Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Abstract: What it is that Gestalt therapists do in the clinic that is different from other
therapists? What is it, in other words, that makes Gestalt therapy Gestalt, and distinguishes
it from other psychotherapeutic modalities? This article describes the process of finding an
expert consensus about these questions as part of the process of developing a ‘fidelity scale’
for Gestalt therapy. Using a Delphi study, eight key concepts that characterise Gestalt therapy
were identified, together with the therapist behaviours that reflect those concepts.
Key words: Gestalt, fidelity scale, Delphi study, developing awareness, working relationally,
working in the here and now, phenomenological practice, working with embodiment, field
sensitive practice, contacting processes, experimental attitude.
When I (Madeleine) attended the AAGT conference in securing the GT ‘brand’ in the wider therapeutic com-
Asilomar, California in September 2014, one of my munity:
main goals was to persuade some of the participants
there to be involved in a study that would try to find an I am thinking of students and trainees who have few
answer to the following questions: What it is that stable guidelines after the elementary stage and other
Gestalt therapists do in the clinic that is different experienced professionals who want to grasp quickly
from other therapists? What is it, in other words, that what Gestalt offers. If we want to take care of our
collective contact boundary with ‘interested but not
makes Gestalt therapy Gestalt, and distinguishes it from
Gestalt educated others’, then surely we have to find
other psychotherapeutic modalities? Perhaps most more consensual rubrics for describing the approach, so
dauntingly, my aim was to try to answer these questions we do not put off or confuse this group but rather attract
through a process that depended on there being a and intrigue them. One need here is to return to practice
consensus among experts in Gestalt therapy (GT). more, to what we do, and to spelling out our under-
At first, when I spoke to people at Asilomar, there was standing. (2007, p. 54)
resistance to the very notion that it was possible to
define GT in this way. Later, came warnings about the Parlett’s concern, in other words, was that the wide-
impossibility of there ever being a consensus in a ranging divergence of opinion about method and
tradition that is so rich in disagreement and differentia- theory within the Gestalt community was a threat to
tion as GT. But more fundamentally, there were the the future of GT. Unless the Gestalt community could
underlying questions: Why would you want to do this? agree about what GT was, then it would be difficult to
What would be the point of it? continue to attract students to the ‘brand’, or to explain
As I was preparing to write this article, a client what GT is to others.
returned to me a back issue of the British Gestalt Journal Around the same time that Parlett was calling for
that I had lent her several months before. Opening it up, greater consensus about the practice of GT, other
I found myself reading a note that Malcolm Parlett researchers in the GT world recognised the need to
wrote in 2007. The note provided some of the answers develop an evidence base to establish that GT is an
to this last question. Commenting on the diversity effective form of psychotherapy (Brownell, 2014;
within the GT community, Parlett suggested that if Burley, 2014; Barber, 2009). But before we can tell
you were to investigate or dissect any Gestalt term, whether or not GT works, we first need to have a
principle, idea or method a great deal of theoretical measure for determining whether or not the therapy
difference and confusion would be revealed. that a particular therapist is delivering can properly be
Parlett was concerned that this enormous disparity described as ‘Gestalt therapy’ (Perepletchikova, 2011;
between Gestalt thinkers threatened the possibility of Waltz et al., 1993). And in order to have such a measure,
What do Gestalt therapists do in the clinic? 33
we must be able to describe what Gestalt therapists do in ments and modifications in every phase of the Delphi
the clinic that can be distinguished from non-Gestalt process. Once ratings are received and collated, a sum-
forms of treatment. mary is fed back to the panel members, who then
This then, as I explained to those I met at Asilomar, complete a second round of rating and feedback
was what I was going to try to do. The aim was to (Hart et al., 2009). The Delphi method has been
develop a measure – a ‘fidelity scale’ – that an independ- widely used in Information Technology and in the
ent rater could use to determine how faithful therapy field of education to determine prototypical practices
being delivered by a therapist is to the methods that for new technologies and practices (Carley et al., 2006;
characterise GT. The rationale and methodology for the Clayton, 1997). More recently it has been adopted by
development of such a scale were extensively discussed the health sector in establishing benchmark practices
by Fogarty, Bhar and Theiler (2015). At the very least, for identifying and treating various disorders (de Vil-
development of the scale required the identification of liers et al., 2005; Falzon et al., 2014; Hart et al., 2009).
