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Lithos
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Article history: This paper investigates the mineralogical effects of hydrothermal alteration at depth in fractures in granite. A
Received 21 April 2009 fracture accompanied by an alteration halo and filled with clay was found at a depth of 200 m in a drill core
Accepted 27 November 2009 through Toki granite, Gifu, central Japan. Microscopic observation, XRD, XRF, EPMA and SXAM investigations
Available online 6 December 2009
revealed that the microcrystalline clays consist of illite, quartz and pyrite and that the halo round the fracture
can be subdivided into a phyllic zone adjacent to the fracture, surrounded by a propylitic zone in which Fe-
Keywords:
phyllosilicates are present, and a distinctive outer alteration front characterized by plagioclase breakdown.
Hydrothermal alteration
Granite
The processes that result in these changes took place in three successive stages: 1) partial dissolution of
Water–rock interaction plagioclase with partial chloritization of biotite; 2) biotite dissolution and precipitation of Fe-phyllosilicate in
Fracture the dissolution pores; 3) dissolution of K-feldspar and Fe-phyllosilicate, and illite precipitation associated
Orogenic belt with development of microcracks. These hydrothermal alterations of the granite proceed mainly by a
dissolution–precipitation process resulting from the infiltration of hydrothermal fluid along microcracks.
Such infiltration causes locally high mobility of Al and increases the ratio of fluid to rock in the alteration
halo. These results contribute to an understanding of how granitic rock becomes altered in orogenic fields
such as the Japanese island arc.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction 2003), the underground storage of carbon dioxide (Ueda et al., 2005;
Suto et al., 2007) and radioactive waste disposal (Yoshida et al., 2005;
Hydrothermal alteration affects the geochemical properties of Sandström et al., 2008; Yoshida et al., 2009). In the case of HDR
granitic rocks (Ferry, 1979; Boyce et al., 2003). Granitic rocks in the reservoirs used for electricity generation, flow-path stability con-
Japanese orogenic field are altered more than continental granite trolled by fluid–rock interaction is important for the performance of
because they are part of an active geothermal system with a higher reservoirs through their lifetime (Savage et al., 1987; Richards et al.,
density of fractures (Yoshida et al., 2005). However, granitic rock 1992). The interaction of rock and fluid containing CO2 at elevated
underlying a geothermal field obtained from a depth of 3000 m below temperatures has been studied in order to better understand a
the surface was found to be remarkably fresh and not permeable possible underground storage of CO2 (Suto et al., 2007). Fractures in
enough to allow hydrothermal circulation (Fujimoto et al., 2000). This granitic rocks and the minerals that fill them are also critical in their
suggests that fracture development is an important factor in the effect on the isolation of radioactive waste in sites of deep geological
establishment of hydrothermal circulation and the facilitation of disposal. The frequency, geometry and filling of fractures are significant
hydrothermal alteration by the interaction between fluid and rock factors that control solute migration in geological environment (Steefel
within the granitic body. Although numerous studies related to and Lichtner, 1994; Mazurek, 1994; Yoshida et al., 2000). The long-term
hydrothermal alteration have been carried out, most are concerned stability of structural features and the interaction between fluid and
with porphyry copper deposits, epithermal gold deposits or geother- rock should therefore be taken into account in modeling the processes of
mal fields lying outside the body of the granite (e.g. Adams and element mobility in deep granitic bodies. In order to develop such a
Moore, 1987; Hedenquist et al., 1996; Doi et al., 1998). model, the way fractures are generated and subsequently stabilized
Within the body of granitic rocks, the interaction between the rock needs to be better understood. So also does the way in which each
and external fluids has, however, been studied in the context of hot mineral in granite is altered by hydrothermal fluid along fractures, a
dry rock (HDR) power generation (Savage et al., 1987; Bando et al., change made more complex to understand because of the actions of
multiple alteration processes.
