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GENDER EQUALITY AS ANTIDOTE FOR CORRUPTION AND GOOD

GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA: A RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE


By
DOROTHY NGUEMO AFAOR
DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY
BANUE STATE UNIVERSITY, MAKURDI-NIGERIA
EMAIL: dorafaor@gmail.com
TEL: 08016 2170 786/ 0902 0936 362

Abstract
Nigeria’s entire post colonial history has been marked with struggles for good governance.
Thus, since the return to democratic rule in 1999, various steps have been taken to address the
problems of corruption and bad governance in the country. These measures include public
service transformation, establishment of Anti-corruption Enforcement agencies, and the
ongoing war against corruption and sanitation of the financial sector by President
Mohammadu Buhari, which has exposed disturbing phenomena of misappropriation and
embezzlement in Nigeria’s public sector. Notwithstanding the successes achieved by these
measures, the situation remains unchanged as corruption persists in Nigeria. This problem
calls for an all-encompassing approach. This paper avers that it is high time women are
actively involved in governance to fight this canker worm. Women are a major stakeholder in
the development project of any society. But, more worrying is the fact that, globally, the issue
of women marginalisation and low participation in political leadership and decision making is
prevalent. This paper argues that although women and men have different biological and
physiological make-up, they share common features with men in terms of education, socio-
economic status and profession among others; hence they are equally capable of leadership if
given the opportunity. Religiously, the Genesis creation accounts show that both men and
women were made in the image of God, and that both were given the mandate to fill and take
responsibility for the rest of the earth (Genesis 1:26-28). This paper therefore, adapts
phenomenological method of research and proposed gender equality as an antidote for
corruption and solution for good governance in Nigeria.

Key words: Gender, Religion, Antidote, Corruption, Good Governance

1
Introduction

Good governance is generally characterized by certain indices such as leadership

transparency, accountability, fairness, social justice, and the rule of law. Thus, the desire for

good governance has been the major motivating force behind the emergence of several

political, social and economic ideologies over the long history of man. The priority of any

good leadership is to ensure fair representation of the subjects or the masses under which

arrangement; the leader is solely accountable to them.

Good governance in the 21st century particularly with the underdeveloped nations has become

an optical illusion due to leadership corruption. Corruption on the other hand has become a

global phenomenon operating in a diversity of ways and terminating many thoughts and

attempts towards good governance. Thus, the phrase “War against Corruption” has become a

global slogan perpetuating speeches of world leaders, intellectual debates, and even streets

discussions. Ironically, most leaders perpetuate the act and yet claim to be fighting against its

persistence. This to a certain extent explained why this plague persists in spite of the so called

“global” war against corruption.

Thus, the development of the international anti-corruption regime since the late 1990s has not

been without its critiques. Consequently, a study shows that the international aid and

development community cannot show one single country/case where a donor led good

governance or anti-corruption program have resulted in a sustained improvement. This is not

to say that there are no countries that have improved their control of corruption but these

changes have not been achieved through any international aid and development policy. 1

In Nigeria, corruption continues to permeate every facade of national life despite the various

measures (eg EFCC, ICPC etc) taken to avert it. Categorically, Taiye avers that Corruption is

one of the destructive banes behind the underdevelopment of the Nigerian society. The abuse

of positions and privileges has become features of Nigeria’s economic and political

2
landscape. 2 The coming of a democratic regime with all resources and policy in place to curb

this scourge has produced no positive result. Describing the Nigerian situation Chukwuma

remarked:

What is more worrying is that in spite of popular anger against corruption and
bad governance, which have robbed the collective well being of the people of
Nigeria, there remains a lack of national consensus on repulsion against the
perpetrators (irrespective of their ethnicity, religion, class and gender) and
emergence of a popular movement that is capable of galvanizing the palpable
rage of the people and channel it to series of actions and outcomes that
challenge the status quo. 3
Indeed, it is apparent that anti-corruption reforms in Nigeria have so far yielded fewer results

than necessary. All attempts to inaugurate good governance in the country are geared towards

reformation and transformation in the public sector. Academic debates are more focused on

political ideology, while in the field of religion, emphasis is more on dialogue. Little

consideration is given to ensure bursting participation of women to improve good governance

in the country. The fact is that many people (anti feminists) still believe that women are less

active, inferior and so, incapable of leadership and political participation.

