors are used to visually interface with the computer and are
similar in appearance to a television. It takes more power.
Visual Display Units display images and text which are made up of small blocks of colored light
called pixels. The resolution of the screen improves as the number of pixels is increased. Most
monitors have a 4:3 width to height ratio.
These are the most common monitor's device
Desktop monitors which are also known as Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).

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Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) or flat panel which are also known as Thin Film Transistors
(TFT), used in portable computer like laptop.
Printer: Are devices used to print out information that is in the computer on to paper. By printing
you create what is known as a 'hard copy'.

Storage Unit: Two types of Storage: Primary Storage and Secondary Storage
1. Primary Storage
Primary storage (memory) holds the immediate instructions that are to be performed by the CPU.
IT is therefore very important that the primary storage can be accessed quickly so that the CPU is
not waiting for the next set of instructions.
RAM (Random Access memory) is a temporary storage device for the current data and instructions
that are required by the current program being processed by the CPU and for storing the results.
Therefore, RAM can both be written to and read from. It is called Random Access because the
time taken to access data within the RAM does not depend upon the location at which the data is
stored. A typical RAM has an access time of 70 nsec that means that 14 million words of data can
be accessed from the RAM in one second (the term word will be defined in Section 8.1). However,
RAM is volatile, which means that any data stored in it is lost when the computer is turned off or
when there is a power failure. RAM comes in varying sizes, measured in megabytes (MB). The
more RAM you have, the faster your applications will run. Using slots attached to the motherboard
it is possible to increase the amount of RAM available to your computer system.
ROM (Read Only Memory) can only be read from. One use of ROM is to store the startup
instructions for the computer when it is turned on. Whenever a computer is turned on it needs to
follow a programmed sequence of events such as checking that all the hardware is working and
then loading the files of the operating system into RAM (the operating system is stored on the hard
disk drive). This process is known as booting the system.
2. Secondary Storage
Secondary storage devices are a permanent storage area for your data. They allow a large amount
of data to be stored, although the time taken to access it is longer than that taken to access primary
storage (although the time difference is not usually noticeable).
Hard Disk Drive: Most computers have one hard disk drive (HDD) installed within the systems
case. They are used to store the operating system, applications (Word, Excel, Turbo C etc) and
files written by the user. The HDD is usually a stack of rigid magnetic disks contained within a
sealed unit so that dust and dirt will not damage the disks. Data is transferred to or from the disk
using read/write heads close to the surface of each disk (top and bottom) that detect magnetic
variations on the disk surfaces as they rotate.
The operating system uses letters to identify the different types of secondary storage installed in
the computer. The HDD is allocated the letter C and is known as the root drive. It is possible to
separate the HDD to include virtual drives D, E etc. according to the users’ wishes.
 HDD’s come with varying storage capacities, measured in gigabytes (GB).
Floppy Disk Drive: Floppy disks (floppy or diskettes) contain a single small magnetic disk housed
within a protective plastic case. They are used to transfer data between computers or to provide
back-up copies of data stored on the HDD. Data is transferred from or to a floppy by using