This study has, therefore, focused on the mineralogical changes to
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 52 201 4486. granite caused by the penetration of hydrothermal fluid along frac-
E-mail address: shoji@ncsm.city.nagoya.jp (S. Nishimoto). tures in the deep underground environment. We have investigated a
0024-4937/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2009.11.015
154 S. Nishimoto, H. Yoshida / Lithos 115 (2010) 153–162
simple alteration halo in granite along a fracture filled with com- such granitic rock in which a considerable part of the granite body is
pacted clay from a drill hole excavated at the Mizunami Underground concealed beneath the Late Cretaceous ash-flow deposits of the Nohi
Research Laboratory (MIU) in central Japan. The presence of a clay- Rhyolite (Kawada et al., 1961; Yamada et al., 1971), forming several
filled fracture without subsequent deformation implies that it has cauldrons (Koido, 1991). The similarity of the petrology between the
been stable since its formation. This makes it an ideal site for Nohi Rhyolite and the surrounding Naegi–Agematsu granite indicates
investigating how hydrothermal fluid affects the rock as it infiltrates that they were formed as a series of large magmatic events on the
fractures, and therefore the long-term stability of sealed fractures in eastern margin of the Eurasian continent (Sonohara and Harayama,
the deep underground environment. In this paper we show the
chemical and mineralogical changes across the alteration halo and
discuss the process of hydrothermal alteration that results from
fracturing and microcracks in granite. In broader terms, this study is a
contribution to the understanding of the long-term stability of
fractures in granitic rocks.
2. Geological setting
Fig. 1. Geological map showing location of the Toki granite body part of the Naegi– Fig. 2. Illustration of the alteration halo and chemical compositions of mineral
Agematsu granite intruding into Nohi rhyolite. MIU: Mizunami Underground assemblage. a) Paragenetic sequence of secondary minerals. b) sample photo; c) SXAM
Laboratory. compositional maps of Ca, Fe and K; d) bulk compositional of Fe2O, CaO, Na2O, K2O and
Simplified from Geological Survey of Japan (2007) and Ishihara and Wu (2001). LOI within the alteration halo. *ff: fracture filling.
S. Nishimoto, H. Yoshida / Lithos 115 (2010) 153–162 155
Table 1
Bulk composition of individual zones within the hydrothermal alteration halo.
SiO2 78.1 77.02 76.98 75.84 74.55 74.96 74.4 73.01 73.7 73.15
TiO2 0.16 0.17 0.19 0.17 0.21 0.21 0.2 0.19 0.17 0.18
Al2O3 12.63 12.3 12.76 13.16 13.46 13.33 13.21 13.37 13.28 13.39
Fe2O3* 1.52 1.69 1.86 2.17 2.69 2.93 2.5 2.15 2.06 2.01
MnO 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07
MgO 0.11 0.12 0.16 0.17 0.22 0.28 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.28
CaO 0.16 0.16 0.2 0.23 0.33 0.61 0.82 1.06 1.02 0.97
Na2O 3.86 3.42 3.11 3.12 2.83 3.11 3.31 3.43 3.16 3.17
K2O 3.82 4.23 4.45 4.57 4.73 4.43 4.87 4.92 4.86 5.06
P2O5 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04
LOI 0.57 1.2 1.52 1.64 1.61 1.22 0.6 0.75 0.77 0.83
Total 100.97 100.38 101.3 101.15 100.71 101.15 100.31 99.26 99.38 99.15
Sample numbers are shown in Fig. 2c. LOI: loss on ignition. Fe2O3*: total Fe as Fe2O3.