The central argument in this paper is that the incessant domination and discrimination against

women in the political and leadership process is liable to negatively and continuously affect

good governance and democratic sustainability in the country. From a religious (Christian)

perspective, this paper seeks to disprove, refute and challenge the basis for gender inequality

in the first place. It argues that Biblically, women are equally charged to subdue the earth and

to take responsibility. The base line is that the men’s government on its own alone cannot

solve the problem of good governance; hence, it requires an “all-hands-on-deck” approach.

Thus, appointment of more women into leadership positions in the country is more likely to

enhance improved public policy formulation and implementation for good governance in

Nigeria.

3
Conceptual clarification

Gender equality

Gender refers ones’ sex, either feminine or masculine. Although, what comes to mind almost

immediately at the mention of the concept ‘gender’ is not just the biological nature of the

human person but also a mentality of superiority of one over the other. Donna Haraway says

that gender has become a concept developed to contest the naturalization of sexual

differences in multiple arenas of human struggle. 4

Gender equality means both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and

make choices without the limitations set by negative stereotype, rigid gender roles and

prejudices. It means fairness of treatment of both women and men, according to their

respective needs. Gender equality does not mean that women and men have to become the

same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they

are born male or female. Gender equality is commonly used in reference to human resources

and equal participation of women and men in all areas of work, and is achieved when women

and men enjoy the same rights and opportunities across all sectors of society, including

economic participation and decision-making, and when the different behaviours, aspirations

and needs of women and men are equally valued and favoured. 5

Thus, the concept gender inequality refers to any view that discriminates against the female

as been inferior to their male counterpart and as such unfit for certain privileges in the society

such as employment, education, profession, religion, politics and social behaviour.

Good governance

Good Governance is multifaceted concept and has been diversely perceived. Generally, it

entails transparency, accountability, responsibility and the rule of law in the government

processes. Good governance is the view that leaders are disposed to discharge their duties for

the overall benefit of the nation and her citizens. Odinkalu summarizes that good government

4
is founded on a tripod of three values namely; legitimacy, accountability, and capacity. 6 He

further explains that:

Credibility is a function of both the nature of its electoral legitimacy or


mandate, and its fidelity to the norms of political behaviour. There is a logical
connect between credibility and accountability. Accountability has both
political and institutional dimensions. Politically, it speaks to the ability of
people to participate in their government, and if necessary, to change it
through transparent electoral processes; institutionally, it refers to how far the
institutions and mechanisms of government are able to play their roles in
ensuring that government operates properly within the law. This institutional
capacity is to be found in the independence and abilities of the judiciary, civil
service, and bureaucracies of government to police the rules without which
government becomes both whimsical, arbitrary, and personalised. 7
The above infers that any leadership that lacks core values of legitimacy, transparency,

accountability and the rule of law is an obvious opposite of good government and hence, bad.

The quest for good governance in this context is a search for that delegated responsibilities

where the masses in various institutions of development would freely work to achieve growth

and development.

Asoo sees good governance as a system of government that guarantees a reasonable degree of

fairness, equality, transparency in government business, rule of law, and human dignity. It is

translated to mean a system that places premium on the development of basic infrastructure

such as roads, health care facilities, and equality before the law, quality education,
8
employment opportunities, good security and adequate shelter to the citizens. Similarly,

United Nations Commission for Human Rights viewed good governance as a process

whereby public institutions conduct public affairs, manages public resources and guarantee

the realization of human rights.

In Nigeria for instance, Odinkalu submits that the essential elements of good government had

been destroyed by the end of the decade of the 1980s, with the result that those who

controlled government enabled themselves to deliberately conflate the essential distinction

between public and personal resources, get away with this, and preclude the possibility of

5
ever being held accountable whether through the legal process of investigations and
9
prosecutions, or through the political process of competitive elections. As such, to ensure

good governance in Nigeria means an all encompassing approach.

Corruption as an Impediment to good governance in Nigeria

Results from a BBC poll in 2010, surveying 13,353 respondents in 26 countries shows that,

corruption is the most talked about issue globally, surpassing issues such as climate change,

poverty and unemployment. 10 The President of the World Bank, Jim Yong Kim, once stated

in his speech of 19th December 2013, that “in the developing world, corruption is public

enemy No. 1”. 11


It is needless tracing the history of Nigeria’s struggles with corruption

before justifying its prevalence. The act is too glaring such that no one doubts if it has

become a bane on Nigeria’s nascent democracy. It is constitutes a major challenge for good

governance and sustainable development. Since the exit of colonialism, the country has been

battling to curtail corruption.

