9. LOCAL SCOUR Flow in a channel with a mobile bed is usually accompanied by a transport of sedi erosion and deposition might be the consequence. Additional erosion of sediments caused, where there is a local change in the geometry of the channel or in the flow. Different kinds of local scour are encountered in fluvial hydraulics. Positioned flow, a pier or an abutment will locally alter the flow and cause erosion (deposit the vicinity of the obstacle. Constriction scour is encountered, if the width of a channel is reduced. Flow over under an hydraulic structure has a considerable potential to cause scour downstream. TABLE OF CONTENTS 9.1 GENERAL REMARKS 9.2 PIER SCOUR 9.2.1 Scour Process 9.2.2 Flow Pattern 9.2.3 Functional Relations 9.2.4 Formulae for Design 9.2.5 Scour Prevention 93 94 95 9.6 ABUTMENT SCOUR 9.3.1 Flow Pattern and Scouring 9.3.2 Functional Relations 9.3.3 Formulae for Design CONSTRICTION SCOUR 9.4.1 Hydraulic Considerations 9.4.2, Scour-depth Relations 9.4.3 Formula for Design HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES SCOUR 9.5.1 Notions 9.5.2 Flow over a Structure 9.5.3 Flow under a Structure EXERCISES 9.6.1 Problems, solved 9.6.2 Problems, unsolvedLOCAL scouR 9.1 1° 2° 3° 4° GENERAL REMARKS Flow in an open channel with a mobile bed is usually accompanied by a tr of sediments (see chap. 6). The latter is a result of the interplay between : and deposition of the transported sediments. Any local change in the geometry of the channel or in the flow will p additional erosion (deposition) of the sediments ; this is called local scour ( Kolk). One encounters different types of local scour : i) Pier Scour (see sect. 9.2) and ii) Abutment Scour (see sect. 9.3) : A pier or an abutment, positioned in the flow, will locally alter the flow channel, causing erosion (scour) and possibly deposition in the vicinity Pier or the abutment. iii) Constriction Scour (see sect. 9.4) : A change in the geometry of the channel, like a constriction, will al flow in the channel, thus its capacity of transporting sediments ; scour be the consequence. iv) Hydraulic Structures Scour (see sect. 9.5) : Since most hydraulic structures perturb at least locally the flow, e1 (scour) or possibly deposition in the vicinity of the structure mig encountered. Local scour occurs when the capacity of the flow to erode and to transpa sediments is larger than the capacity to supply (replace) the sediments. Knowledge about the topography of the erosion-deposition of the channel bec paramount importance for the hydraulic engineer. Continued scour « undermine the foundation of the structure. Notably, excessive discharges (fl are liable to produce also severe local scour. Protection (structural) against erc deposition might become necessary (see sect. 9.2.5). In the presence of an obstacle (pier, abutment, constriction, etc.) the unidirect flow in the channel gets to be a three-dimensional one. Hydraulic investiga become rather complex, numerical modelling may be necessary. For such a re it became customary to communicate the results of studies in laboratories and i field dealing with scour, with dimensionless parameters.614 5° 6° 9.2 1° 2° FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS To decide which of the dimensionless parameters are of importance in scour studies a dimensional analysis must be performed. Two types of scour should be distinguished : - clear-water scour : when the sediments are removed from the scour hole and are not replaced ; — sediment-transport (live-bed) scour : when the scour hole is continuously supplied with sediments from the sediment transport in the channel. Despite the volume of investigations available — most of them come from laboratory studies and only a few from field tests. — the hydraulics of local scour is as yet not well established. Consequently the formulae to be presented herein will only offer a guideline for the engineer. PIER SCOUR Local scour around a pier is a complex phenomenon resulting from the strong interaction of the three-dimensional turbulent flow field around the pier and the erodible sediment bed. The presence of a (isolated) pier changes the flow pattern, which in turn modifies the surface of the mobile bed (see Fig. 9.1). In the vicinity of the pier, scouring is the consequence. The intensity of scour, thus the scour depth, d., will depend on the channel flow, the sediments of the bed and the geometry and alignment of the pier. 9.2.1 Scour process 1° The evolution of the scour depth, d,, during an increase of the flow velocity, U, —evidenced by Chabert et Engeldinger in 1956 (see Shen, 1971, p. 23.3) — is shown in Fig. 9.2. Upon reaching a certain flow velocity in the channel, the sediment particles close to the pier begin to move ; scour is initiated. The eroded particles will follow the flow pattern and are carried from the front of the pier towards the downstream. Upon an increase in the flow velocity, more and more particles will get dislodged, forming a scour hole increasing in size and depth. Eventually a maximum scour depth, (4\max: is attained, which corresponds to a flow velocity being close to the critical velocity, U = Uc, for initiation of sediment transport in the channel. For non- uniform sediments, the larger sizes are less likely to be eroded and an armouring layer forms itself in the scour hole.les. nd sly vur ill LOCAL ScoUR Fig. 9.1 Schema of flow pattern and local scour around a cylindrical pier616 2° FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS ‘A subsequent further increase in the flow velocity, U > U,,, is responsible for a transport of sediments in and out of the scour hole, but the scour depth remains essentially