2007). They are interpreted as a volcano-plutonic complex formed in geological disposal of high level radioactive waste. The granite is
a shallow crust at the active continental margin. mainly composed of brownish gray quartz, with pale pink K-feldspar,
The Toki granite body is one component of the Naegi–Agematsu white plagioclase, and biotite. The open fracture that we studied is
granite. It has a circular exposure of about 140 km2 and intruded filled with unsolidified, compacted pale green clay without pores. No
discordantly into the Jurassic accretionary complex of the Mino slip trace was observed on the fracture surface between the infilling
Terrain (Wakita, 2000). The granite body mostly consists of medium clay and the wall rock. An alteration halo is symmetrically developed
to coarse-grained biotite granite. It contains a small amount of on both sides of the clay-filled fracture (Fig. 2). Visually, the halo is
pegmatite but lacks economic-grade ore deposits (Ishihara and Wu, divided into a 3 cm wide whitened internal part and a 2 cm wide
2001). Magnetite is not observed, indicating that it belongs to the greenish external zone. The drill core sample was divided into two
ilmenite-series (Ishihara, 1977). The peraluminous chemical compo- halves. One half was sliced and polished for chemical analysis. Bulk
sition (A/CNK = 1.09–1.16: Ishihara and Wu, 2001) is consistent with chemical composition was measured on eight cut pieces of the core
S-type granite (Chappell and White, 1974). The Rb–Sr whole rock age sample near the fracture and two cut pieces of unaltered granite for
is 72.3 Ma (Shibata and Ishihara, 1979) while the K–Ar age of the comparison by XRF (Shimadzu SXF-1200) equipped with an Rh X-ray
biotite is 60–63 Ma (JNC, 2002) and the fission track age of the zircon tube. The instruments were calibrated against rock reference samples
is 59–61 Ma (Sasao et al., 2006). The high initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio issued by the Geological Survey of Japan. Compositional maps of Ca, K
(0.7106) compared with other granites in southwest Japan (0.706– and Fe of the whole sliced sample surface were obtained using a
0.709) implies the existence of an old basement at depth in this region scanning X-ray analytical microscope (SXAM, Horiba XGT-2000), an
(Ishihara and Matsuhisa, 2002). Toki granite is unconformably X-ray fluorescence analyzer that shows the distribution of elements
covered with Miocene of the Mizunami Group (20–15 Ma) and across the surface of a sample (Hosokawa et al., 1997). A high-
Pliocene of the Seto Group (0.7–5 Ma). There is a highly weathered
zone less than 10 m thick in the upper part of the Toki granite beneath
the unconformity. The Tsukiyoshi Fault, an E–W striking reverse fault
dipping 70° to the south, cuts the Toki granite and the Mizunami
Group (Onishi and Shimizu, 2005). The granite in the vicinity of major
faults is fractured and altered (Nakamata et al., 2007) suggesting
association of alteration with faults. Within the granitic body,
Iwatsuki and Yoshida (1999) recognized two fracture systems, an
intact, moderately fractured part and an intensely fractured part,
based on both the degree and frequency of fracturing. Mineralogical
study showed that the moderately fractured and intensely fractured
parts are associated with chlorite/montmorillonite and kaolinite
respectively as fracture fillings. Even in the intact part of the granite,
however, weak illitization of some plagioclase and chloritization of
biotite grains are observed under the microscope (Nishimoto et al.,
2008). Based on the O and C-isotopic composition of fracture-filling
calcites, it appears that the Toki Granite has been altered by three
types of fluid: hydrothermal fluids, seawater, and groundwater
(Iwatsuki et al., 2002). The present underground water in the granite
is of Na–(Ca)–Cl type and the temperatures at depths of 500 to
1000 m are about 30 °C (Iwatsuki et al., 2002).
The sample was collected from a borehole /v192-(6)/ drilled Fig. 3. Isocon diagram for the each zone of the alteration halo along the fracture in the
Toki granite. Cunaltered granite is an average of two analysis of unaltered granite.
horizontally at a depth of 200 m in a shaft of the MIU which is being Caltered granite is the average analysis of each zone. Each analysis is multiplied by an
constructed by the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) in order to appropriate factor: 0.3 for SiO2, 1.5 for Al2O3, 5 for Fe2O3, 18 for CaO, 3 for K2O, 4 for
establish techniques for investigation, analysis and assessment of Na2O, 40 for TiO2, 20 for MgO, 50 for MnO and P2O5.