Igwe attests that “since the attainment of flag independence in 1960, Nigeria has been

embarking upon the gargantuan task of nation-building to launch the country into

socioeconomic security and prosperity, which has not been possible due to combined factors

of long military dominance in power, poor economic planning and irresponsible democratic

leadership”. 12 It seems that the more the efforts, the worst the situation becomes. Day in day

out, people in leadership positions device ‘improved’ looting strategies and how escape

justice even when caught.

Odinkalu decries that “Nigeria faces an existential crisis located at the nexus of governance

and corruption”. 13
Similarly, Taiye emphasizes that Corruption has become a social disease

plaguing almost every nation of the world. However, it has become so endemic in Nigeria

that some people seek public offices to make money through dishonest means rather than

6
serving the people who appointed or elected them into such positions. 14
Nigeria’s former

president Olusegun Obasanjo once lamented thus:

As I surveyed the canvas of our national life, I saw little more than confusion,
greed, corruption in high and low places, selfishness, pervasive lawlessness
and cynicism. The very state itself to which we are all required to be loyal, had
become a state full of malice and meanness. Public officials appeared to have
forgotten what selfless service meant. Private Citizens felt a profound distrust
of it not hatred for the state. 15
The above statement implies that, although this phenomenon is prevalent in other countries

too, the degree of its prevalence in Nigerian polity is too monumental and frightening. What

then is corruption?

The United Nations Global Programme against Corruption (GPAC) defines it as “abuse of

power for private gain”. Transparency International has chosen a clear and focused definition

of the term as “the abuse of entrusted power for private gain”. It can also be defined simply
16
as a perversion or change from the general accepted rules or laws for selfish gain. The

World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) define corruption as an abuse of public

office for private gain. Correspondingly, Akanbi sees corruption as the abuse of public or

entrusted power for personal gain or for the benefit of a group to which one owes allegiance.

Thus, the concept corruption is characterized by leadership corruption, fraud, embezzlement,

misappropriation, and diversion of public funds for personal aggrandizement. This also

consists in primitive acquisition of wealth through awful and illegal means at the expense of

public interest. 17 In Nigeria, media reports of suspected loots of the country’s wealth always

live one bewildered and bemused especially when one observes the scourging reality of

poverty in the land. This only proves that corruption is indeed an impediment to good

governance.

Furthermore, Taiye indicates that corruption in Nigeria is problematic on three main fronts.

First, corruption has destroyed the institutional capacity of the state by eroding public

confidence and promoting inefficiency. Secondly, it has caused severe distortion of the

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efficient allocation of resources towards meaningful development. Thirdly, it deepens

inequities and it is a crime against humanity because it encroaches into guaranteed

constitutional rights and turns the rule of law to a rule of individuals pursing their own self-

interest. 18 Specifically, corruption has become an impediment to good governance in Nigeria

due to the extent of perpetration. Waziri points out that:

The following behaviours indicate or are red flags for corruption in Nigeria:
embezzlement, conflict of Interests e.g the award of contracts by public office
holders to cronies and personally held companies, bribery, fraud, political
corruption e.g nepotism or favouritism, ethnicity, rigging of elections,
misappropriation and conversion of public funds for personal gains,
bureaucratic corruption, extortion, manipulation of procurement processes e.g
by over-inflation of contracts, leaking tender information to friends and
relations etc., corporate corruption e.g diversion and misappropriation of
funds through manipulation or falsification of financial records. 19
The above is a justification that there can neither be fair representation nor meaningful

development in the dare of corruption. Hence, corruption is indeed an impediment for good

governance in the country.

Religious basis for Gender Equality

In the mist of Nigeria’s corruption tittle-tattle lays a problem of gender inequality. At its core

is a chauvinistic attitude that women lack the buoyancy to represent or bring about

transformation, hence they are under-represented in the country’s positions of leadership as

well as in political participation. However, from religious (Christian - Biblical) perspective,

both men and women are co-partners in the human development process. For instance,

Genesis 1:26-28 says that “men and women are created in the image of God and given

dominion to rule over every creature made by him”. 20


Both were given authority, a divine

mandate and a sense of responsibility to subdue the earth.