constant. Thus an average equilibrium scour depth, d., establishes itself, being slightly smaller than the maximum scour depth, (d)max- clear-water ~—*—~ sediment-transport scour fe ‘scour Fig. 9.2. Scheme of evolution of the scour depth, ds, with respect to flow velocity, U, and time, t. The equilibrium scour depth, d,, will usually be reached during high-water flow of a long duration. In steady flow conditions, the time necessary to attain this equilibrium depth depends on whether the flow is able to transport sediments, (U/Ug,) > 1, or not, (U/U,;) < 1; thus one distinguishes (see Fig. 9.2) : - clear-water scour : the scour depth increases gradually and approaches an asymptotic value, when the capacity of transport out of the scour hole is zero (Laboratory experiments have to run continuously for several days before equilibrium conditions are reached). - sediment-transport scour : the scour depth increases rapidly and attains an equilibrium value, when the capacity of sediment transport out of the scour hole is equal to the one into the scour hole.Ics ra ins lf, LOCAL scour 3° Scour is initiated at, or close to, the nose of the pier (Actually, two smal scour holes begin to form on the sides of the pier. They rapidly work th around the pier to meet at the nose of the pier). The scour hole grows in de in volume by forming a groove. The upstream portion of the scour hole approximate shape of an inverted cone-like surface, stretching around the p side slopes about equal to the angle of repose of the sediments, Eroded ma transported — often in form of bursts — towards the rear of the pier, v may or not be deposited. The maximum scour depth for a cylindrical pier is in general located in fron Pier (see Fig. 9.1) ; for a rectangular pier, it is found to occur at the nose Pier, while for a streamlined pier at the sides of the pier. 9.2.2 Flow Pattern 1° 2° Unidirectional flow in a erodible channel which encounters a protruding ot like a pier, becomes three-dimensional. The resulting flow pattern around t! becomes complex and difficult to assess hydrodynamically. Results of various studies (see Shen, 1971, p. 23/4, Raudkivi, 1991, p. 6 Graf et Yulistiyanto, 1998) have shown that different components of th pattern might play a role in local scouring (see Fig. 9.1). Flow in a channel, being a boundary-layer flow, u(z), approaches the pier stagnation pressure, p,(z), decreasing with depth, establishes itself. Thi produce a (weak) pressure gradient along the front of the pier and ind downward flow, namely from high to low velocities. Since there is also a (s Pressure gradient around the pier, p(@), the downstream flow will be lat diverted. However it is generally agreed upon, that the vertical component flow is responsible for the initiation of the scour. Due to the stagnation pressure in front of the pier (cylinder), the water st increases, forming a bow wave (roller), If this pressure increase becomes sufficiently strong, the three-dimens boundary layer undergoes a separation. A horseshoe-vortex system forms it the base of the pier. This vortex stretches into the downstream dire diminishing its strength, and is very active in the local scour process. A trailing wake-vortex system is formed in the rear of the pier over the entire depth. There the turbulence intensity is increased and consequently erosio1 transport of sediments is enhanced.618 FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS 9.2.3 Functional Relations 1° Considering an isolated single pier in a wide and rectangular open channel, where the flow in unidirectional, uniform and steady, and whose mobile bed is made up of cohesionless sediments, the equilibrium scour depth, d,, depends on : ~ the fluid : the density, p, and viscosity, v ; - the sediments : the density, p,, and a characteristic diameter, d ; - the channel flow : the flow depth, h, the channel slope, Sg, and the gravity, g thus the average velocity, U = CV hSj, or the friction velocity, u, = VghS¢ ; - the geometry of pier : a characteristic dimension, D, ; for a cylindrical pier the diameter of the pier is used, D, = Dp. This allows to write : 4,= f,(P, VP 45h, U or wu, 8; Dp) OD Using dimensional reasoning the following dimensionless parameters (see Breusers etal, 197, p. 219) are obtained : (9.2) pur Ps hed *g(,-p)d “Pp” Dp The particle Reynolds number, Re,, and the dimensionless shear stress, t., are related according to a relation developed by Shields (see sect. 3.4.2) such as : pusz _ ¢(Uad ae.-pa fi Re) = fi 7 ) (9.3) This relation can also be used in expressing the critical condition, when initiation of. sediment transport takes place, or : Tree = fy Rew) (93a) and consequently Ze = fy(Re) (9.30) Tscelcs up 2) re 3) of a) >) LOCAL ScoUR, 3° 4° 5° Considering now the proportionalities (see eq. 9.3) of : Teo uy o U and realising that the relative density, p,/p, is already used in the definitic (see eq. 9.3), the above relation, eq. 9.2, becomes : where the subscript, ¢,, indicates the critical condition, implying the begin: the sediment transport in the channel (see sect. 3.4.2). This relation, eq. 9.4, can still be generalised to include some dimensi correction factors such as : - acoefficient of sediment grading : & - acoefficient for pier shape : & - acoefficient of angle of approach: A more general functional form for the scour depth reads now : 7 Uo oh 4d s TD’ poe & §, D Ala, D,’ D, 2 bs Gi where D, is the width (diameter) of the pier. Local scour, parameterised by the scour depth, d,, is seen to be a cor phenomenon, where the various parameters interact. The influence of each of the above parameters (see Fig. 9.3) will be examinec by using experimental data from various