156 S. Nishimoto, H. Yoshida / Lithos 115 (2010) 153–162
intensity continuous X-ray beam (Rh anode 50 kV, 1 mA), 100 μm in The bulk composition of the eight cut pieces examined by XRF is
diameter, is focused with a guide tube and directed onto the surface of shown in Table 1. The ratios of CaO, Fe2O3(total), K2O and Na2O in the
the sample on a PC-controllable X–Y stage. The second half of the drill eight portions to those in “unaltered” host granite are shown in
core sample was used for mineralogical investigation. Thin sections Fig. 2d. As shown in SXAM maps, CaO-depletion is significant in the
were cut to observe mineral texture by polarizing microscope. Some alteration halo. Fe2O3 is enriched in the propylitic zone and depleted
sections were polished to analyze chemical composition and element in the phyllic zone. Na2O is enriched along the fracture and K2O
distribution in plagioclase and biotite grains by electron microprobe progressively depleted from the outer zone to the fracture surface. LOI
(EPMA, JEOL JXA-8800). Mineral compositions were acquired using a increases between the phyllic and propylitic zones. Since calcite has
focused electron beam of 1 µm diameter with an accelerating voltage not been identified, LOI represents crystallochemical OH or water.
of 15 kV and a beam current of 12 nA. Some mineral grains were The isocon plots (Grant, 1986) of each zone, based on Table 1, are
drilled with a mini-drill to identify clay minerals. The powder X-ray shown in Fig. 3. The points of Ti and P which are generally considered
diffraction pattern was measured by diffractometer (XRD, Multiflex, immobile, show indeed the least scatter of all elements. Overall, the
Rigaku) set at a CuKα radiation of 40 kV and 20 mA in the range of 2– element distribution suggests a weak volume loss. The concentration
50° 2θ. for Al, which is also commonly considered immobile, differs
somewhat from the isocon, suggesting that Al is mobile especially in
the phyllic zone. The loss of Si is the most in the outer zone. Ca
4. Results depletion implies a substantial dissolution of plagioclase and its
removal. The loss of Mn and Mg in the propylitic and phyllic zones
4.1. Overall sequence of mineralogical and chemical changes indicate that biotite dissolved during the alteration process.
The chemical composition of illite is phengitic (2–3 wt.% as FeO)
The development of mineral and chemical features within the and shows no significant changes within the alteration halo (Table 2,
hydrothermal alteration halo is summarized in Fig. 2. Based on Fig. 4a). However, the molar Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio of corrensite and
paragenesis (Fig. 2a) and occurrence (Fig. 2b), the alteration halo can chlorite in the alteration halo is higher than that in “unaltered” wall
be subdivided into three zones: an outer zone, a propylitic zone and a rock (Fig. 4b).
phyllic zone, although the mineralogical sequence of the alteration The compacted clay that fills the fracture is pale green in color and
halo is less sharp. The outer zone is distinguished by plagioclase is a mixture of illite, quartz and pyrite along with fragments of
breakdown. The propylitic zone is greenish and characterized by plagioclase and quartz grains. Although it is hard to separate
secondary Fe-phyllosilicates such as chlorite, corrensite and smectite fragments from secondary minerals, albite can also be identified.
that are typical of propylitic alteration. The phyllic zone is distin- Calcite, smectite and kaolinite are absent in the clay fillings.
guished by whitened K-feldspar that results from the breakdown and
illitization of plagioclase. Compositional mapping by SXAM (Fig. 2c) 4.2. “Unaltered” wall–rock granite
revealed an abrupt decrease of Ca in the outer zone, and also a
depletion of Ca in propylitic and phyllic zones. K is detected in The bulk composition of unaltered granite outside the alteration halo
alteration products of plagioclase within the phyllic zone while Fe is is similar to that given in previous reports (Ishihara and Wu, 2001;
distributed in alteration products of plagioclase throughout the Nishimoto et al., 2008), although it is slightly poorer in Si and Na, and
propylitic zone. richer in Al. The molar Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio of the biotite varies between
Table 2
Representative chemical composition of the secondary minerals.
Analysis no. 95 78 77 47 22 45 56 18
occurs throughout the granite body and is not related to the alteration
along clay-filled fractures.