the key principles and concepts of GT; and the ‘oper- In contrast to other data gathering and analysis
ationalisation’ of those principles and concepts in the techniques, the Delphi invites participants to engage
form of observable therapist behaviours that reflect in a process of multiple iterations, in which feedback
them. and analysis from the first questionnaire is integrated
Usually, fidelity scales are based on pre-existing into subsequent questionnaires until a consensus of
treatment manuals (Perepletchikova, 2011; Waltz et 80% agreement is reached on each item. Consequently,
al., 1993). However, GT has never had a manual, and in the Delphi process participants may have the oppor-
many experts argue that it would be impossible to create tunity to augment or modify their initial position in
one (Mann, 2010; McConville, 2014; Wollants, 2008; relation to the analysis and feedback provided by other
Yontef and Jacobs, 2013). In the absence of a manual, an panel members and communicated by the researcher
alternative way to develop a scale is to use the Delphi who facilitates the Delphi process.
method. In the Delphi method, statements (such as a The flexibility of the Delphi method and the fact that
description of a therapist behaviour) are submitted to a it provided an opportunity for a wide range of views to
panel of experts, and treated as valid if endorsed by a be expressed and collated seemed the most appropriate
consensus of 80% or more. method to develop a consensus about GT and how it
When reading GT’s rich, vast and diverse body of might be operationalised in clinical practice.
literature, it is sometimes difficult to imagine that there
could be a consensus about anything within GT, and Participants in the Delphi study
certainly difficult to imagine that experts in GT could
agree about the clinical behaviours that characterise The process of gathering participants for the study
Gestalt therapists and that distinguish them from began at the AAGT conference in Asilomar, California
therapists trained in other modalities. Despite these in 2014. At that meeting, over fifty members of the
difficulties, in the absence of a manual, the Delphi AAGT were presented with the proposal for the Delphi
method seemed to offer a viable and parsimonious and invited to participate, or otherwise to suggest
path to the development of a fidelity scale for GT. participants who may be able to contribute to the
Whether the Delphi method would work depended study. Despite initial resistance to the notion of a
on whether there was enough consensus in the GT fidelity scale, and many cautions about the difficulties
community about what it is to be a Gestalt therapist. of creating such a consensus in the GT tradition that is
Whether, in other words, a panel of GT experts would so rich in disagreement and differentiation, participants
agree with Dave Mann that although ‘no two Gestalt began to warm to the idea, and to understand the
therapists will be the same . . . both will be recognisable importance of such a scale in the face of the demands
as Gestalt therapists’ (2010, preface, p. xi). for evidence-based practice (EBP) in institutional train-
ing and the wider health systems (Burley, 2014; Brow-
The Delphi method nell, 2008, 2014; Frew, 2013; Gold and Zahm, 2008;
O’Leary, 2013).
The Delphi method is an established method for con- The opportunity to meet face to face with so many
sensus building that poses a series of questionnaires to GT practitioners at the beginning of the process was
collect data from a panel of experts about real-world foundational for this study, as it provided a basis for the
practices (Linstone and Turoff, 1975). The Delphi lived experience of GT and grounded the cyberspace
method involves a group of experts making private, technology of the project in that experience. Experts for
independent ratings of agreement on a series of state- the Delphi had to have either been a GT trainer; edited a
ments. Experts are also invited to comment on the GT journal; published books or refereed-journal articles
statements and there are opportunities to offer amend- on GT; or been a director of a GT centre. The Asilomar
34 Madeleine Fogarty, Sunil Bhar, Stephen Theiler and Leanne O’Shea
Melnick, Ken Meyer, Erving Polster, Bob Resnick, Alan What follows is a description of each concept,
Schwartz, Ansel Woldt, Steve Zahm. redrafted in light of the feedback given by the partici-
Oceania: Australia – Susanna Goodrich, Noel Haarbur- pants in the first round of the Delphi, together with
ger, Tony Jackson, Judy Leung, Alan Meara, Brian some discussion of that feedback. I have also included
O’Neill, Phoebe Riches, Richie Robertson, Claire Tau- the twenty-five therapist behaviours that were sub-
bert, Greer White; New Zealand – Anne McLean. mitted to the second-round panel.
