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These GATE Notes can be downloaded in PDF for your preparation of GATE EE and
GATE EC. They are also useful for other exams like IES, BSNL, DRDO, BARC. But
before you get started, here are some articles you must read.
Recommended Reading –
Some basic definitions related to state space analysis are being given as follows:
State of the Systems
State of a system describes about the future behaviour of a system by using present
(input variables) and past (State variables).
State Variable
These are the set of variables which along with input define the behaviour of the
system (i.e. future values).
Number of state variable in a system should be minimum equal to the order of the
system. Also, the system output and its derivatives can be considered as state
variables.
State Space
Set of possible values that the state variables can assume is called state space.
Now, suppose we have a multi input multi output system with m number of inputs, n
number of state variables and p number of output variables. The systems will be
represented through state equations as follows
ẋ = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
Hence u is m×1 input vector, x is n×1 state variable vector and y is p×1 output vector.
u1 x1 y1
u2 x2 y2
u = [ : ],x = [ : ],y = [ : ]
um xn yp
State models can be derived from the physical system itself or from differential
equation form (phase variable method).
First, we will take a look at physical system itself. Suppose we have a system with
circuit given as follows.
In the above circuit E is the input variable. It has three energy storage elements L1,
L2and C. The state variables of the system are x1(t)=v,x2(t)=I1,x2(t)=I2. If we have
knowledge of initial conditions for v(0),I1(0),I2(0) and input signal E for t≥0, then
the behaviour of the network is completely specified for t≥0
Now, applying KVL is the circuit, we get
Cdv
I1 + I2 + =0
dt
dI1
L1 + R1 I1 + E − v = 0
dt
dI2
L2 + R 2 I2 − v = 0
dt
They can also be written as
dv −1 1
= I1 − I2
dt C C
dI1 1 R1 1
= v − I1 − E
dt L1 L1 L1
dI2 1 R2
= v − I2
dt L2 L2
In terms of state equation, they can be written as
1 1
0 − −
C C 0
ẋ 1 1 R1 x1
1
[ẋ 2 ] = − − 0 [x2 ] + [− ] u
L1 L1 x3 L1
ẋ 3
1 R2 0
0 −
[ L2 L2 ]
For y1 = I2 R 2 , y2 = I2
x1
y1 0 0 R2 x
[y ] = [ ] [ 2]
2 0 0 1 x
3
dn y dn−1 y dy
n
+ a1 n−1 + ⋯ + an−1 + an y = bu
dt dt dt
Let x1 = y, ẋ 1 = x2 , ẋ 2 = x3 , … , ẋ n−1 = xn
Now the above equation can be written as
ẋ n + a1 x1 + a2 xn−1 + ⋯ + an−1 x2 + an x1 = bu
ẋ n = −an x1 − an−1 x2 … − a2 xx−1 − a1 xn + bu
Writing is state equation form, we get
ẋ 1 0 1 0 … x1 0
0 0 1 … x2 0
ẋ 2
[ ]=[ ][ : ] + 0 u
: 0 … … 1
−an −an−1 … −an xn :
ẋ n [b]
x1
x2
y = [1 0 0 … 0] [ : ] + [0]u
xn
This form of matrix is also called Bush form or companion form or controllable
canonical form. Now, instead of being a constant; if the input is also varying, then we
will get transfer function in the form of
y(s) b0 sn + b1 sn + ⋯ + bn
=
u(s) sn + a1 sn−1 + ⋯ + an−1 s + an
(In this example we are considering numerator and denominator having equal
degree).
ẋ n = u − a1 xn − a2 xn−1 − ⋯ − an−1 x2 − an x1
Now, y = (b0 + b1 s−1 + ⋯ bn s −n )ẋ n
= b0 ẋ n + b1 xn + b2 xn−1 + ⋯ bn x1
y = bn x1 + bn−1 x2 + ⋯ + b1 xn + b0 [u − a1 xn − a2 xn−1 … − an−1 x2 − ax x1 ]
y = (bn − b0 an )x1 + (bn−1 − b0 an−1 )x2 + ⋯ (b1 − b0 a1 )xn + b0 u
ẋ 1 0 1 0 … 0 x1 0
ẋ 0 0 1 … 0 x2 0
[ 2] = [ ][ : ] + [ ]u
: : :
ẋ n −an −an−1 .. .. −a1 x n 1
x1
x2
y = [bn − b0 an bn−1 − b0 an−1 … b1 − b0 a1 ] [ : ] + [b0 ]u
xn
Another form of representation is observable canonical form. Consider a system as
below
y(s) b0 s3 + b1 s2 + b2 s + b3
T(s) = = 3
u(s) s + a1 s 2 + a 2 s + a 3
b1 b2 b3
b0 + + 2 +
s s s3
T(s) = a1 a2 a3
1 − (− − − )
s s2 s3
Above transfer function can lead to a signal flow graph with four forward paths and
three loops all touching each other
y = x1 + bo u
ẋ 1 = −a1 (x1 + b0 u) + x2 + b1 u
= −a1 x1 + x2 + (b1 − a1 b0 )u
ẋ 2 = −a2 x1 + x3 + (b2 − a2 b0 )u
ẋ 3 = −a3 x1 + (b3 − a3 b0 )u
ẋ 1 −a1 1 0 x1 b1 − a1 b0
[ẋ 2 ] = [−a2 x
0 1] [ 2 ] + [b2 − a2 b0 ] u
ẋ 3 −a3 0 0 x3 b3 − a3 b0
x1
y = [1 0 0] [x2 ] + b0 u
x3
Apart from these, we can also represent system in diagonal canonical form
If the system is
y = c1 x2 + c2 x2 + ⋯ + cn xn + b0 u
ẋ 1 = λ1 x1 + u
ẋ 2 = λ2 x2 + u
Here λi are the poles of transfer function and ci are the respective residue of the
poles.
ẋ 1 λ1 0 0 … 0 x1 1
ẋ 0 λ2 0 … 0 x2 1
[ 2] = [ : ] + [ ]u
: : :
ẋ n [0 0 … … λn ] x n 1
x1
x2
y = [c1 c2 … cn ] [ : ] + bo u
xn
ẋ = Ax + Bu
y = cx + Du
And its other form is
̃u
v̇ = Λv + B
y = C̃v + D
̃u
𝜆1 0 … 0
0 𝜆2 … 0
Here Λ = [ ]
0 0 𝜆3 …
0 … … 𝜆𝑛
Where λ1,λ2,…λnare Eigen values of the matrix A
x=Mv
Here M is n×n non-singular constant matrix also known as modular matrix
Mv̇ = AMv + Bu
v̇ = M −1 AMv + M −1 Bu
̃ = M −1 B
Λ = M −1 AM, B
y = Cx + Du
= CMv + Du
C̃ = CM, D
̃=D
Until now, we discussed the definition and forms of state variable system. Further,
we will discuss system analysis using state space model.
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