investigations, Influence of flow velocity i) The influence of the relative flow velocity, U/U,,, on the dimensionless : depth, d,/Dp, is shown in Fig. 9.3a (see Raudkivi, 1991, p. 76) limited series of experiments. The overall tendency for other sedimen and different flow depths, h, would be the same.620 6° ii) iti) FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS In Fig. 9.3a, the following zones are to be distinguished : = (UU) < 0.5: there is no local erosion (scour) and no sediment transport in the channel ; = 05 < (UU) <1 : there is active local erosion (scour), but no sediment transport in the channel ; one talks of clear-water scour (see Fig. 9.2) ; — (UU) > 1.0: there is almost no net local erosion (scour), but sediment transport in the channel takes place ; one talks of sediment-transport scour (see Fig. 9.2) ; (local erosion and deposition are in equilibrium due to the sediment transport in the channel) ; the scour depth might fluctuate in the presence of moving bed forms. For clear-water scour — (U/U,,) < 1 — where the flow velocity is of importance, an approximate relation proposed by Shen (1971, p. 23/9) —relating the strength of the horseshoe vortex to the pier Reynolds number — reads : 0.619 d, = 0.00022 (e ) (9.6) For sediment-transport scour — taking (U/U,,) > 2 — where the flow velocity is no more of great importance, it is generally admitted that : os e = 2.0 to 2.3 (9.7) remains constant. This has been called the average equilibrium scour depth. The above relations have been tested for subcritical flow, mainly in laboratory channels. For large Froude numbers, Fr > 0.8, the value of eq. 9.7 should be taken as 3.0 (see Johnson, 1995). For small Froude numbers, Fr < 0.2, this value could be taken as being less than 2.0. Influence of flow depth i The influence of the relative flow depth, h/D,, on the dimensionless scour depth, d/D,, is shown in Fig. 9.3b (see Breusers et al., 1977, p. 242).nt 10 of of 19) ds 6) 1 ry dd 2, ur LOCAL scouR 7° ii) As can be seen in Fig. 9.3b, the various investigations preset conflicting conclusions. Here is a selection of some relations (see B et al., 1977, p. 241) presently in use : ~ arelation proposed by da Cunha (1970) : 4, a)? 5 = 135/2 Dy () - arelation proposed by Breusers (1965) : dy Sten D, valid for h/D, > 1.3 ; ~ arelation proposed by Breusers et al. (1977) : 1.5 tanh (2) P. whose constant be taken as 2.0 instead of 1.5, in order to be on th Sit iii) For shallow flow, when (b/D,) < 1.5, the relative scour depth increase: the flow depth. It is however evident that for (b/D,) > 1.5, the influer the flow depth has litle effect on the relative scour depth, d/D,. The experimental evidence, compared with the above relations, eqs. indeed not conclusive, as seen in Fig. 9.3b. Influence of sediments ’) The influence of a sediment of uniform diameter, expressed by the rel diameter, D,/d, on the dimensionless scour depth, d,/D,. is shov Fig. 9.3c (see Raudkivi, 1991, p. 69). ii) As can be seen in Fig. 9.3c, the limited data arrange themselves rather notably if d > 0.7 [mm]. No relationship was proposed. However evident that for D,/d > 25 —when the particle diameter, d, is s compared with the pier diameter, D, — the influence of the relative dian Dy/d, has litte effect on the relative scour depth, d/D,.622 FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS 0.80 < dy, {mm} < }.40 0.24. Fig. 9.3 _ Influence of the different parameters (see eq. 9.5), on the dimensionless scour depth, d/Dp, of a pier.LOCAL SCOUR iti) The influence of a sediment with a granulometric distribution, ex with a coefficient of sediment grading, &,, which in turn depends geometric standard deviation, 6, = (dyy/d,q)"5, is shown with Fig. 9 Raudkivi, 1991, p. 67). The coefficient of sediment grading, which is & =1 for uniform sar be considerable reduced, , <1, for graded sand. This implies t telative scour depth, d,/Dy, will also be reduced. This reduction in th depth can be partially attributed to the armouring effect in the scour hol 8° Influence of pier shape a ii) The influence of the geometry of the pier, expressed with a coefficient shape, §,, is given with Fig. 9.3e (see Raudkivi, 1991, p. 73). Depending on the geometry of the nose of the pier, this coefficient ma: being for: - acylindrical pier: &, = 10 ~ arectangular pier: &, = 1.2 ~ alenticular pier : E, = 08 By streamlining the pier — itself well aligned with the flow - disturbance of the flow pattern around the pier is reduced. 9° Influence of pier alignment ) ii) The influence of the pier alignment, expressed with the coefficient angle of approach of flow, Eq, is given with Fig. 9.3f (see Raudkivi, p. 73), using the experimental data of Laursen (1962). Depending on the pier alignment, a, but also upon the geometry of the this coefficient may vary substantially, being for : - acylindrical pier: Ey = 1 ~ arectangularpier: Ey = fla, L/D,) where D, is the width and L, is the length of the cross section of the pi should be noted, that not the actual width, D., counts here, but the proj width, D,,,, which increases with the angle of approach, ot.624 scour depth ‘Scour depth for single pier FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS front pier : df Lib ° 4 “)3 5 7 9 WM 13 15 17 19° 21 relative spacing, a/D, Fig. 9.4 Influence of two piers on the scour depth. 