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This research demonstrated some of the conditions under which retarded children can be
taught to imitate the actions of adults. Before the experiment, the subjects were without
spontaneous imitative behavior, either vocal or motor. Each subject was taught, with food
as reinforcement, a series of responses identical to responses demonstrated by an experimenter;
i.e., each response was reinforced only if it was identical to a prior demonstration by an
experimenter. Initially, intensive shaping was required to establish matching responses by
the subjects. In the course of acquiring a variety of such responses, the subjects' probability
of immediate imitation of each new demonstration, before direct training, greatly increased.
Later in the study, certain new imitations, even though perfect, were never reinforced;
yet as long as some imitative responses were reinforced, all remained at high strength. This
imitativeness was then used to establish initial verbal repertoires in two subjects.
both organisms independently have been fourth response again rose in rate, although it
taught the same responses to the same cues; still was never reinforced. In short, these chil-
thus, all children recite the multiplication ta- dren apparently generalized along a stimulus
bles in very similar ways. This similarity does dimension of similarity between their behav-
not deserve the label imitation, and hardly iors and the behaviors of a model: when simi-
ever receives it; one child's recitation is not larity to the model in three different ways was
usually a cue to another's, and the similarity reinforced, they thereupon displayed a fourth
of their behavior is not usually a reinforcer way of achieving similarity to the model.
for the children. Nevertheless, the children of Thus, similarity between their behavior and
this example have similar behaviors. the model's was a functional stimulus in their
The fact that the world teaches many chil- behavior.
dren similar lessons can lead to an arrange- Metz (1965) demonstrated the development
ment of their behaviors which comes closer to of some imitative behavior in two autistic chil-
a useful meaning of imitation. Two children dren who initially showed little or no imita-
may both have learned similar responses; one tive response. In this study, responses similar
child, however, may respond at appropriate in topography to demonstrations by the ex-
times whereas the other does not. In that case, perimenter were reinforced with "Good" and
the undiscriminating child may learn to use food. Metz found that, after intensive training,
this response when the discriminating one several imitative responses could be main-
does. The term imitation still need not be ap- tained in strength even when not reinforced
plied, since the similarity between the two with food, and that the subjects had a higher
children's responses is not functional for either probability of imitating new responses after
of them; in particular, the second child is not training than before. However, in one of the
affected by the fact that his behavior is similar conditions used to evaluate the subjects' imi-
to that of the first. This arrangement ap- tative repertoire before and after imitative
proaches one which Miller and Dollard (1941) training, "Good" was still said contingent
call "matched-dependent" behavior. One or- upon correct new imitations. Thus, for one
ganism responds to the behavior of another subject who initially showed a non-zero rate
merely as a discriminative stimulus with re- of imitation, it could be argued that the in-
spect to the timing of his own behavior; many creased imitation in the test after training was
times, these behaviors will happen to be alike, due to an experimentally developed reinforc-
because both organisms will typically use the ing property of "Good", rather than to the
most efficient response, given enough experi- imitation training as such. Further, in the
ence. Metz study, due to a lack of extinction or
It should be possible, however, to arrange other manipulation of the behavior, it is dif-
the behavior of two organisms so that one of ficult to specify that the higher probability of
them will, in a variety of ways, produce precise imitating new responses, and the maintenance
topographical similarity to the other, but of unreinforced imitative responses, were in
nothing else. A study by Baer and Sherman fact due to the reinforcement of the initial
(1964) seemingly showed the result of such imitative responses during training.