The heart of this theological argument is perception that “humans are equal in God's sight,

although Adam was ‘Eve's’ source but she was created to be his partner. With some

qualifications, men and women equally bear the image of God. For the scripture tells us that

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“God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female

He created them”. 21

Advocating for gender equality is guided by an understanding that men and women must not

be divided by social inequity and injustice according to gender, but both should have equal

value and rights as beloved creatures of God made for His kingdom. The fact remains that,

everyone affirms and celebrate the biological, social and political diversity that both women

and men express in various cultures, and do not suggest that gender equality imply or should

designate an equivalence or sameness; it rather means equality in opportunities. Thus, women

should not be discriminated and deprived of their prospects to serve humanity based merely

on biological differences.

From this religious (Christian – Biblical) perspective therefore, this paper further argues that

gender equality is not only enshrined right from the word go, but is capable of social,

economic, political and religious transformation, and hence capable to enthrone good

governance in Nigeria.

Gender Equality as a Roadmap for Good Governance in Nigeria

First and foremost, gender based prejudice in leadership and political participation has been

(and to a large degree still is) massive in Nigeria. This paper proposes that drifting away from

this men-dominated politics to an increased women representation ushers in new dramatis

personae, which can provoke elite competition and control. With a renewed spirit of

patriotism and nationalism, this new turn will ignite the torch for social justice and augment a

form of checks and balance towards transformation and good governance.

In pursuance of women’s relevance in the governance of nations, UN General Assembly in

1979, adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against

Women (CEDAW), referred to as the “International Bill of Rights for Women.” By October

2004, 179 of the 191 UN member nations were party to CEDAW, and an additional nation

9
had bound itself to do “nothing in contravention of its terms” (UNDAW, 2004). The year

1995, witnessed the representatives of 171 governments at the UN 4th world conference on

women, held in Beijing, China, to reaffirmed CEDAW’s commitment to end

discrimination against women. 22

Research have shown that development in any society requires greater gender balance

in power sharing between male and female in the political process for it to be achieved. 23

The responsible and responsive governance that make for sustainable development places

political decisions and activities in the hands of the populace without gender discrimination.

He argues that what is required includes: the sincere participation of every one in society

irrespective of gender, and the social cooperation of everyone in making decisions with

regard to the values that concern the life of the people for the common good. 24

On the other hand, Maguire, Morgan and Reiner indicate that men are grossly

overrepresented when it comes to committing serious crimes. The standard figure according

to this research is that more than ninety percent of persons convicted of serious crimes are

men. 25 In line with the above observation, Bo Rothstein emphasizes that “following this

quite extreme difference in gendered behaviour, it should not come as a surprise that, if

women are given more positions of power in leadership and political system, corruption

would become less common, since all forms of corruption are illegal”. 26

Historically, research on the relationship between gender and corruption took off in early

2000s, after two World Bank connected research groups showed that countries with a high

percentage of women in decision-making positions generally had lower levels of corruption,

even when controlling for the level of democracy, economic development, and a number of

additional factors. 27 Since after these researches, there have been attempts to establish a

relationship between high levels of women in politics and less corruption resulting from their

presence and influence. Taiye confirms that:

10
These researches have documented systematic gender difference in behaviour.
They gave evidences that suggest that women may be more relationship-
oriented, may have higher standard of ethical behaviour and may be more
concerned with the common good than men are. These studies observed that
gender differences might be attributed to socialization, or to differences in
access to networks of corruption, or in knowledge of how to engage in corrupt
practices, or to other factors. Their analysis of country-level data indicated that
higher levels of women’s participation in public life are associated with
lower levels of corruption. 28
With these conclusions, gender balance (which encapsulates equal participation and equal

opportunities in politics and leadership) becomes imperative for good governance.

Furthermore, with the observation that corruption has become a major impediment against

good governance, this requires an all embracive and wholistic approach i.e all hands on deck

approach, women should be given equal opportunity to contribute their quota. After all, they

are observed to be ‘less vicious’ comparable to men. 29

A study by Grimes and Wangnerud has shown that sub-national regions with high level of

female politicians exhibit lower level of corruption. Moreover, regions with large shares of

female politicians saw the perceived levels of corruption reduced from 2001 to 2010,

indicating that female politicians not only contribute to containing corruption levels but may

also help break its stability. 30

In the Nigerian situation, in spite of the high corruption silhouette, there are instances of

women in position of governance who have acted as drivers of change. For example, Mrs.