10° Influence amongst piers i) ii) Until now an isolated, single pier was considered. A group of piers will exhibit a mutual influence on the hydraulic behaviour and on scouring. However, research on this topic is extremely scarce. Research results on scour at two piers (see Raudkivi, 1991, p. 85) are shown in Fig. 9.4. The scour depth, d,, of the reference pier is obviously influenced by the spacing of the piers ; one observes : when the two piers touch each other, a/D, = 1, the scour depth of the front pier is not influenced ; when the two piers are separated, the scour depth of the front pier begins to increase but eventually falls off ; when the two piers are very separated, a/D, ~ 11, the front pier is not influenced ; E the scour depth, dg, of the rear pier is always smaller than the one of the front pier ; ~ the scour depth, d,, between the piers diminishes rapidly and is negligible for wD, > 10.Ics ill vn ly nt ns ot he LOCAL scour, 1°? Influence of unsteady flow Unsteady flow in channels, such as encountered during the passage of fl translation waves or of wind waves, complicates the scour process consic Such waves may cause considerable pressure fluctuations on the bed, which may help to displace or loosen particle in the scour hole. Research on the effect of unsteady flow is scarce (see Raudki inconclusive. , 1991, p. i 9.2.4 Formulae for Design 1° 2° Although it is possible to present a good deal of experimental data, it is difficult to propose a scour formula for design. Field data are often lacking. Theoretical developments, which would help to organise better the data experiments, are limited. From the material presented above (see sect. 9.2.3), the scour depth for a Pier, positioned in a wide channel, can be estimated using the following relat ) for clear-water scour (U/Ug, < 1) : ~ the relation of Shen (1971) : ot d, = 0.00022 ey ii) for sediment-transport and clear-water scour : - the relation of Breusers et al. (1977, p. 248): =0 for ——<0.5 U for Tae 1.0 =1 for Teele where &, is the coefficient of pier shape and &,, is the coefficient 0 angle of approach.626 3° 4° FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS iii) for sediment-transport scour (U/Ue,> 1) : - arelation proposed by Raudkivi (1991 p. 88) : ds = D, =2.3- Ea (9.10) a relation of the type of eq. 9.5 : d. Db =2.0-Eg-&s- Sa (9.11) valid for (h/D,) > 1.5 and (Dy/dso) > 25. In the above relations, the scour depth is the average limiting (equilibrium) one, which occurs usually after an extended flooding. Evaluation of field measurements (see Nordin, 1989) of 104 cylindrical piers, covering a range of pier diameter, 0.2 < D, [m] < 13.0, of scour depth, 0.17 < d, {m] < 8.5, of flow depth, 0.3 1.630 6° 7 FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS The maximum scour depth, d,,,,, Occurs at flow velocities being identical to the critical one ; this was also observed for scour around piers (see Fig. 9.3a). Subsequently, upon an increase in the flow velocity, the average equilibrium scour depth, d, , establishes itself, being indistinguishable the same as the maximum one. For sediment-transport scour, where the flow velocity is of no further importance, it can be admitted that : iL (9.13) Influence of flow depth : The influence of the relative flow depth, h/L, on the dimensionless scour depth, dJ/L,, is shown in Fig. 9.7b (see Melville, 1992, p. 619), obtained from extensive laboratory data. Ascan be seen in Fig. 9.7b , the relative scour depth increases such as : =a / for 004< 2 <1 (9.14) A La and attains for short abutments a limiting value of : os =2 for fy (9.14a) La La . For very long abutments one takes : {10 for 1 < 0.04 (9.14) ze in< . Consequently, for abutments, which are neither very long nor very short, the scour depth, d, , is influenced by the flow depth, h, and the abutment length, L, ; it is given by the above relations, eqs 9.14, which are similar to a relation proposed by Laursen (1958). Influence of sediments : No successful evaluation of the influence of sediments on the scouring is available.3) ve 4) a) b) is ad LOCAL ScouR 30 — MES 1 4g (mm) > 1.53, 20 | 4 iL OG TOOL o | Ty Bo 1 ane aan or ai 10} 4 | 64g fmm) <0.81 ost yg (men) 4 pou 0 ose u/u,, 3 | 29 ; -— 4 1 " 4 L, ‘ Lol , : 4 1 | tack of data . - ns 10 100 1000) Ly / 59 1.00} o25| 0.60) os] ‘Shape a) o 10S Fig. 9.7 _ Influence of the different parameters (see eq. 9.12) on the dimensionless scour depth, d/L, , for an abutment.632 8° 9° FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS Using data obtained from pier-scour studies (see Fig. 9.3c), it was deduced (see Melville, 1992 p. 620) that for a relative sediment diameter, L,/d > 50 , there is little effect on the scour depth (see Fig. 9.7c). Consequently a value of : represents a very conservative value. For sediments with a grain-size distribution, 0, it is reported (see Melville, 1992, p. 620) that there is consistently produced a lower scour depth, as was also reported for pier scour (see Fig. 9.34). However since no conclusive experiments are available, the coefficient of sediment grading (see Fig. 9.74) is to be taken as Eg = 1; once again this is a very conservative value. Influence of abutment shape : ‘The influence of the geometry of the abutment, expressed with a coefficient of shape, E, , is given with Fig. 9.7e (see Melville, 1992, p. 617). Depending on the geometry of the abutment, the coefficient may vary, being for : - narrow vertical walls : & = 10 - vertical walls with rounded ends: &, = 0.75 - spill-through dikes : 0.45 I The above relations — in the light of the above limitations and complicat must be considered as (conservative) guideline estimates for hydraulic desig) CONSTRICTION SCOUR 9.4.1 Hydraulic Considerations 1° 2° A constriction (contraction) of a watercourse, due to a reduction in width, B. will lead in fluvial regime to an increased flow velocity, U, > U,, in the re cross section. If the channel has a mobile bed, erosion of the bed may consequence (see Fig. 9.8). Considered will be one-dimensional flow in a rectangular