prior learning in several young children. In Lovaas, Berberich, Perloff, and Schaeffer
that study, reinforcements were arranged for (1966) used shaping and fading procedures to
children's imitations of three activities of an establish imitative speech in two autistic chil-
animated, talking puppet, which served both dren. They reported that as training progressed
as a model and a source of social reinforce- and more vocal behavior came under the con-
ment for imitating. As a result of this rein- trol of a model's prior vocalization, it became
forcement, a fourth response of the puppet progressively easier to obtain new imitative
was spontaneously imitated by the children, vocalizations. When reinforcement was shifted
although that imitation had never before been from an imitative-contingent schedule to a
reinforced. When reinforcement of the other basically non-contingent schedule, imitative
three imitations was discontinued, the fourth, behavior deteriorated. In an additional ma-
never-reinforced imitation also decreased in nipulation, the model presented Norwegian
strength; when reinforcement of the original words interspersed with English words for the
imitations was resumed, imitation of the children to imitate. Initially, the children did
THE DEVELOPMENT OF IMITATION 407
not reproduce the Norwegian words perfectly. be controlling the behaviors of both persons,
However, the authors judged that the subjects e.g., both going to the dining area when food
gradually improved their imitations of the was displayed on the table.) Subsequently, an
Norwegian words even though these imitations experimenter approached and engaged the
were not reinforced. subjects in extended play. In the course of this
The studies by Baer and Sherman (1964), play, he would repeatedly ask them to imitate
Metz (1965), Lovaas et al (1966), and other re- some simple response that he demonstrated,
ports (Bandura, 1962) suggest that for children such as clapping his hands, or waving. The
with truly imitative repertoires, induction has children failed to imitate any of these re-
occurred, such that (1) relatively novel behav- sponses, although they clearly were capable of
iors can be developed before direct shaping, at least some of them. Finally, during the
merely by providing an appropriate demon- training itself, every sample of behavior was
stration by a model, and (2) some imitative initially presented to the child as a demon-
responses can be maintained, although unrein- stration accompanied by the command, "Do
forced, as long as other imitative responses are this"; at first, none of these samples was imi-
reinforced. tated, despite extensive repetition.
The purpose of the present study was to ex-
tend the generality of the above findings and First Training Procedures
to demonstrate a method of producing a truly Each subject was seen at mealtimes, once or
imitative repertoire in children initially lack- twice a day, three to five times a week. The
ing one. subject's food was used as a reinforcer. It was
delivered a spoonful at a time by the experi-
METHOD menter, who always said "Good" just before
putting the spoon into the subject's mouth.
Subjects The subject and experimenter faced each
Three children, 9 to 12 years of age, were other across the corner of a small table, on
selected from several groups of severely and which were placed the food tray and the ex-
profoundly retarded children in a state school. perimenter's records. Elsewhere in the room
They were chosen not because they were re- was another small table on which were placed
tarded, but because they seemed to be the only some materials used later in the study, a desk
children available of a practical age who ap- with a telephone on it, a coat rack holding one
parently showed no imitation whatsoever. or more coats, a wastebasket, and a few other
(The success of the method to be described chairs.
suggests that it may have considerable practi- The basic procedure was to teach each sub-
cal value for the training of such children.) ject a series of discriminated operants. Each
The subjects were without language, but made discriminated operant consisted of three ele-
occasional grunting vocalizations, and re- ments: a discriminative stimulus (SD) pre-
sponded to a few simple verbal commands sented by the experimenter, a correct response
("Come here", "Sit down", etc.). They were by the subject, and reinforcement after a cor-
ambulatory (but typically had developed walk- rect response. The SD was the experimenter's
ing behavior relatively late in their develop- command, "Do this", followed by his demon-
ment, in the sixth or seventh year), could dress stration of some behavior. The response re-
themselves, were reasonably well toilet trained, quired was one similar to the experimenter's.
and could feed themselves. Fair eye-hand coor- Thus, the operant learned was always topo-
dination was evident, and simple manipula- graphically imitative of the experimenter's
tory skills were present. demonstration. The reinforcement was food,
The subjects were chosen from groups of preceded by the word "Good".
children initially observed in their wards from Since none of the subjects was imitative,
a distance over a period of several days. No none of the initial SD's was followed by any
instances of possible imitation were noted in behavior which resembled that demonstrated
the subjects finally selected. (That is, on no by the experimenter. This was true even for
occasion did any subject display behavior sim- those behaviors which the subjects were clearly
ilar to that of another person, except in in- capable of performing. Subject 1, for example,
stances where a common stimulus appeared to would sit down when told to, but did not imi-
408 DONALD M. BAER, et al.
food reinforcement which was apparently re- Verbal imitations. Late in the training pro-
sponsible for its development. gram for Subjects 1 and 3, when virtually anyA
Non-reinforcement of imitation was insti- new motor performance by the experimenter
tuted in the form of reinforcement for any be- was almost certain to be imitated, vocal per-
havior other than imitation. Differential rein- formances were begun with simple sounds.