These participants responded with such clarity and
willingness that the iterative process of the Delphi was
Developing awareness
surprisingly short. In the first round of the Delphi,
participants were presented with descriptions of eight Description of the concept
key concepts and thirty-five associated therapist beha-
The aim of GT is to develop awareness and promote
viours. In light of the feedback received, several thera-
awareness of awareness. This does not mean simply
pist behaviours were eliminated, and many more were
developing insight or introspection, but exploring
redrafted. The twenty-five remaining and redrafted
experience as physical and emotional beings making
therapist behaviours were used to create a mock-up of
sense of our world and our relationship to others and
a draft GTFS.
the environment. The therapist supports awareness for
The first mock-up was taken to a seminar with Bob
the client and his life world and the process by which
and Rita Resnick at the Relational Centre in Sydney in
awareness is developed. In this way awareness can be
early November 2015. Live work and videos were
seen to increase self-regulation. Awareness includes
compared with items in the mock-up of the draft
sensory and bodily experience as well as cognitive and
GTFS. The work presented by the Resnicks aligned
emotional awareness. GT identifies three zones of
with the mock-up, but further analysis was required.
awareness: inner (feeling states), outer (contact func-
Videos of live work by Gordon Wheeler (APA Series 1 –
tions: behaviour, speech and actions), and middle
Systems of Psychotherapy), Erv Polster (work with the
(thoughts, judgments, ideas). Each of these zones of
unmotivated client), Fritz and Laura Perls, recent work
awareness and their relationship to each other and the
by Serge Ginger, Gonzague Masquelier, and work
wider field is developed through the major concepts
available on YouTube were analysed. Videos of live
that will be explicated below:
work with Lynne Jacobs and Gary Yontef were obtained
by consent from supervisees and colleagues to extend 1. Working relationally
further the analysis of the draft GTFS. Finally, the 2. Working in the here and now
process of analysing the mock-up of the draft GTFS 3. Phenomenological practice
against videos of live work from other therapeutic 4. Working with embodiment
modalities led to further refinement of the scale. 5. Field sensitive practice
From the outset of this project it was recognised that 6. Working with contacting processes
dividing GT into differing concepts was challenging 7. Experimental attitude
because of the fact that GT is a holistic approach that
cannot easily be delineated into a list of techniques or Given that the aim of developing awareness is central to
skills. Similarly, dividing therapist behaviours into dis- all GT concepts, no specific therapist behaviours were
crete items fails to take account of the fact that in every identified for this concept.
clinical moment several therapist behaviours may be
operating at once. Conversely, no single session of GT Feedback
will necessarily require each of the therapist behaviours There were three comments about this concept that
that define GT. Nonetheless, the mock-up of the draft were not fully integrated into the descriptions repro-
GTFS sought to identify the core therapist behaviours duced in this article (as they were not representative of
that characterise most sessions of clinical GT. most views) but remain important to mention. The first
In the second round of the Delphi, the panel (includ- comment related to a perennial theme within GT
ing several experts who had not participated in the first theory: whether the central concept is contact or aware-
round) were presented with this refined list of twenty- ness. The second comment related to the ‘zones of
five therapist behaviours, and asked whether in their awareness’ that some felt were outmoded in contem-
view each of these behaviours reflected one of the eight porary GT. The third comment related to the objection
key GT concepts. While I have not yet completed my that awareness can be perceived as awareness for its own
analysis of the results of the second round of the Delphi, sake (e.g. egotism, self-commenting) rather than devel-
at the time of writing it appears that there will be oping awareness towards a therapy of action spontane-
enough consensus about the therapist behaviours for ity and growth (which are clearly the objectives of GT).
there to be a viable GTFS. Fortunately, the comments really only applied to the
36 Madeleine Fogarty, Sunil Bhar, Stephen Theiler and Leanne O’Shea
descriptions of the key concepts, rather than the asso- maintaining attention for another co-existent (but
ciated therapist behaviours. possibly un-named) aspect of his situation. These
ruptures are evident in the withdrawal of the client
Working relationally from the process. It is important for the therapist to
attend to ruptures in the therapeutic relationship
Description of the concept through offering support and investigating the contri-
Relational perspectives have become central to con- bution that the therapist might make in co-creating a
temporary GT practice. A relational approach is shame experience in therapy.
grounded in a contextualist framework in which Participants in the second round of the Delphi were
human experience is shaped by context. Hence the asked whether the following therapist behaviours reflect
concept of working relationally is not only focused on this concept:
the therapeutic alliance, but underscores the meaning-
making paradigm for GT. A contextualist framework is . The therapist follows the client attentively, tracking
paradigmatic in working with the nuances of emotional the awareness process and the client’s experience, not
process, therapist–client interaction, and enduring rela- following a predetermined agenda.
tional themes. . The therapist responds non-judgmentally to the
The therapeutic alliance draws on the concepts of client, creating the conditions that allow for the
‘inclusion’, ‘confirmation’ and ‘presence’. ‘Inclusion’ most effective client expression.
requires the therapist to do more than empathically . The therapist demonstrates a willingness to be uncer-
listen and attune to her clients. The therapist leans into tain and to work with creative indifference.
the client’s experience such that she connects with the . The therapist draws on her relationship with the
client’s existence as if it were a sensation within her own client as the ground for challenge and growth.