channel. It is supy that uniform flow exists in both the approach and the constricted cross sect the reach of the constriction is a Jong and gradual one, the resulting head los be negligible. This problem is one of a channel of variable width (see sect. 4.5.2) and \ variable bed floor (see sect. 4.5.1). i) The equation of continuity for a constant discharge, Q, reads : 4B, = Q = gB, ( For a channel of variable width, the unit discharge, q, will be variable. i) The specific energy, H,, will be maintained throughout the transition, th H, = HL = H,-d,634 3° FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS Fig. 9.8 Definition sketch for a long constriction. A graphical solution is to be followed (see Fig. 9.8) : - In fluvial regime, a constriction, B, < B,, causes an increase of the unit discharge, q, > q,, and consequently a decrease in the flow depth, h} < hy, and an increase in velocity, Uj > Uj. This increase in flow velocity may cause erosion in the constricted section ; consequently a drop, d,, in the bed floor will appear. - Downstream of the floor change, the specific energy, H, , is changed by the height of the floor change, d, ; it has now a value of Hs, = Hs," + ds, thus a shift of d, to the right. Consequently, an increase in the flow depth, hp >hg* , and a decrease in the flow velocity, Uz < U2", will install itself. - Comparing now the hydraulic situation in the approach channel, h, and U,, and in the constricted channel, h, and U,, the following is observed : if d, issmall: ho Uy if d, islarge: hy >hy ; Uy~U; (see Fig. 9.8) This should be kept in mind, when approximating the terms in the equation of energy, eq. 9.20, but also in the interpretation of the values obtained from Fig. 9.9. ‘The equation of continuity, for the water discharge, Q, between the two cross sections, reads : B,U,h, = B,U;h, (9.16a)ait » on od ss. a) LOCAL scouR 4° Using the Manning formula (see eq. 3.16) for wide channels, this yields : B, bn, - B, Lh 8,2 If the granulate is the same, d, = d,, thus the roughness coefficient, n, = ny the same, one obtains : B, hy," = B, h,°8s,12 S_ = S; may be taken, if the flow is a uniform one. ‘The shear stress in a wide rectangular channel is given by : % = pghs, where S, is the slope of the energy-grade line. The equation of energy, for the two cross sections under consideratio Fig. 9.8) can be written as : ut 2g Assuming the head loss due to friction, h,, and to the constriction, h negligible, an expression for the scour depth reads : U2 dj+hy +5 = h,+s2 +h +h, 2g Uy? _U? - a2 any «(SE -SE) ( For fluvial flow, it seems often reasonable (see Laursen, 1963, p. 97) to as that the variation in the velocity head is small, which renders : d= (bh) or hy = hy +d, ( 9.4.2 Scour-depth Relations 1° The above relation, eq. 9.18, shall be used to express the relative flow depth : hy ( y" ; hy ,636 2° 3° FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS Furthermore the definition of the shear stress, eq. 9.19, yields : To, _ PEI Se, Se, To, hy (9.23) 7, PBA Se, Se, To, hy Combining the above relations, renders : hs (@)° To, hy hy, B, TG, by or rewritten : eB GS as fol 1 (9.24) hy \B,) \t, This relation is plotted in Fig. 9.9, with the relative flow depth, hy/h,, as a function of the relative shear stress, 7,,/t,,, for various values of width reduction, B,/B,. Here, the following is to be observed : for a given relative shear stress, 1,,/t,, an increase in the width reduction, B,/B, , is responsible for an increase in the relative depth, hy/hy ; if the flow depth throughout the entire constriction does not change — the relative depth yields unity, h,/h, = 1 — it implies (see eq. 9.24), that : To, (By pg hy Se, Sey ®y ty = (Bo or Pears = =(2 (9.25) %, B, pg hy S., Se, By having a limiting value at : In B, =1 he a2 = 1 when 5? s Op for a relative flow depth below unity, hj/h, < 1, scour is also possible ; the complete equation of energy, eq. 9.20a, must be considered. An interesting relationship can be obtained, assuming that the same granulate, thus the same critical shear stress, t.,, =,» exists in the approach and the constricted channel. The above relation, eq.'9.24, can now be rewritten: by ey” (Ey (9.24a) hb, (BL) te3) 4) *5) a) LOCAL ScoUR To, Tee GETZ te) 0.0 0.4 os 10 1a Data: Komura (1966) B,/B, dy [mm] O 2 038-071 34 4 030-056 1 28)|/h, 2, U Id, - (UZ/ 2g - U, Fig. 9.9 Relative flow depth, h,/h, , or scour depth, d/h, as a function of th relative shear stress, t,,/,,, or the relative shear stress, T,/t,,, (if To, = Tc,), both for different width reductions, B,/B,. If the shear stress, t,,, in the constricted channel is taken to be the critica 1, = Ter the above relation becomes : hos es wee | hy 7 B, Ter. already presented by Laursen (1963, p. 97). This relation is also given Fig. 9.9, where the following is to be observed : - for a given relative shear stress, %,/t,,, an increase in the width redw B,/B,, is responsible for an increase in the relative depth, hy/hy ; ~ for the special case, when the shear stress is the critical one throughout the: channel, namely, To, = To = Ty, the above relations, eq. 9.24 or eq. reduce to : ne (ay638 4° FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS Allowing for a variation of the sediment sizes, d; #d,, the above relation, eq. 9.24, can be written (see Komura, 1966, p. 23) as : hy _ By Cu To (& uw By) \%,) dr i (9.27a) 9.4.3 Formula for Design 1° 2° 9.5 From the material presented above (see sect. 9.4.2), the scour depth can be estimated using the following relation : hyo @y° To)" hy \B) \t, which is given with Fig. 9.9. (9.24) The shear stress, t,, and t,,, defined with eq. 9.19, can be evaluated by means of the friction