CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 HISTORY OF DISTANCE LEARNING

Not everyone lives close to an institution of higher education, and people aren't always able or
willing to move in order to pursue their educational goals. Since the internet as we know it is a
relatively recent phenomena, it's easy to assume the history of distance learning has been a short
one. Simply accessing course content online. However, is only one of the latest developments in
a history that has been around since the 1700 s .

In the early days of distance learning, letter writing was the most widely accessible technology.
In 1728, the first well - documented example of a correspondence course ran as an advert where
a man named Caleb Philips offered to teach shorthand to students anywhere in the country by
exchanging letters.

Almost 150 years later, in 1873, the first correspondence schools in the United States were
founded, called The Society to Encourage Studies at Home. Shortly thereafter, in 1892, the
University of Chicago began offering correspondence courses, becoming the first traditional
educational institution in the United States to do so.

By 1906, primary schools such as The Calvert School in Baltimore began following suit.
Throughout the first half of the twentieth century numerous new technologies were coming to the
fore. This led to considerable innovations in distance learning. During this time period, distance
education was offered in a wide variety of formats for a wide variety of educational purposes.

By 1922, the technology of radio broadcasting had become a viable means of transmitting
information. Pennsylvania State College took advantage of this by broadcasting courses over the
radio. Soon after, in 1925, the State University of Iowa began offering course credit for five radio
broadcast courses.

By 1953, broadcast television was becoming more prevalent, and the University of Houston
responded by offering televised college classes for credit.

Although the telephone was a long - established technology, the University of Wisconsin began a
statewide educational program for physicians using a phone - based format in 1965.
By 1968 one could obtain an accredited high school diploma via distance learning from the
University of Nebraska- Lincoln's Independent Study High School.

As early as 1976, the first "virtual college" with no physical campus was in operation . This
virtual college, called Coastline Community College, offered a wide variety of tele-courses.

The fact that Coastline Community College offered a complete educational experience remotely
represented a huge evolution in the field of distance learning. However, one emergent technology
would soon come around as the main channel through which distance courses would be offered,
that being the internet. Though the groundwork of the internet was already established in 1969, it
wasn't until the 1980 s that the technology began to revolutionize distance education.

In 1981 the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute's School of Management and Strategic Studies
started an online program.

Not all computer - based learning centers were taking advantage of internet technology. In 1982,
the Computer Assisted Learning Center in New Hampshire functioned as an offline adult
education facility. By 1985, Nova Southeastern University was offering accredited graduate
degrees through online courses.

Throughout the 1990s, educational institutions used a variety of both real-time and asynchronous
online technologies, leading to rapid growth in distance learning universities. Many different
pilot programs were developed, and independent companies also worked to develop ready -
made templates for online delivery of course content.

The 2000s led to an explosion in the development and use of online technologies to deliver
educational content. Access to the Internet continues to become more widely available and new
platforms are still being developed. As a result, the number of distance learning universities is
expected to grow, is are the number of traditional universities making use of online technology.

By 2003, Web Course Tools (WebCT), another content management system, had more than 6
million student users at more than 1300 institutions in 55 countries.

In 2012, the for-profit institution Udacity began offering massive open online courses (MOOCs).
MIT and Harvard followed with MOOC platform edX. The University of Wisconsin's Flexible
Option began offering competency-based bachelor's degrees .
In 2013, the first online- only public university in the United States, UF Online, was announced
for launch in 2014

2.1 Electronic Learning

When it comes to education, the model has been pretty straight forward, up until the early ‘00s
education was in a classroom of students with a teacher who led the process. Physical presence
was a no-brainer, and any other type of learning was questionable at best. Then the computer
evolution happened and it radically changed the learning landscape.

In essence, e-learning is a computer based educational tool or system that enables you to learn
anywhere and at any time. Today e-learning is mostly delivered though the internet, although in
the past it was delivered using a blend of computer-based methods like CD-ROM. Technology
has advanced so much that the geographical gap is bridged with the use of tools that make
students feel as if they are inside the classroom. E-learning offers the ability to share material in
all kinds of formats such as videos, slideshows, word documents and PDFs, the content is
developed according to a set of learning objectives and is delivered using different media
elements, such as text, graphics, audio and video. It must provide as much learning support as
possible (through explanations, examples, interactivity, feedback, glossaries, etc.), in order to
make learners self-sufficient. However, some kind of support, such as e-mail-based technical
support or e-tutoring, is normally offered to learners, communicating with professors via chat
and message forums is also an option available in this project work.

There are two general approaches to e-learning: self-paced and facilitated/instructor-led, Self-
paced learners are alone and completely independent, while facilitated and instructor-led e-
learning courses provide different levels of support from tutors and instructors and collaboration
among learners.