forcement of other behavior is abbreviated The experimenter, as usual, said "Do this",
DRO (Reynolds, 1961). The experimenter con- but instead of making some motor response
tinued saying "Good" and feeding the subject, made a vocal one, for example, "Ah". Sub-
but not contingent on imitations. Instead, the jects I and 3 repeatedly failed to imitate such
experimenter delivered reinforcement at least demonstrations. Different procedures were
20 sec after the subject's last imitation had then employed to obtain vocal imitations. For
taken place. Thus, for the group of previously Subject 1, the vocal response to be imitated
reinforced responses, the only change between was set into a chain of non-vocal responses.
reinforcement and non-reinforcement periods For example, the experimenter would say,.
was a shift in the contingency. For the group "Do this", rise from his chair and walk to the
of unreinforced or probe responses there was center of the room, turn towards the subject,
no change; food reinforcement still did not say "Ah", and return to his seat. To such a
follow either the occurrence or non-occurrence demonstration Subject 1 responded by leav-
of an imitative response. This procedure in- ing her seat, walking toward the center of the
volved simultaneously the extinction of imi- room, turning toward the experimenter, and
tation and also the reinforcement of whatever then beginning a series of facial and vocal re-
other responses may have been taking place sponses out of which eventually emerged an
at the moment of reinforcement. "Ah" sufficiently similar to the experimenter's
For Subject 1, the DRO period was 30 sec. to merit reinforcement. This coupling of
For Subject 2, DRO periods were 30, 60, and motor and vocal performances was maintained
0 sec' (DRO Q-sec meant reinforcement was de- for several more demonstrations, during which
livrered immediately after the SD, before an the motor performance was made successively
imitative response could occur.) This sequence shorter and more economical of motion; fin-
of DRO intervals was used because, as dis- ally, the experimenter was able to remain
played in the- Results section, Subject 2 main- seated, say "Do this", say "Ah", and immedi-
tained stable imitation under the initial DRO ately evoke an imitation from the subject.
procedures, unlike the other subjects. For Sub- Proceeding in this manner, simple sounds were
ject 3, the DRO period was 20 sec. After the shaped and then combined into longer or
DRQ procedure for each subject, contingent more complex sounds and finally into usable
reinforcement of imitation was resumed and words.
the procedures described below were insti- Subject 3, like Subject 1, initially failed to
tuted. imitate vocalizations. In his case, the experi-
Imitative chains. After reinforcement for menter proceeded to demonstrate a set of
imitative behavior was resumed with Subjects motor performances which moved successively
1 and 2, the procedure of chaining together closer to vocalizations. At first the experi-
old and new imitations was begun. At first menter obtained imitative blowing out of a
only two-response chains were demonstrated; lighted match, then blowing without the
then three-response chains, after two-response match, then more vigorous blowing which
chains were successfully achieved; and so on. included an initial plosive "p", then added a
During chaining, the experimenter demon- voiced component to the blowing which was
strated the responses the subject was to imi- shaped into a "Pah" sound. Proceeding in this
tate as an unbroken series. In all cases, the manner, a number of vocalizations were pro-
demonstrated chain contained both responses duced, all as reliable imitations.
previously learned by the subject and rela- Generalization to other experimenters.
tively new ones. Walking from one locale to When the imitative repertoire of Subject 1
another in the process of performing these be- had developed to a high level, new experi-
'haviors was not considered part of the imita- menters were presented to her, of the opposite
tive chain and was not judged for imitative or the same sex as the original male experi-
accuracy. menter. These novel experimenters gave the
THE DEVELOPMENT OF IMITATION 411
BLOCKS OF
RESULTS 10 NEW RESPONSES
Reliability of Scoring Imitative Responses Fig. 1. The development of imitation in Subject 1.