coefficient, namely according to the relations of Manning, Chézy or Strickler (see sect. 3.2). Due to a lack of laboratory data as well as an almost complete lack of field data, the above relation, eq. 9.24, must be considered as a guide-line estimate for hydraulic design (see Raudkivi, 1990, p. 245). HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES SCOUR 9.5.1 Notions 1° 2° 3° 4° Weirs or low-head dams as well as underflow gates, are installed in channels and waterways to control and/or measure the discharge (see sect. 4.4.1 and sect. 4.4.3). The flow passes over, qo, and/or under, qu, such an hydraulic structure towards the downstream (see Fig. 9.10). Such a flow, which often appears in form of jets, may have considerable hydraulic potential to scour on the downstream side of the structure ; a scour hole is formed. Since the scour hole develops rather rapidly, the engineer takes interest in the equilibrium scour depth, d, , and the length of the scour hole, L,. Scour will not only endanger the stability of the channel bed, but it might also have devastating effects on the hydraulic structure itself.‘a) be 4) of. or LOCAL SCOUR 5° 6° Fig. 9.10 Schema of hydraulic structure scour; a combined sluice gate allowing overflow and underflow. Considering an hydraulic structure positioned in an open channel, where the f unidirectional, uniform and steady, and where the bed is made of cohesi sediments, the equilibrium scour depth, d, , depends on : - the fluid : the density, p, and viscosity, v ; - the sediments: the density, p;, and a characteristic diameter, d ; - the channel flow (in absence of the structure) : the water depth, h, the average velocity, U, and the gravi - the interference of the structure on the channel flow : resulting in a drop in the water depth, Ah = hy - hy. This allows to write : 4, = fi(p. vs pqdsh, U, g; Ah) ( Using dimensional reasoning the following parameters are obtained : 4, _ ,(ued (UhY Pe h ab f(t GE Pe a ¢ Usually it is assumed (see Kotoulas, 1967 p. 38) that the particle Reyt number, Rez , the relative density, p,/p , and the relative roughness, h/d , p negligible role ; thus : 4p (2 Ab oa (Sm7 FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS where q = Uh is the unit discharge in the channel. For flow over the structure, the discharge is q = qo + for flow under the structure, the discharge is q = qy ; for flow over as well as under the structure, the discharge is q = do + du- Stilling basins are sometimes used to protect against destructive scouring. The dimensioning will require knowledge of the possible length, L, , of the scour hole. There might still be scouring downstream of the stilling basin (see Raudkivi, 1990, p. 283) where rock blocks or rip-rap could be placed as a measure of protection (see sect. 9.2.5). 9.5.2 Flow over a Structure 1° Scour due to flow over an hydraulic (low-head) structure is schematically shown in Fig. 9.11. The scour depth, ds, is the equilibrium maximum value, which develops rather fast. The unprotected channel bed below the free overfall is eroded. Downstream of the scour hole of a certain length, L,, may appear a mound of deposition. The free overfall, plunging in form of a jet into the downstream water, forms two vortices, whose erosive power often considerable is responsible for the scour hole. 2° ‘fixed bed Fig. 9.11 Schema of flow over a structure. For the prediction of the scour depth, ds, various formulae have been developed. However, all these prediction formulae are based in small-scale laboratory studies ; upscaling of these in order to predict scour on real structures has to be viewed with caution. Here is a selection of some relations presently in use.2s of x LOCAL ScoUR 3° 4° 5° Early attempts by Schoklitsch (1932) and Veronese (1937) have sho Eggenberger et Miiller, 1944), that the scour depth, d , cannot be expres: simple relation. A limited set of laboratory data, using the similarity of Froude, < Exggenberger et Milller (1944, p. 31 and p. 45) to propose the following rel: ‘Anos qos h+d=w “Got where the coefficient is: w = 1.44 [s6/m°3], if doy [m] w = 22.88 [s06/m03], if doo [mm] ; w" = 3.6 [-]. This relation was subsequently generalised to: v Aho5 qos heds = Ss as 4/9 ease where doo [m] is the diameter of the largest particles in the granulometry original bed; thus an armouring (see sec. 6.3.4) takes place. Ithas been frequently remarked that the above formula, eq. 9.28, overestima scour depth. For the length of the scour hole the following relations are advanced : L, hed) = 5 ( Performing laboratory test and evaluating these data according to the dimen: reasoning (see eq. 9.27) Kotoulas (1967, p. 40) proposed a relation fc dimensionless equilibrium scour depth, such as : TG dys or642 7 FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS The temporal evolution of the scour depth, (h + d,),, was given by : ‘Ah025 02 . (n+), = [ogee a-e ) (9.32) Equilibrium scour is obtained in the laboratory after 24 [h]. ‘A comparison of eq. 9.31 with eq. 9.28 was done and showed that the scour depth, d,, obtained with eq. 9.28 is usually 85% larger. Many of the available model and prototype data were analysed by Mason et Arumugam (1985, p. 232). The following relation was proposed : Ab’ q* ea n'a nels (9.33) & ra where dy, [m] is the mean particle size, rather than deo [m]. The coefficient and the exponents are given, being for model data : Ky = 3.27, y = 0.05 x = 0.6 prototype and model data: Ky = 6.42 ~- 3.10 Ah, y = 0.15 + Ah/200 x = 0.6—Ah/300 This formula is said to be applicable for bed material of 0.001 < dm [m] < 0.028 ; it can also be applied for all types of rocks, by assuming dj, = 0.25 [m]. Since the investigated data set