2.2 CONCEPT OF DISTANCE LEARNING

The United States Distance Learning Association defined distance learning system concept as a
means to “Obtain knowledge and skills through given information and instructions, by applying
different technologies and other forms of distance learning." Distance Learning System (DLS)
represents the process of training, learning or online educational programme, mostly through the
Internet. It is based on the use of modern computer and communication technology. It also
implies classes and exercises via the Internet, CD or DVD menu, consultation with teachers
through the Internet, e-mail flow between students, forums, Internet testing, video conferences
etc.

Distance learning also represents the challenge and tool for improving and promoting
educational process and it is also one of fundaments for new and better knowledge governing
forms. The intensive introduction of information technologies into the educational processes has
become a priority of modern institutions of high education throughout the world.

 Learning through the Internet: Learning through internet can be explained as a form of
education in which the teaching material is presented to the students via the Internet. In
that process, the basic demand to the students of the educational process is to possess a
computer or mobile device which is connected to the Internet. When talking about the
programme support used during the education through the Internet, the mostly used tools
are so called Courseware tools, which enable storing of the educational contents on the
Web Server and their mutual connecting, the communication between students of the
educational process, governing the learning process and checking knowledge through
different self-evaluating tests.

 Web based training: This is used by publishing the learning content on a website of the
educational institution. The benefits of this method of the distribution of the learning
materials are: quick distribution - students can access to the offered material through the
world wide web (www), it is possible to include hypermedia materials, the service can be
used by individuals or groups at the same time, the possibility of linking, multimedia
contents, the simplicity of reproducing and publication of contents, the possibility of
administrating the access, content interactivity etc.

On-line forums enables the use of public debates, questions and answers are being sent, it is
possible to open a new discussion group within the certain thematic area. This form of
communication helps so that bit data banks do not take much space on our disks, it enables
correspondence learning, by using file transfer, course material transfer.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is the synchronous communication based on textual messages through
the Internet or Intranet in real time, and it enables connection between students with mostly equal
knowledge, equality of students, the objectivity of evaluation and the possibility to recoup the
missed content.
2.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTANCE LEARNING
The similarity in the definitions of distance learning above allowed Keegan (1996) to summarize
the main features of distance learning as follows:

a) The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length of the learning
process.

b) The influence of educational organization, both in the planning and preparation of learning
materials, and in the provision of student support services.

c) The use of technical media, namely: print, audio, video and computer to unite teacher and
learner, and thus help carry the content of the course.

d) The provision of two-way communication so that students can benefit from dialogue, and in
some cases, initiate it.

e) The quasi-permanent absence of a learning group throughout the length of the learning process
so that students are usually taught as individuals, rather than in groups; however, there exists the
possibility of occasional meetings, either on a face-to-face basis or by electronic means, for both
didactic and socialization purposes.

The above characteristics provide a comprehensive picture of the circumstances that distance
students face, and the need for educational institutions to organize and structure good teaching
and learning practices for them. For example, the emphasis on the use of interactive media is
critical for dialogic purposes. In addition, the art of designing courses to suit the requirements of
distance students, and to ensure the adequate availability of support services are among the key
roles of distance educators, and are central to the enhancement of effective learning strategies.

However, the last characteristic detailed in the summary indicates that group learning is not
common practice in distance education. This is contrary to the recommended practice which
emphasizes that a number of different forms of interactions (such as one-to-one, one-to-many
and many-to-many) are preferable (Bates, 2005; Borokhovski et al, 2012; Moore and Kearsley,
2012). Students must have the opportunity to communicate with their tutors, peers and
administrative staff synchronously and asynchronously, regardless of their locations (Bates,
2005; Owens et al 2009; Nihuka, 2011; Sharma, 2011; Moore and Kearsley, 2012).
In this project, the study regards distance learning as a mediated form of teaching and learning
which separates tutors, students and peers in space, while its success depends on sound
institutional support services and successful course material development. It should also be
understood that although distance students have a distinctive independent status, and are able to
benefit from the learning opportunities described above, they also have to accept the rules,
regulations and limitations that this form of education involves.

2.2.2 METHODS USED IN DISTANCE LEARNING

The available methods of learning used in distance learning are divided into two basic groups:
synchronous and asynchronous learning.

1. Synchronous Learning: The term synchronous learning is a mode of delivery where all
participants are present at the same time. It resembles traditional classroom teaching
methods despite the participants being located remotely. It requires a timetable to be
organized.
2. Asynchronous Learning: The asynchronous learning mode of delivery is where
participants access course materials on their own schedule and so is more flexible.
Students are not required to be together at the same time. The two methods can be
combined in order to deliver one course.