Checks on the reliability of the experiment- their first presentation than did Subject 1, al-
er's scoring of any response as imitative were though the general form of the data is similar.
made at scattered points throughout the study Subject 3 was taught only eight discrimi-
for Subjects 1 and 2. The percentage of agree- nated operants of imitative topography, which
ment between the experimenter's scoring and he acquired much more rapidly than did
the independent records of a second observer either Subject 1 or 2. He imitated the ninth
exceeded 98%. spontaneously on its first presentation, al-
though he had not imitated it before training.
First Training Procedures The progressive development of imitation
The initial training procedure contained was apparent in other aspects of the data as
occasions when the extent of the developing well. The number of training sessions required
imitative repertoire of each subject could be to establish new imitations was displayed by
seen. These were occasions when behavior was plotting this number of sessions for each suc-
demonstrated by the experimenter to the cessive block of 10 new responses. The cri-
subject for the first time. Any attempt by the terion for establishment of a new imitative
subject to imitate such new behavior before response was that, for one trial, a subject dis-
direct training or shaping could be attributed played the response demonstrated by the ex-
to the history of reinforcement for matching perimenter with no shaping or fading pro-
other behavior of the experimenter. Thus, it cedures require(l for that trial. This is shown
was possible to examine the sequence of initial in Fig. 3 for Subject 1 and in Fig. 4 for Sub-
presentations to each subject to discover any ject 2, as solid lines. Both graphs show a syste-
increasing probability that new behavior matically decreasing number of sessions re-
would be imitated on its first presentation. quire(l to establish successive new imitations.
The sequence of 130 responses in Subject 1's The dotted portions of each graph represent
program was sufficient to increase her proba- deviations from the usual type of training
bility of imitating new responses from zero at
the beginning of the program to 100% at the _ SUBJECT #2
end. This was demonstrated by grouping the 0
0
w
130 responses into 13 successive blocks of 10 e
0
each. As shown in Fig. 1, the proportion imi- Fizg
tated on the first presentation within each
block rose, not too steadily, but nonetheless
clearly, to 100% by the 13th block. z ~
The proportion of new responses success- 00t
~ ~ ~~1 NE-EPNE
fully imitated by Subject 2 upon their first I
presentation rose from 0% to 80%, through IL
procedure and thus are plotted differently. pography, which the subject no longer clearly
For Subject 1 the dotted portion represents a displayed, were worked on intensively.
period in which verbal responses were intro-
duced (not plotted as part of Fig. 3, but dis- DRO Procedures
cussed later in this report). For Subject 2 the For all subjects, both reinforced and unrein-
dotted portion represents a sequence of ses- forced imitative behavior was maintained over
sions in which few new imitative responses continuing experimental sessions as long as
were introduced. Rather, two previously es- food reinforcement was contingent upon at
tablished imitative responses of similar to-
SUBJECT #2
4
a a
hi U)
at
0
z
n- g 0 U2
4c
cs F- zA '
0°
n- 0
0 U) U
3 0i
LUi
*- W.
Z 4
2 a3
3 4 a
2 3 4 S a to a
BLOCKS OF BLOCKS OF
10 NEW RESPONSES 10 NEW RESPONSES
Fig. 3. The rate of development of imitation in Fig. 4. TIhe rate of development of imitation in
Subject 1. Subject 2.
Z) a SUBJECT # I
100 nVW :7
(I)
z 0@ 0
0
0 6*
. 0
0V
SO
0
--
C') 50~~~~~~
z ow
Z
0
Ld
.z
w
REINFORCED MIT.
w
UNREINFORCED IMIT.
0
1oo 105
SESSIONS
Fig. 5. The maintenance and extinction of reinforced and unreinforced imitation in Subject 1. (The breaks
in the data before and after session 160 represent periods of experimentation aimed at other problems.)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF IMITATION 413
least imitative behavior. When reinforce-
some tation, a marked decrease in both types of
ment was no longer contingent upon imitative imitative behavior during the DRO 20-sec
behavior during the DRO periods, both the period, and a recovery when contingent rein-
previously reinforced imitations and the never- forcement of imitations was resumed.