included also data from high-head structures (spillway-chute flip buckets and tunnel outlets), the above relation, eq. 9.33, might be less valuable for low-head structure in fluvial hydraulics. It should be remarked that the above presented formulae, eq. 9.28, eq. 9.29, eq. 9.31 and eq. 9.33, maintain a rather simple combination of the parameters obtained through dimensional reasoning. Some other formulae, having a complex form - these include the Russian relations (see Mason et Arumugam, 1985, p. 224) — have not been considered. Also not included are formulae obtained from data of high-head structures (see Breusers, 1991, p. 119).32) our et 33) the res ght 29, ers ons. rot LOCAL SCOUR 9.5.3 Flow under a Structure 1° Scour due to flow under an hydraulic structure is schematically sh Fig. 9.12. The underflow forms a kind of horizontal jet moving towa downstream, whose erosive power could become considerable. 2° 3° Fig. 9.12 Schema of flow under a structure. For the prediction of the scour depth, d, , a few formulae have been advanc are based on small-scale laboratory studies. Here is a selection of some relations presently in use. The form of the relation, eq. 9.28, established by Eggenberger et Miiller ( P. 40) for overflow, q = qo, was found valid for underflow, q = qq , or : Ah05 gos hedsew “pag ( The coefficient for a submerged jet is w = 10.35 [s°%/m93] and for a free je w= 15.40 [s°6/m03}, if dog {mm}. For the same flow conditions, q and Ah , and the same sediment, doo , it is that scour at underflow produces a smaller scour depth, d,, when compared | scour at overflow (see eq. 9.28). For the length of the scour hole the following relations are advanced :64d 4° 5° FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS In comparison with the scour hole for overflow (see eq. 9.30) the one for underflow is considerably larger. Reviewing available laboratory data, the following relation was advanced by Breusers (1991, p. 107) : os UP fe = 0.008 {7.2 (9.36) valid for (Uy/Uge;) < 100. Here Uy = qu/hy is the underflow velocity and Ugee = (Toee/P)"” is the critical (scour) shear velocity of the bed material. For the length of the scour hole an estimation is given as : b= 5107 (9.37) Above relations are developed for scour by submerged horizontal jets. The scour resulting from a combination of flow under and over the hydraulic structure (see Fig. 9.10) was investigated by Eggenberger et Miller (1944, p. 43). The general form of the relation valid for overflow, eq. 9.28, or for underflow, eq. 9.34, was used : 05 og And (9.38) he dy=w A where q = qo + qu. The coefficient was determined as being : 22.88 - ——__, —__1_____ (9.39) 0.0049 R3 — 0.0063 R? + 0.029 R, + 0.064 w with Rg = (qo/qu) as the ratio of the overflow to the underflow unit discharge. Note, for underflow only, when Rg << 1, w = 10.35 [s °6/m?3] and for overflow only, when Rg >> 1, w = 22.88 [s °5/m?3].cs ‘or by 6) ad 72 ic 5). , 5) ») ys LOCAL SCOUR 9.6 EXERCISES 9.6.1 Problems, solved Ex. 9.A, A bridge pier has to be placed into a river estuary. This pier, being well aligned \ flow, is round-nosed having a diameter of D, = 18 [m] and a length of Ly = 40 [n The water depth in the estuary is h = 22 {m] ; an approach flow velocity from ti current of U = 0.12 [m/s] was measured. The bed material is rather fine, he diameter of dso = 0.1 [mm] with o, = 1.5 [-]. Determine the scour depth to be expected. SOLUTION : i) Critical velocity The critical velocity, U,,, of erosion will be taken from the diagram of Hju (see Fig. 3.12) : for d = 0.1 [mm] > Ug, = 0.2 [m/s] 5| D, = 18.0 im) Fig. Ex.9.A.1 ii) Scour-depth estimation The problem is one of clear-water scour, since (see Fig. 9.3a) : U _ 012 _ uu Uz = Os = 06 * ue < 100 The relative flow depth is of no great importance, since (see Fig. 9.3b) : h _ 2 Lh D, = Te = 122 “p, > 100646 FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS The relative grain size is of no further consequence, since (see Fig. 9.3¢) : D; 18 D, pe 5 a dp = 0.0001 = 1.8 x 10° ody > 100 From above, it appears reasonable, that the scour depth can be evaluated, using the following two relations, available for clear-water scour : UD, \0-619 — 4d, = 0.00022 () (9.6) consequently, one writes : ee wna) = 184 = 19 (mm) d, U h _ &efyu_ )e,. a= (2g 1)[20mnge fn ©) valid for :0.5 < to < 10; 7 with &,= 1.0, for a round pier (see Fig. 9.6e) with &, = 1.0, for an aligned pier (see Fig. 9.6f) consequently, one writes : Os 0.12 _ 22 D; (2x Hi 1) (20am 22) x 131 = (12-1) (2.0x 0.84) = 0.336 and one obtains : d, = 0.336 D, = 0.336x 18 = 6.05 [m] The scour depth, obtained with the above relations, eq. 9.6 and eq. 9.9, give different results ; the more conservative value should be used. The scour depth to be expected may be taken as : d, = 6.0 [m]ics 6) 9) ve LOCAL SCoUR Ex. 9.B A large channel, having a width of B = 90 [m] is designed for a maximum discl Q= 1026 [m/s]. The corresponding depth and hydraulic radius were calculated ; Ih = 3.19 [m] and Ry, = 3.00 [m]. The bottom slope of the channel was measured as being S; = 0.0005 [ granulometric analysis gave values of dy = 0.32 {mm] with G = 1.8 and s, = 2.€ A bridge which crosses the river will have a round-nosed Pier being aligned u jangle of o = 15°. The pier is 1.2 [m] wide and 6.0 [m] long. /Estimate the equilibrium scour depth at the pier. SOLUTION : i) Hydraulic calculations The shear stress of the approach flow shall be calculated using the expressio T, = pus” where us” = gR,S; = 9.81 x 3.0 x 0.0005 = 0.0147 [m?/s?]. Subsequently one obtains : T = 1000 x 0.0147 = 14.70 [N/m?] Furthermore, the dimensionless shear stress is expressed by : t, 14.7 T= OO ss gay ' (eDdsq —-9.81 x (2650-1000) x 0.00032 ii) Critical condition The critical condition will be expressed using the relation of Shields Fig. 3.13), given by: t, = fd, @ =3,2x104 2650 1000 9. 