Fig. 5. Photomicrographs showing hydrothermal alteration progress in plagioclase (a–c) and biotite (d–f) within the alteration halo. a) illitized plagioclase in the phyllic zone;
b) linear arrangement of illite suggesting illitization along a microcrack in altered plagioclase in the propylitic zone; c) plagioclase showing alteration zoning with corrensite,
smectite and illite in the propylitic zone; d) dissolved chlorite and illite altered from a biotite pseudomorph with a pore filled with quartz in the phyllic zone; e) illitized and partly
dissolved corrensite and chlorite aggregates altered from biotite in the propylitic zone (without analyzer); f) biotite with chlorite and corrensite in the outer zone (without analyzer).
Fig. 6. Representative EPMA compositional maps of Fe, Na and K showing the phyllic zone (a: Fe, b: Na, c: K) and the propylitic zone (d: Fe, e: Na, f: K). Symbols: ill = illite; cor =
corrensite; pl = plagioclase; Kf = K-feldspar; bi = biotite; chl = chlorite; ab = albite (plagioclase).
reaction of granite with diluted NaCl solution (0.008–0.028 M) at Since K-feldspar and plagioclase break down to provide a local
200 °C produces sparsely developed illitic clay (as a secondary solid source of Al, and the mobility of Al is high, it is reasonable to
product) and K-feldspar is much more easily attacked than plagio- conclude that Al is efficiently transported through the fluid in the
clase. These results are consistent with the conclusion that the fluid in microcracks and pores. The conclusion is therefore that the
our site was diluted saline. The probable origin of the hydrothermal dissolution–precipitation process controls the hydrothermal alter-
fluid is circulating meteoric water, as reported in geothermal thermal ation of granite.
studies (e.g. Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994). The development of the microcrack network from the fracture
allows the hydrothermal fluid to infiltrate the wall rock, and the
5.2. Progress of the hydrothermal alteration consequent formation of pores by dissolution results in a higher
fluid/rock ratio. Previous work has shown that propylitic alteration
Based on the paragenesis of each zone within the alteration halo, is common at the margins of alteration zones produced at low fluid/
a schematic model of alteration by the infiltration of hydrothermal rock ratios, and that the fluid/rock ratio of rocks in phyllic alteration
fluid into granite is proposed in Fig. 8. At the onset of the alteration, is higher than that in propylitic alteration (Lowell and Guilbert,
plagioclase starts to dissolve, leaving pores and biotite undergoes 1970; Berger and Velde, 1992; John et al., 2008). Hence the
chloritization (outer zone). This has probably occurred under nearly increasing fluid/rock ratio resulting from the development of
isochemical conditions at relatively low fluid/rock ratios. In the next microcracks promotes the alteration. Most studies report that
stage, biotite is dissolved and Fe phyllosilicates (chlorite, corrensite corrensite is a stable mineral under hydrothermal conditions (e.g.
and smectite) precipitated in the pores (propylitic zone). Since, Kimbara, 1975; Inoue et al., 1991; Beaufort et al., 1997) and that it is
smectite is observed only within plagioclase in the propylitic zone, the product of a dissolution–recrystallization reaction (Meunier
the inference is that the precipitation of smectite is driven by the et al., 1991). Schiffman and Staudigel (1995) considered that
local mineralogical environment. In the last stage, K-feldspar is corrensite occurs under high flux (fluid/rock) conditions. These
dissolved and illite and quartz precipitate as the Fe-phyllosilicates studies also support the hypothesis that the alteration sequence is
break down. The result is that illite and quartz fill the microcracks. associated with an increase of the fluid/rock ratio. Because it is hard
160 S. Nishimoto, H. Yoshida / Lithos 115 (2010) 153–162
6. Conclusion
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram illustrating the hydrothermal alteration process of granite along a fracture.
understanding of how fractured granitic rock can be altered and the fluid inclusions and stable isotopes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research 126, 243–262.
way it behaves in the long term in orogenic fields such as the Japanese Cathelineau, M., 1988. Cation site occupancy in chlorites and illites as a function of
island arc. temperature. Clay Minerals 23, 471–485.
Chappell, B.W., White, A.J.R., 1974. Two contrasting granite types. Pacific Geology 8,
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Japan Atomic Energy Agency for their assistance and for discussion hydrothermal alteration of mica and feldspar in granitic rocks from south-central
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