2.2.3 VARIOUS TECHNOLOGIES USED IN DISTANCE LEARNING

The various technologies used in distance learning can be roughly divided into four categories:
a) Print: Print materials may serve as the primary source of instruction, or they may be
supplemental. As a primary source, distance students might use a textbook and read
various units on a specific timetable. Other technologies, such as e-mail, could then be
used to ask questions and send assignments back to the teacher. As a supplement to
instruction, text materials may take the form of worksheets, PDFs or study guides that are
used in conjunction with video or voice technologies. It is important to note that the
supplemental print materials may be disseminated via regular mail or over the Internet.
 There are many advantages and disadvantages to incorporating print materials. Some
advantages of print materials are:

a. Extremely portable (can be used in any location).

b. High comfort level (most students are very comfortable using print materials to
learn), cost effective (can be created and duplicated with little expense).

c. Readily available (many distance learning courses can take advantage of exiting
textbooks, thus saving the time and expense of creating new materials).

A disadvantage of print materials is the lack of interaction (print materials do not generally
provide built-in interaction).

b) Audio (voice) technology: Audio or voice technologies offer cost-effective ways to

enhance distance learning courses. The audio component of a distance learning course
can be as simple as a telephone with voicemail, or it can be as complex as an audio-
conference with microphones, telephone bridges and speakers, it can also be recorded
audio message sent to forums or discussion group. Audio files and CDs are inexpensive,
easily duplicated and very versatile. They can be used to deliver lectures, panel
discussions, or instructions for the distant learners. They are especially useful in courses
that require difference in inflection, such as foreign languages, or those that are designed
for non-readers. Telephone conversations can be used to monitor individual students or to
reach numerous students simultaneously via a conference call (audio-conference).

c) Computer technology: With the increased popularity of the Internet, computer

technologies are receiving more and more attention as a mean of delivering distance
learning. The primary computer technologies used for distance learning include e-mail,
online collaborations, and Web-based learning. For a long time electronic mail has
remained the only Internet application in education. Electronic mail is still the most
frequently used computer technology in distance learning. Sending e-mail messages is a
common and inexpensive way for students to communicate with instructors. In some
cases, an entire distance learning course may be structured using e-mail as the only
method of communication. In other cases, e-mail may be used to supplement audio or
video technologies. The advantages of e-mail communications include versatility and
 convenience, but it requires an Internet connection and includes the complexity of
learning to use e-mail software and attachments The advantages of computer technologies
are: they allow self-paced instruction, can incorporate text, graphics, audio and video,
they allow high level of interactivity, provide written record of discussions and
instruction, they are inexpensive and worldwide accessible. They also have disadvantages
such as requirement of hardware and software, generally rely on written communications,
they require substantial planning, can have computer viruses and its performance are
notoriously unreliable.

d) Video Technology: Video techniques used in distance learning are often characterized by
the transmission media (videotapes, satellites, television cables, computers and
microwave).

 Videotapes and DVDs offer popular, easy-to-use formats for instructional

materials and the hardware is easily accessible. In addition to easy hardware
access the tapes and discs are quite inexpensive. Video technology can also be in a
one-way video/two-way audio where television pictures that are transmitted to
particular sites, where people can reply to the videos though the use of a mail
system or ask questions in the forums.

 Satellite transmission is one of the oldest, most established techniques for video-
conferencing. Two sets of equipment are needed for satellite systems. The uplink
(a large satellite dish) transmits the video and audio signals to the satellite. The
downlink (a small dish antenna) receives and displays the signals. When satellite
videoconferences are used for distance learning, a studio classroom must be
properly wired for the lightning, microphones and cameras needed to produce an
acceptable lesson. Satellite videoconferencing may be very expensive.

 Microwave transmissions provide a cost-effective method for video-conferencing

in more localized areas. Mostly they transmit video signals to areas not more than
20 miles apart. Cable and public broadcast have been used to distribute instruction
for years. Almost all public cable television systems allow schools to transmit
 television courses. This type of connection can be used to transmit one-way video
and one-way audio to the community at large or between specific schools.

 Desktop videoconferencing uses a computer along with the camera and

microphone at one site to transmit video and audio to a computer at another site or
sites. It results in a two-way video and a two-way audio communication. Internet
videoconferencing requires a video camera and digitizing card / camera to
transmit video signals as well as a microphone and speakers / handset. It results in
a small image with a few frames per seconds, depending on the speed of the
Internet connection.

2.3 MERITS AND DE-MERITS OF DISTANCE LEARNING

Distance learning offers a series of advantages which can be evaluated by technical, social and
economic criteria. Also, distance learning methods have their own pedagogical merit, leading to
different ways of conceiving knowledge generation and acquisition.

 Distance learning increases access to learning and training opportunity, provides

increased opportunities for updating, retraining and personal enrichment, improves cost
effectiveness of educational resources, supports the quality and variety of existing
educational structures, enhances and consolidates capacity.