Ngozi Okonjo – Iweale (former Nigerian Minister of Finance from July 2003 to June 2006);

during her term of office as the Minister, she facilitated the formation of the Economic

Reform Team and formed the platform for negotiating for debt reduction for Nigeria. Mrs.

Obiageli Ezekwesili (former Director of the Harvard–Nigeria Economic Strategy Programme,

two-times Minister of Solid Minerals and Minister of Education). She became foundation

member of Transparency, International and served on the board of the foremost global

coalition against corruption. 31

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Professor (Mrs.) Dora Akunyili became the Director General of National Agency for Food,

Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), in April 2001. Her character of workings at

NAFDAC has earned the country Local and International accolades. 32 Also, NAFDAC under

the leadership of Professor Akunyili was able to monitor salt iodization in Nigeria to the

extent that UNICEF was able to rate Nigeria as the first country in Africa to achieve universal

salt iodization. For the good job done as head of NAFDAC, Akunyili received two hundred

and fifty awards both from local and international institutions for her commitment to the

values of honesty and transparency in the eradication of fake and counterfeit drugs in

Nigeria. 33

The above are just few of the prominent examples of exemplary leadership quality exhibited

by women in Nigeria. This also implies that women are capable of good governance.

However, it does not mean that women are not or cannot be corrupt, the cases of women

involved in corruption scandal in the country just as elsewhere is relatively little comparable

to their male counterparts.

Furthermore, when talking about gender equality emphasis is on the percentage of women

who are ready to stick out their necks into governance and have the required

qualification to meet up with the challenges of the great task but are denied. This calls

for a meticulous re-assessment of the cultural, religious and political setting of our society to

categorize and separate factors against women’s participation in governance. There is need to

break the barriers of culture and religion in order to pave way for gender balance and for

good governance in the country.

Recommendations

Based on the discussion and findings of the study, the following are recommended;

i. Gender equality support groups should push hard on the government at all levels and

the general public on the need to support women for political participation.

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ii. There should be public awareness or on the need to eliminate negative cultural and

religious influences that see women as inferior beings rather than as partners in nation

building for development as charged in the book of Genesis.

iii. There should be sustained efforts in Civic education from the grass root level to

inspire the youths on the need to contribute to the nation’s development through hard-

work instead of corrupt practices and by discriminating against women’s participation

in governance.

iv. Political parties too should persuade gender equality by advocating for women

participation in politics and governance.

Conclusion

The paper examines a religious (Christian Biblical) perspective of gender equality as an

antidote to corruption and good governance in Nigeria. It has argued that, there is no basis for

gender imbalance in the first place, hence both man and woman were originally charged with

the mandate to subdue the earth and develop it (the book of Genesis). If man and woman

were given the same charge and created by the same God, the paper argues, there is no need

why the female folk should be relegated to the background, discriminated and denied full and

equal opportunity with the male counterpart to develop the earth. The paper also identified

factors that hider women’s participation in leadership to include: cultural and religious

practices. The paper further observed that for as long as the problem of gender inequality

remain unsettled, the nation’s war against corruption currently under President Muhammadu

Buhari and others may neither have a meaningful victory nor can it be easy going. The

implication here is that the non- vigorous participation of women in governance and political

process is first of all, a negation of true democratic system and values and secondly, an

impediment for national development. This is particularly true since development in any

democratic civilization is not gender bias.