body. This is not a merging with the client, but a . The therapist seeks to identify and repair any rup-
sensitivity that enables a visceral encounter between tures in the relationship.
therapist and client. Inclusion integrates the therapist’s
awareness of her responses to the client with a deeply Feedback
attuned appreciation of the ‘otherness’ of the client’s Several themes emerged in the feedback on this concept.
experience. Firstly, a relational stance is central to most humanistic
‘Confirmation’ involves a profound acceptance of the approaches. However, what is specific in GT is the way
immediate existence and potential of the client. The the therapist recognises that she is a part of the client’s
therapist does not control the therapeutic encounter. field and can be often – as the Other of the situation –
There is no therapist goal or agenda (except that of his figure of interest. Thus, in GT we often work with/
increasing the client’s awareness). This does not mean on the clinical relationship. Secondly, many partici-
that the therapist mirrors or agrees with everything that pants wanted the term ‘dialogic inclusion’ to be used
the client brings to the session. The therapist is com- instead of ‘working relationally’. But as the question of
mitted to the dialogue and this includes genuine Buber’s centrality to GT remains debated, it was
moments of dissonance, which are made transparent. decided to retain the term relational, whilst leaning
The therapist is part of the relational field. This entails into Buber’s notions of presence, confirmation and
commitment to change, not only for the client, but also inclusion. Thirdly, there was some opposition to a
for the therapist. ‘Rogerian’ flavour in the original description and the
The balance between this gently focused inclusion GT stance of differentiation and challenge, and this led
and commitment to the co-created space of the therapy to some revisions in the description of the concept, as
session requires ‘presence’. ‘Presence’ is evident in a reproduced above. Finally, there was much discussion
grounded and assured quality in the therapist. Equally, about the proposition that the therapist does not set an
‘presence’ entails a willingness to be uncertain, to work agenda. While most agreed with this as a basis for GT,
with ‘creative indifference’ and to offer support to the there was deliberation about the role of the therapist in
client’s expressive capacity. This lends an intrinsic co-creating the therapeutic space. Most agreed that
ethical quality to the clinical encounter in which some kind of interpretation from the therapist is
shared meaning-making between the client and thera- always informing the contact with the client, but
pist is developed through an open exchange about how some were wary of a top-down approach. In the
the therapist and client are affected by each other. therapist behaviours submitted to the second round
Shame and other disruption affective states can also of the Delphi study, a balance was struck between this
be triggered within the therapeutic relationship for a inevitable tension and recognition that the importance
range of reasons including when the therapist is attend- of field sensitivity would inflect the specific situation in
ing to one aspect of the client’s situation, without each unique therapeutic encounter.
What do Gestalt therapists do in the clinic? 37
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Falzon, C., Sabiston, C., Bergamaschi, A., Corrion, K., Chalabaev, Perepletchikova, F. (2011). On the topic of treatment integrity.
A. and D’Arripe-Longueville, F. (2014). Development and Vali- Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 18, pp. 148–153.
dation of the Cancer Exercise Stereotypes Scale. Journal of Perls, F., Hefferline, R. and Goodman, P. (1951). Gestalt therapy:
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Frew, J. (2103). Gestalt Therapy Training and Research: Holding of adherence and competence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
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Madeleine Fogarty, MA, Dip Ed, Adv Dip Gestalt Therapy, Grad Dip Psych (Hons), lives (with her
large and beautiful family) in Melbourne, Australia where she has been working as a psychotherapist
and supervisor in private practice for the last seventeen years. Madeleine is currently undertaking her
PhD in Psychology at Swinburne University of Technology on the development of a fidelity scale for
Gestalt. Madeleine is a clinical member of GANZ, PACFA and a scientific board member for research
at the EAGT.
Address for correspondence: mfogarty@swin.edu.au or madeleine@madeleinefogarty.com
Sunil Bhar, PhD, is an Associate Professor at Swinburne University of Technology, and a supervisor of
this project. Sunil is Chair of the Department of Psychological Sciences, and convenes the Clinical
Psychology Programs at the university. Sunil has maintained a clinical practice for the last twenty
years, and has integrated his clinical experience into his teaching and research.
Address for correspondence: SBHAR@swin.edu.au
Leanne O’Shea, MSc, DPsych is a Faculty member of Gestalt Therapy Australia, and a supervisor of
this project. She maintains a private practice in Melbourne and teaches Gestalt therapy both locally
and internationally.
Address for correspondence: leanne.oshea@gmail.com
What do Gestalt therapists do in the clinic? The Expert Consensus
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