reinforced probe imitations decreased mark- Figure 7 is a plot of the imitative behavior
edly in strength. of Subject 2. Her results were similar to those
Figure 5 is a plot of the percentages of each obtained for Subjects 1 and 3, in terms of the
type of imitative response by Subject 1. It maintenance of 125 reinforced and five probe
shows that her probability of imitating the 35 imitations, under conditions of reinforcement
probes varied between 80 and 100%, as long of imitations. However, her data depart from
as the other 95 imitations, within which the the others' during the DRO period. Initially,
probes were interspersed, were reinforced. The this subject showed no reliable signs of ex-
application of the DRO 30-sec procedure ex- tinction after four sessions of DRO with a 30-
tinguished virtually all imitative behavior sec delay. Next, DRO 60-sec was instituted for
within about 20 hr. The previously reinforced four sessions, still without any reliable effect.
imitations and the probe imitations extin- At that point, a procedure of DRO 0-sec was
guished alike in rate and degree. All imitative begun, meaning that the experimenter demon-
behavior recovered when, with a small amount strated some behavior, and instantly, before
of shaping, reinforcement was again made con- the subject could respond, said "Good" and
tingent upon imitative behavior. delivered the food to her mouth. Thus, rein-
Figure 6 is a similar plot of the imitative be- forcement served to forestall the durable imi-
havior of Subject 3. It shows the maintenance tative responses this subject was displaying.
of the one probe imitation and eight rein- Figure 7 demonstrates the immediacy of effect
forced imitations during reinforcement of imi- of this procedure. After four sessions of DRO
100 -
SUBJECT #3
cn)
z
0
C/)
z a
0 LLJ
w
CL
z
0
0
w 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
REINFORCED IMIT. 0
a-
0' 0
0
*I * * E *ItI I I
F,FA
0
r I I I I I I * I
FX-|E
- I E ** If I * . . - I . I
I*E*-m-*
F,,
' 15 20 25 30 35
-- DRO
SESSIONS
Fig. 6. The maintenance and extinction of reinfoyced and unreinforced imitation in Subject 3.
414 DONALD M. BAER, et al.
SUBJECT #2
100
CO
z
ri:
I
0
-
00
CY 0
0S
zw S0
0
0
SO 0
0- 0
S
0
IJ 0
0
0
0
z 0
0
w 00
0
S
- NREINFORCED IMIT. 0
*----0 UNREINFORCED IMIT. 0
w
0
105 110 115 125
30"
DRO
SESSIONS
Fig. 7. The maintenance and extinction of reinforced and unreinforced imitation in Subject 2.
0-sec, it was possible to resume the procedures some of which involved as many as five re-
of DRO 30-sec and produce only a brief and sponses.Subject 2 received only 2 hr of train-
partial recovery of the rate of imitation, which ing on chains. At the end of this time, she
then declined to zero. A return to contingent would imitate 50% of the three-response
reinforcement, with a small amount of shap- chains demonstrated to her, and 80% of the
ing, quickly reinstated the high rate of imita- two-response chains.
tion previously displayed.
In all cases, then, it is clear that the imita- Verbal Behavior
tive repertoire depended on reinforcement of Subjects 1 and 3 were used in the procedures
at least some of its members. It is noteworthy for the development of verbal imitation.
that those responses which had developed and Verbal imitations were established for Sub-
been maintained previously without direct re- ject 1 by chaining together motor and vocal
inforcement could not survive extinction ap- behaviors and then fading out the motor com-
plied to the entire class of behaviors. ponents. Twenty hours of training resulted in
10 words which were reliably imitated such as,
Imitative Chains "Hi", "Okay", the subject's name, and the
Subjects 1 and 2 were exposed to the pro- names of some objects. Subject 3's training in
cedure of chaining together old and new imi- vocal imitations was accomplished by evoking
tative responses. At the end of 10 hr of the a set of motor imitations which moved suc-
procedure for Subject 1, lengthy chains con- cessively closer to vocalizations. Approximately
taining already established and new imitative 10 hr of training produced the reliable imita-
responses became practical. It was possible to tive vocalizations of seven vowel and conso-
obtain perfect imitation on 90% of the chains, nant sounds.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF IMITATION 4}5