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JUDGMENT
1. The existence of two concepts.
2. The comparison of these two concepts.
3. Pronouncement of the agreement or
disagreement of these two concepts.
COMPONENTS OF JUDGMENT:
Different sentences may express the same proposition.
Ex. Mark is the husband of Pam.
Pam’s husband is Mark.
The same sentence may express different meanings.
Ex. My last car was hot.
The previous car I owned was a stolen car.
The last car I owned was a fast car.
The final car I designed was popular.
The last car I used in the race overheated.
Judgment is the second mental operation
where by an act of pronouncement regarding
the agreement and disagreement between
two concepts is made.
Ex. Pretty – woman
The woman is pretty.
The woman is not pretty.
PROPOSITION
Proposition-an external sign of judgment.
It is a statement which affirms or denies
something about a certain reality or object.
A statement must have the element of
affirmation.
NOT EVERY SENTENCE IS A PROPOSITION.
Hence it is important to be clear about the
intended meaning when uttering a sentence.
When something goes wrong with our
statements, the failure may be due to an
incoherent proposition, or unclear meaning of
proposition.
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HOW DO WE KNOW THAT OUR JUDGMENT IS

TRUE?
There is only one criterion that also serves as
the test of truth. And this is the agreement of Every judgment given by the
judgment with reality.
human mind, therefore,
It is the congruence between what is in the
implies and presupposes the
mind and what lies in the objective world. We existence of reality.
verify a judgment by comparing it with the reality
it is supposed to represent.

All propositions are sentences but not all sentences

KINDS OF SENTENCES
are propositions. A proposition must contain a
judgment. This is not always the case with
sentences. Consider the following sentences:
1. Imperative Sentences
“Can you help me with this?”, 2. Interrogative Sentences
“Please tell the truth.” 3. Exclamatory Sentences
“Yehey!”
4. Declarative Sentences
These sentences contain a question, a request and
a feeling of excitement but they contain no
straightforward judgment.

EXERCISES: KINDS OF SENTENCES 2 TYPES OF PROPOSITION

1. What a cute baby!
2. Pope Francis is the main celebrant of the
Lenten mass in Vatican.
3. Send me some back issues of the “Pop
Magazine”.
4. Are you familiar with Roman Gods and
Goddesses?
5. Riza is my former classmate.
I. Categorical – expresses a direct judgment or
a direct assertion of the agreement or
disagreement of two terms in an absolute or
unconditional manner. It always makes a
direct claim.
Ex. A book is useful.
The weather is fine.

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TYPES OF PROPOSITION
II. Hypothetical – it does not express a direct
judgment, rather a relation between two
judgments in which the truth of one depends
on the other.
Ex. If the book is useful, then keep it.
If there is no typhoon, then the weather is fine.
THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
There are two elements of a categorical proposition,
matter and form. Matter is the sense or meaning or
the substance of the proposition. It is what the
proposition is all about. This is expressed in the
subject and predicate.
The form is the structure of the proposition whether it
states an affirmation or negation of the relation
between the subject and the predicate. The copula is
the link between the subject and the predicate.
EXERCISES: IDENTIFY THE SUBJECT, PREDICATE AND COPULA.
Some propositions are not expressed in logical form. There is still a need to
1. The bird is dead.
2. Most humans are not aware of aliens.
3. Europe is the host continent.
4. Somebody is telling a lie.
5. Jars are not enough.
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HYPOTHETICAL
The truth value of a hypothetical proposition
depends on the relationship or connection
between two judgments. The hypothetical is
always a complex statement.
There are three types of hypothetical
propositions: conditional, disjunctive, and
conjunctive.
PROPOSITION
1. Subject - the term designating the idea about which something is affirmed or
denied
2. Predicate - the term designating the idea which is affirmed or denied of the subject
3. Copula - the term expressing the mental act which pronounces the agreement or
disagreement between the subject and the predicate
*Quantifier - expresses the application or extension of the proposition
Ex. Some students are hardworking.
transform them so that the true nature of the proposition will clearly be
known. This can be done by following the logical pattern of a simple
proposition.
Ex. Fred will be famous.
--- Fred is the person to become famous.
The logical form of the proposition.
(Quantifier) Subject – Copula - Predicate
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THE LOGICAL FORM OF THE PROPOSITION THE LOGICAL FORM OF SOME PROPOSITIONS ARE AS FOLLOWS:

The Logical form of the categorical proposition follows ORIGINAL FORM: LOGICAL FORM:
this pattern.
1.Bats fly. 1. Bats are animals that
(Quantifier) - Subject – Copula – Predicate. fly.
In its logical form, the proposition is always in the 2. Peter lives. 2. Peter is a living
present tense and uses a copula in the present tense, person.
indicative mood of the verb “to be”. However, other 3. They are the persons
propositions may not follow this logical form and 3. They shot him.
who shot him.
therefore they may be in other tenses or may use 4. Gilas is the winner of
other verbs. 4. Gilas won last night. the game last night.

EXERCISES: TRANSFORM THE FFG. TO THEIR LOGICAL FORM QUALITY OF PROPOSITION

1.The old boy waves goodbye. The quality of proposition affects the copula and
makes the proposition either affirmative or
2.Philippines will be progressive.
negative.
3. The balloon slowly floats in the air.
Ex. All dolls are made of plastic.
All dolls are not made of plastic.