13
Endnotes

1. Robert Klitgaard. “Addressing Corruption Together”. (Paris: OECD- The


Development Assistance Committee, 2015), 46.
2. Agbalajobi, D. Taiye. “Gender and Corruption: Insights from Nigeria Democracy
1999 – 2008”. An International Multi-Disciplinary Journal, Ethiopia Vol. 3 (4),
(July, 2009), p.12.
3. Innocent Chukwuma. “Preface” in Corruption and Governance in Nigeria. CLEEN
Conference Proceedings. (Abuja: CLEEN Foundation, 2010), p.vii.
4. Donna Haraway (2002) (79)
5. (http://www.genderequality.ie/en).
6. Anselm Odinkalu. “Corruption and Governance in Africa: How do we break the
cycle in Nigeria?” in Corruption and Governance in Nigeria. CLEEN Conference
Proceedings. (Abuja: CLEEN Foundation, 2010), p.10.
7. Anselm Odinkalu. “Corruption and Governance in Africa: How do we break the
cycle in Nigeria?” p.14.
8. Asoo, I. Ferdinand. “Literature and Good Governance: A Reading of Sembene
Ousmane’s the Last of the Empire”. In Faculty of Arts Journal, Benue State
University.Vol. 5. (June 2008), p.173.
9. Anselm Odinkalu “Corruption and Governance in Africa: How do we break the cycle
in Nigeria?” p.15.
10. Katzarova Elitza. “The National Origin of the International Anti-Corruption
Business”. (Montreal: International Studies Association Annual Convention, 2011),
p.34.
11. Bo Rothstein. Bo Rothstein. “Corruption, Gender Equality and Feminist Strategies
Corruption, Gender Equality and Feminist Strategies” Working Paper Series,
Department of Political Science University of Gothenburg. Online
http://www.nytimes.com (2016), p.5
12. Igwe Liga. E. “Democracy and Development In Nigeria: Issues and Challenges”
International Journal of Economic Development Research and Investment, Vol. 1
Nos. 2 & 3. (2010), p.1.
13. Anselm Odinkalu “Corruption and Governance in Africa: How do we break the cycle
in Nigeria?” p.1.
14. Taiye (2009) (2)
15. Igwe, Liga E. “Democracy and Development In Nigeria: Issues and Challenges”
International Journal of Economic Development Research and Investment, Vol. 1
Nos. 2 & 3. (2010), p.10.
16. Farida Waziri. “Chairman’s Opening Remarks” in Corruption and Governance in
Nigeria. CLEEN Conference Proceedings (Abuja: CLEEN Foundation 2010), p.1.
17. Akanbi M. M. A. “Corruption and the Challenges of Good Governance in Nigeria”.
(Distinguished Guest Lecture Series No 6 Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Lagos, Nigeria, 2001).
18. Taiye (2009) (2)
19. Farida Waziri “Chairman’s Opening Remarks” in Corruption and Governance in
Nigeria. p.2.
20. The Holy Bible
21. Gen 1:27
22. Rubin and Bartle, 2005.

14
23. Daniel Eseme Gberevbie, and Faith Osasumwen Oviasogie “ Women in
Governance and Sustainable Democracy in Nigeria, 1999-2012”, Economics and
Sociology, Vol. 6, No 1, 2013), p.92.
24. Onyeghalaji (2008), 93
25. Maguire, Mike, Ron Morgan, and Robert Reiner (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of
Criminology. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
26. Rothstein, Bo, and Ayshia Varraich. Making Sense of Corruption. (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2016), p.11.
27. Bo Rothstein, Making Sense of Corruption, p.10.
28. Taiye Agbalajobi, D. “Gender and Corruption: Insights from Nigeria Democracy
1999 – 2008”. An International Multi-Disciplinary Journal, Ethiopia Vol. 3 (4),
(July, 2009). p.3.
29. Maguire, Mike, Ron Morgan, and Robert Reiner (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of
Criminology, p.12.
30. Wangnerud, Lena. “Why Women Are Less Corrupt than Men” in Good
Government: The Relevance of Political Science, edited by Soren Holmberg
and Bo Rothstein. (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2012), p.
31. Agbalajobi, D. Taiye. “Gender and Corruption: Insights from Nigeria Democracy
1999 – 2008”. (July, 2009. p.6).
32. Agbalajobi, D. Taiye. “Gender and Corruption: Insights from Nigeria Democracy
1999 – 2008”. p.12).
33. Nnabuife, E.K.N. (2010), Defining and Enforcing Ethical Leadership in Nigeria,
African Journal of Economic and Management Studies, Vol. 1, no.1, 2010. (p.25-41).

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SembeneOusmane’s the Last of the Empire”. In Faculty of Arts Journal, Benue State
University.Vol. 5.
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Gender Equality and Feminist Strategies” Working Paper Series, Department of
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15
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and Bo Rothstein. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

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