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read/write heads in the floppy disk drive (FDD) that detect magnetic variations on the disk surface.
The standard 3 ½ inch floppy has a storage capacity of 1.44 MB. The FDD is always allocated the
letter A and so is known as the A drive. If another FDD is installed (rarely) then it is allocated the
letter B.
Compact Disk Drive (CD) drives allow data to be read from compact disks. A CD is usually about
12 inches in diameter and data is transferred to or from a CD by using a laser. A typical CD has a
storage capacity of 650 MB. There are 3 types of compact disk.
 CD-ROM - Compact Disk – Read Only Memory. They are mainly used by manufacturers to
distribute their software. Therefore, Microsoft Windows (operating system) and Office
(applications) are supplied to the user on CD-ROM with the programs then being installed onto
the HDD of the computer.
 CD-R – Compact Disk Recordable. Allows the computer user to write data to a CD. Each area
of the CD can only be written to once and once data is written to the CD it cannot be removed.
The CD can be written to as many times as the user likes until the CD is full.
 CD-RW – Compact Disk – Re-Writeable. Allows the user to perform multiple read/write
operations on the same CD until it is full. Data can be later removed from the CD-RW and
other data placed on it.
Digital Versatile Disk Drive
Digital video disk (DVD) drives look similar to a CD except that they can store from 4.7 – 17 GB
of data. A standard DVD can store over 2 hours of high quality video and CD quality audio.
1.7.2 Computer Software
Computer software is essential complement to computer hardware. Software is a fundamental to
make the innate power of the hardware available to the user. Software can be defined as “A
Program or set of programs to perform a task using the capabilities of the Hardware”. Hardware is
a onetime expense but software is continues. Computer software is a set of instructions that tell
the computer hardware what to do.
Types of Software: Major types of software are System software, Application software and
Utility Software
1. System software - Is a set of one or more program, designed to control the operation and
extend the processing capability of a computer system.
 Supports the development of other application program
 Support the execution of other application software.
 Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources, such as CPU, memory, peripherals,
 Communicates with and controls the operation of peripheral devices, such as printer, disk, etc.

System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes operating
systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools, servers, windowing systems, utilities, assemblers,
compilers and interpreters, communications software, and more. The purpose of systems software
is to insulate the applications programmer as much as possible from the details of the particular
computer complex being used, especially memory and other hardware features, and such as
accessory devices as communications, printers, readers, displays, keyboards, etc.
Types of System Software: The important categories of system software are: Operating system
and Language software

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a) Operating system
o Operating system is the most important component of the computer’s software system that
manages and coordinates the overall operations of the computer.
o Operating system acts as a host for application software. By handling the details of the
computer’s hardware operations, it eases the burden of the application software.
o Generally, it is the operating system that loads the application software themselves to the
RAM. It helps to store and retrieve data from the storage media.
o The data might be processed by a given application software but the storing of it onto or the
retrieving of it from the disc is all carried out by the operating system.
o Operating system offers lots of services for the application software and the user. From
mobile phones and handheld computers to the supercomputers almost all computers have
an operating system
o Common contemporary operating systems include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Linux
and Solaris. Microsoft Windows is a widely used operating system in the microcomputer.
Linux is run on PC. Linux and UNIX are all free software. It is also a multitasking as well
as a multi-user operating system.
b) Programming language software: usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing
computer programs and software using different programming languages in a more convenient
way.
 Application Software
 Is software that is designed to perform tasks for the specific area or areas? But for use in
more than one installation.
 Are usually called application packages as they may include a number of programs along
with operating instruction, documentation and so forth.
Depending on their function or task they are categorized in to the following:
1. Word Processors/ Word processing
 is a computerized typewriter which permits the electronic creation, editing, formatting, filing
and printing text.
 Is the most common application of microcomputers Example: Microsoft word
2. Spreadsheet
 is an electronic worksheet display on the VDU.
 You can quickly create a model of a situation on a spreadsheet by entering labels, numbers &
formulas.
 Using the programs built-in function you can perform complicated calculations such as net
percent value, internal rates of return, and monthly payments on a loan.
Example: Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel, Quatropro
3. Utility Software: is another category for system software generally used to support, enhance,
or expand existing programs in a computer system. Many operating systems have utility
programs built in for common purposes. Additional utility programs are available separately.
Utility programs help manage, maintain and control computer resources. Some of
examples of the utility programs are the following.
 Backup software it is a type of software which facilitate to a user to have a recovery copy if
his/her computer suddenly stop.
 Data recovery: it is used to restore data that has been physically damaged or corrupted. Data
can be damaged by viruses, bad software, and hardware failure and power fluctuation.

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 Virus protection if there is an attack of computer viruses on your computer system there may
be a need to have antivirus utility software.
 Disk Defragmenter software assists you in keep reorganizing your disk drives. After files are
saved, deleted and resaved again, the disk can become fragmented --- available space is in
small blocks located throughout the disk. Disk defragmenters gather those free spots and put
them together to enable you to continue to save your data in the most efficient manner.

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