 Distance learning is also very convenience because many of the technologies are easily
accessible from home. Many forms of distance learning provide students the opportunity
to participate whenever they wish, on an individual basis, because of distance learning
flexibility. This kind of education is quite affordable, as many forms of distance learning
involve little or no cost.

 Distance learning is also multi-sensory. There is a wide variety of materials that can meet
everyone’s learning preference. In fact some students learn from visual stimuli and others
learn best by listening or interacting with a computer program.
  Also, distance learning can offer increased interactions with students. In particular,
introverted students who are too shy to ask questions in class will often open up when
provided an opportunity to interact via e-mail or other individualized means.
 Distance learning practical work with various technologies such as computers, CD
players, VCRs, etc. Therefore, students acquire knowledge and skills on the usage of
these technologies as well.

 Another advantage of distance learning is studying at your own time. Students can study
24 hours a day, because they have access to teaching materials via distance learning
system seven days a week.

There are other related benefits of distance learning such as: balancing inequalities between age
groups, geographical expansion of education access, delivering education for large audiences,
offering the combination of education with work or family life, etc.

2.3.1 DE-MERITS OF DISTANCE LEARNING

While there are countless distance learning advantages, there are also various disadvantages of
distance learning, that students and institutions should be aware of before starting any distance
learning program.

 Distance learning does not offer immediate feedback. In a traditional classroom setting, a
student's performance can be immediately assessed through questions and informal
testing. With distance learning, a student has to wait for feedback until the instructor has
reviewed his or her work and responded to it. Compared with traditional course delivery
method, distance learning demands a disproportionate amount of effort on the part of
instructors. Teaching distance courses includes not only the time required for actual
delivery of course materials, but it must also involve great deal of time dedicated to
student support and preparation. Also, time spent on e-mail or forum correspondence is
very significant.

 Distance learning does not give students the opportunity to work on oral communication
skills. Students in distance learning courses do not get the experience of practicing verbal
interaction with professors and other students.
The most important issue regarding distance learning is instructors’ preparedness and students’
attitude. If students do not perceive the technology as useful, they will be not receptive to
distance learning (Christensen, E. W., Anakwe U. P. & Kessler, E. H., 2001). Also, the inability
of instructors to develop the necessary skills, to adopt a positive attitude, and to develop the
needed pedagogy are other important problems affecting the creation of distance learning
community.

2.4 RELATED WORKS ON DISTANCE LEARNING

Distance learning practices have been evolving, in particular as educational technologies being
applied to distance learning are developing at an unprecedented pace. Research in the Distance
Learning field appears to have also been evolving.

In order to facilitate healthy and sustainable development of distance learning research, scholars
in this area have suggested conducting empirical research to analyze and monitor the changes
over time Bozkurt A., 2015). To remain connected to the constant advances in technology that
have been taking place at an increasingly fast pace, it is especially important to follow closely
the trends in distance learning research.

The research trends have been investigated, following the framework of research areas, four
aspects of research trends were analyzed. (Zawacki R., 2009). The first aspect focuses on “what”
distance learning research has been done, and the other three aspects are devoted to “how”
distance learning research has been carried out, as follows: research issues and topics, including
the research areas covered in published research work, and the keywords indicated by the author;
the research methods used by distance learning researchers; the patterns of authorship and ways
of developing collaborative research; and the target group or population to whom the researchers
address their research questions.

In building on the groundwork to develop systematic classification rubrics of distance learning

research based mainly on thematic analyses of published research articles. A research was
conducted to collect and analyze the opinions of distance learning research experts, who were
editorial board members of major distance learning journals (Zawacki R., 2009). The experts
responses led to a classification system which divided distance learning research areas into three
levels, namely, the macro-level, meso-level, and micro-level. Macro-level research focuses on
distance learning systems and theories and includes a number of specific research areas covering
access and equity issues; globalization and cross-cultural aspects, as well as distance teaching
systems and institutions; and theories and research methods in distance education. Meso-level
research involves a broad range of topics on the management and technology of distance
education institutions, such as administration, organizational systems, costs and benefits, learner
and faculty support, and quality assurance. Finally, micro-level research is mainly concerned
with issues of teaching and learning in the distance education context, including instructional
design, interaction and communication in learning communities, and learner characteristics.

Zawacki reviewed 695 articles published in five prominent distance learning journals between
2000 and 2008. They pointed out that several weaknesses distance learning research persisted,
including a lack of both methodological and theoretical robustness, and a comprehensive
coverage of research areas. Based on their classification scheme, they highlighted the fact that
distance learning research was largely dominated by micro-level research. In contrast, macro-
level and meso-level research, including a number of important research areas from
management, institutional organization to cross-cultural aspects of distance education were
largely neglected. Based on the same classification scheme, Bozkurt reviewed 861 research
articles published in seven distance learning journals from 2009 to 2013 to examine more recent
trends. He found a strong imbalance between research areas and high over-representation of the
micro-level perspective.