2 (1 2a0°) J d, = 7.17E] > Toe = 0.04 [-]648 iti) FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS Scour-depth estimation The problem is one of sediment-transport scour, since (see Fig. 9.3a) : Se 2284 27 ae x, 7 0.04 = 7 wa?) The relative flow depth is of no further consequence, since (see Fig. 9.3b) : h “Bo > 10 Dp The relative grain size is of no further consequence, since (see Fig. 9.3c) : D,_ _1.2 D, = 2 2p Gp = 0.00032 = 3750 os > 100 so From above it appears reasonable, that the scour depth can be evaluated, using the following two relations, available for sediment-transport scour : a, _ 55. — oe 23 -Ey (9.10) with &q = 1.7, fora rectangular non-aligned pier, for a = 15° with L,/D, 5 (see Fig. 9.3f) consequently, one obtains : d, = (2.31.7) x 12 7 [m] = Ds = 20+ bg -Es-ba @.11) with E, = 0.75 fora graded sediment, o, = 1.8 [-] (see Fig. 9.34) & = 1.1, for a round-nosed pier (see Fig. 9.3e) consequently, one obtains : dy = 2.0-(0.75 x11 1.7)-1.2 = 3.4 [m] The scour depth, obtained with the above relations, eq. 9.10 and eq. 9.11, give reasonably similar results. The relation of eq. 9.10 is a more conservative one, while the relation of eq. 9.11 is all together reasonable in the light of the available research.les the 10) ul) ive LOCAL ScoUR Ex. 9.C A spill-through abutment is to be constructed in a larger river, which conveys : Jdischarge of Q = 1600 [m°/s], at a flow depth of h = 4.0 [m]. The river has a width of B = 400 {m] and a bottom slope of S; = 0.000072 Sediment in the river was analysed as being dsy = 8 [mm] with Gy = 1.7 s, = 2.63 [-]. ‘The abutment to be constructed is inclined by @ = 50° and its extension, m perpendicular to the flow, should be L, = 50 [m]. [Calculate the equilibrium scour depth. Suggest a possible scour prevention scenari SOLUTION : i) Hydraulic calculations The average flow velocity shall be calculated using the form Manning-Strickler : U = KRY? S12 where Ky = 34k = so woo = 47.2 [m'/s] n = 1/K, = 0.02 [m!4/s}! and with Ry23 = h23 = 425 =2.5 (my Subsequently one obtains : U = 47.2 2.5 x (0.000072)! = 1.0 [m/s] ii) Critical velocity The critical velocity, U,,, of erosion will be taken from the diagram of Hjul (see Fig. 3.12): ford = 8{mm] => Ux, = 0.8 [m/s]650 iii) FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS L, = 50.0 [m) tt Fig, Ex.9.C.1 Scour-depth estimation The problem is one of sediment-transport scour, since (see Fig. 9.6a) : ue 1 Gy? 100 U Ue ‘The abutment is considered to be a “long” one, since (see Fig. 9.6b) = h 4 h T = = = 0.08 Bias . la ah > 25 IsoLOCAL ScoUR iv) From above it appears reasonable, that the scour depth can be evaluated, u following relation : [t= ff bebe ' 0.5, for a spill-through abutment (see Fig. 9.7e) &a = 0.9, for the angle of approach , @ = 50° (see Fig. 9.7f) with consequently one writes : 4\2 — = 2x(3) x0.5x0.9 = 0.255 4, = 0.255L, = 0.255x 50 = 12.7 [m] This is a rather conservative design estimate, as has been remarked development of eq. 9.15b. In the above relationship, eq. 9.15b, the fact that the sediment is graded, 0, has not been taken into account, but &g = 1 was taken, Research (see Rat 1991, p. 67 and Melville, 1992, p. 623) has shown (see also Fig. 9.3d) that ; sediments produce armouring and a reduction expressed by &, = 0.75 can saf expected. Thus one obtains for the scour depth : d, = &y (0.255 Ly) = 0.75 x (0.255 x 50) = 9.6 [m] This appears to be a more appropriate design estimate. Scour prevention An effective method to avoid much of the local scour is the dumping of stone the scour hole. The size of the stone, d, can be determined from a simple working relationshi sect. 9.2.5) using : Uy = 24Vd consequently one obtains (Ug = U = | [nvs]) : Us) _ (1.07 a~(2) - (53) = 0.17 [mj652 FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS Ex. 9.D ‘A mountain stream was channellised — see Ex. 3.D — in order to flow at the design discharge of Q = 30 [m’/s], essentially free of erosion. ‘The hydraulic and sedimentological parameters, the following were obtained : Sy, = 0.01 [-J, dso = 50 [mm], s, = 2.65 [-], n = 0.025 [mr!?s] 5 R,, = 0.45 [mi], h, = 0.47 {m], By = 27.5 {m}, U, = 2.35 [rms]. The channel width should be reduced, but the part in the constriction should be free of| erosion, having a scour depth of no more than d, = 0.30 [m]. ‘Determine the width in the constricted section of the channel. SOLUTION : i) Hydraulic calculations - The shear stress in the approach channel is obtained as : to. = pERn Sr = 1000x981 x 0.45 x 0.01 = 44 [N/m?] = The critical shear stress, t,,, for the granulate, dg, shall be obtained from Fig. 3.13, where t, = f(d,) The dimensionless diameter is : 1B 1B } = 005 | 2550-1000 __9.81 oa 1000 (12x10) ‘The dimensionless shear stress can be obtained from Fig. 3.13, thus : d. =1120-} = Tae = 0.055] Subsequently the shear stress is found to be : Ter = Teer & (Ps —P) dso = 0.055 x 9.81 x (1650) x 0.05 = 44.5 [Ném?] Thus it is shown that the approach channel is essentially free of erosion, since : To, = Te = [N/m?]les om LOCAL scour ii) Fig. Ex.9.D.1 Calculation of scour depth It shall be assumed, that the variation of the velocity head is sma eq. 9.20a), such that : ds, = (by ~hy) Using the “allowable” scour depth of d, = 0.30 [m], one gets : hy = hy +d, = 0.47 +0.30 =0.77 [m] Since both, the approach and the constricted section of the channel, are { erosion, namely t,, = to, and %, = Ty, the relative flow depth c calculated with the following relation : be. (BL) ; hy B, This renders : B fn. 16 ze () = (334) =178 = By = 155[m] 2 (hy .