1. AFFIRMATIVE 2. NEGATIVE
An affirmative proposition is a proposition whose predicate A negative proposition is one whose
is always affirmed of its subject according to the whole of its
comprehension and part of its extension. It must always be predicate is always denied of its subject
remembered that based on this definition, the predicate of an according to a part of its comprehension and
affirmative proposition is always particular except if the predicate of
the proposition is a definition of the subject. In such cases, the
the whole of its extension.
predicate applies only to one individual the subject and, therefore,
has a universal extension.
Ex. Number 5 is not an even number.
Ex. A proposition is a sentence. Many politicians are not sincere.
Some people are opportunists.
No patients are healthy.

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QUANTITY OF PROPOSITION
The quantity of the proposition expresses the number of
individuals to whom the proposition applies.
1. Universal – A universal proposition is a proposition
whose subject is a universal term, a term that applies
distributively to each individual in a class or to the
class itself.
Ex. All senators are legislators.
Every metal is an electric conductor.
3. Singular – A singular proposition is a
proposition whose subject is a singular term.
Ex. The President is the Commander-in-Chief.
This book is interesting.
EXERCISES:
IDENTIFY THE QUALITY, QUANTITY AND SYMBOL OF THE GIVEN.
1.Many tourists are Europeans.
2.All senators are investigating the case.
3.Dogs are not allowed in public places.
4.These boxes are very durable.
5.Majority of the protesters are males.
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2. Particular – A particular proposition whose
subject is a particular term, a term used partly
and indeterminately.
Ex. Some students are hardworking.
Many politicians are not sincere.
TYPES OF PROPOSITION ACCORDING TO
QUALITY AND QUANTITY COMBINED:
SYMBOL Quantity Quality
A Universal/Singular Affirmative
E Universal/Singular Negative
I Particular Affirmative
O Particular Negative
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE PREDICATE TERM
When we speak of the distribution of the predicate term, we mean the
extension or quantity that the predicate possesses on account of its
relation to the subject in a certain proposition. The predicate may
be taken universally (distributed) or particularly (undistributed).
To determine the extension or quantity of the predicate term, we need
to take a look at the copula. The rule of thumb is:
In an affirmative proposition, the predicate is always taken particularly.
In a negative proposition, the predicate is always taken universally.
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Symbol Quality Quantity of Subject Quantity of

The justification for the rule of becomes clear once we consider Predicate
how the subject and predicate are related in affirmative and
negative propositions. A Affirmative Universal Particular
In an affirmative statement, what is formally asserted is that P is
in the comprehension of S, and that S is contained in the E Negative Universal Universal
extension of P. If S is in P, P must have an extension wider than
that of S. But, as we all know, in an affirmative proposition, S I Affirmative Particular Particular
and P are identified and in order to make this identification, we
must limit the extension of P. Thus, in an affirmative
proposition, the predicate is taken particularly. It becomes O Negative Particular Universal
evident that only part of the extension of P is identified with S.

THE PATTERN OF FORM OF THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION THE PATTERN OF FORM OF THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

A categorical proposition follows a standard pattern, and for
the sake of analysis we reduce a proposition to its standard
form by substituting letters and other signs in place of the
terms and the quality and quantity of the proposition and
the terms.
The subject term may be symbolized by capital “S”, the
predicate may be symbolized by the capital “P”.
To indicate that the proposition is affirmative we put a “+” sign
between the S and P. To indicate that the proposition is
negative we put “- “ between the S and the P.
To indicate that the term is universal we put a
small “u” after it and if the term is particular
then we put a small “p” after it.
Hence if the subject is universal we write Su and
if it is particular we write Sp. If the predicate is
a particular term then we write Pp and if it is
universal term, we write Pu.

A universal affirmative proposition (A) has a
universal subject, affirmative quality and a
particular predicate, unless the predicate is
a definition of the subject. Hence the
pattern for example,
Ex. All doctors are professional. ---
A universal negative proposition (E) has a
universal subject, negative quality and a
universal predicate. Hence the pattern of an E
proposition for example,
Ex. No Catholic is a pagan. --- Su – Pu
Su + Pp

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A particular affirmative proposition (I) has A particular negative proposition (O) has a
a particular predicate, affirmative quality particular subject, negative quality and a
and a particular predicate. Hence the universal predicate. Hence the pattern
pattern of an I proposition for example, of an O proposition for example,

Ex. Some teachers are licensed

professionals. --- Sp + Pp Ex. Some government officials are not
elected by the people. --- Sp - Pu

EXERCISES: WRITE THE PATTERN OF THE PROPOSITIONS.

1. Some comics are entertaining. 1. Sp + Pp I

2. All chickens are fat. 2. Su + Pp A
3. Most members are present. 3. Sp + Pp I
4. Few brooms are not color blue. 4. Sp – Pu O
5. Nobody is safe. 5. Su – Pu E
6. She is fast in answering. 6. Su + Pp A
7. They are in blue shirts. 7. Su + Pp A
8. Majority of the cats are white. 8. Sp + Pp I
9. No student is inside the room. 9. Su – Pu E
10.Philip is not answering. 10.Su – Pu E