Crushed limestone and lime in all its forms are used to neutralize acids in the soil and so create

the
optimum soil conditions for crop growth. They also help to break down clays as described above,
improving the soil structure, thus improving drainage and reducing soil erosion. Further, they provide a
source of calcium ions that are an important plant nutrient.

How is soil acidity corrected?

Soil acidity can be corrected easily by liming the soil, or adding basic materials to neutralize the acid
present. The most commonly used liming material is agricultural limestone, the most economical and
relatively easy to manage source. The limestone is not very water-soluble, making it easy to handle. Lime
or calcium carbonate's reaction with an acidic soil is described in figure 1, which shows acidity (H) on the
surface of the soil particles. As lime dissolves in the soil, calcium (Ca) moves to the surface of soil
particles, replacing the acidity. The acidity reacts with the carbonate (CO 3) to form carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water (H2O). The result is a soil that is less acidic (has a higher pH).

Orthophosphate is a negatively charged anion and is the form of phosphorus absorbed through
the root and taken up by the plant. In general, the phosphate in dry fertilizers exists in the
“orthophosphate” form. Plants take up phosphorus (P) in the ortho form, so many advocate that
fertilizers containing ortho phosphates are better than those with poly phosphates. Immediately usable

The form of Phosphorus taken up by the plant

High purity

Higher investment

Neutral pH

Phosphate fertilizer, when applied to soil, reacts very rapidly to form compounds that are less soluble
than the form in which the fertilizer was added. This is due largely to the iron and aluminum oxides in the
soil which rapidly react with applied phosphate, making it less soluble. For this reason, phosphates are
not mobile in soil, and leaching losses of phosphate are insignificant in Kentucky soils. Erosion of surface
soil containing applied phosphates is the most likely way in which phosphates would be lost from soils.
Since phosphates are relatively immobile in soil, it is not important that phosphate fertilizer be applied
during the crop’s growth cycle. The long residual value of phosphates in soil will make them available to
crops over long periods of time. It is rare that more than 25 percent of phosphates applied to a crop is
used in the first year after application.

Salinity and Timing / Splitting of the Fertilizer Application

Different crops have different salt tolerance levels. When salinity level exceeds the salt
tolerance of the crop, yield is affected and begins to decrease.

The maximum amount of fertilizer that can be applied at one application depends on
the salinity threshold that the crop can tolerate.

Therefore, split fertilizer applications help to avoid salt damages to the crop and
improves germination rate. Applying smaller amounts of fertilizers at shorter intervals
reduce salt stress.

Micronutrient deficienCies are major constraints in crop production in the present day agricultural
programmes. Micronutrient fertilizers are gaining importance day by day and would playa major role in
bringing stability and sustainability in the production of food grains, pulses and oilseeds in the coming
decade. The three main classes of micronutrient sources are inorganic, synthetic chelates and organic
complexes. Inorganic sources such as sulphates of Cu, Mn, Fe and Zn are the most common metallic
salts used in the fertilizer industry because of their ready plant availability and water solubility. In the
past 35-40 years, it has been recognised that compounds containing chelated metals could supply many
of the micronutrient requirements of plants. These chelates find use in a wide variety of agricultural
crops. Applications for chelates vary from fertilizer additives, seed dressing to foliar sprays and
hydroponics. Chelates and Chelating Agents A chelate describes a kind of organic chemical complex in
which the metal part of the molecule is held so tightly that it cannot be 'stolen' by contact with other
substances, which could convert it to an insoluble form. This is especially true for many soil types in
India. Chelating agents are organic molecules that can trap or encapsulate certain metal ions like Ca, Mg,
Fe, Co, eu, Zn and Mn and then release these metal ions slowly so that they become available for plants
to take them up. A chelate refers to a ring system that results when a metal ion combines with two or
more electron donor groups of a single molecule. Actually unidentate water molecules, which are
coordinated with a metal ion, are replaced by the most stable bi-, trior poly dentate groups of the
chelating agent. This results in the 46 --------~-------- RESONANCE I July 2003 GENERAL I ARTICLE ring
formation. Metals bound in chelate rings have essentially lost their cationic characteristics. In this form
they are less prone to precipitation in some chemical reactions. This is the characteristic feature that
makes these compounds useful in agriculture. The plant availability of certain micronutrient fertilizers
reduces by transformation of the added micronutrient into forms that plants are unable to absorb. For
example, if the inorganic iron salt (iron sulphate) is supplied to some soils, much of the iron is
transformed into forms that are not readily assimilated. They are converted to 'plant unavailable' forms.
This problem can be overcome by using chelates. There are many naturally occurring chelating agents
that are products of organic matter decomposition such as organic acids, amino acids, ligninosulfonates,
ligninipolycarboxylates, sugar acids and derivatives, phenols, poly flavonoids, siderophores and phyto
siderophores. Many chelating agents have been developed synthetically. Both classes of
chelating/complexing agents increase micronutrient solubility. One of the most important
characteristics of chelating agents used is the relative stability of various metal chelates, especially if one
is considering synthetically developed cpelates. In other words, it is the degree of affinity of a given
agent for a metal. From the stability constant data the ability of one metal to compete with another can
be estimated. Stability of micronutrient chelate bonded generally detemines 'plant availability' of the
applied micronutrient. An effective chelate relationship is one in which the rate of substitution of the
chelated micronutrients for cations already in the soil is low, thus maintaining the applied micronutrient
in the chelated form for length of time sufficient to be absorbed by the plant roots. Some chelating
agents used for the pr09uction of synthetic micronutrient chelates are

ABSTRACT In 1994 a long-term field trial with 9 lime–gypsum combinations and 2

tillage treatments (reduced tillage and direct drill) was established on a
sodic red-brown earth soil [surface pH(water) 6.5] at a property
near Peak Hill, NSW, Australia. The lime-gypsum treatments were: L0G0 (lime 0
t/ha, gypsum 0 t/ha), L0G1, L0G2.5, L0G5, L1G0, L2.5G0, L5G0, L1G1,
and L2.5G1.
After 3 years, higher rates of lime and gypsum or their combinations
significantly (P < 0.01) increased exchangeable and
soluble calcium and decreased exchangeable and soluble sodium in the
0–100 mm layer of the soil. Gypsum was found to decrease the total
soluble cation concentration (TCC) in some instances, while lime maintained
TCC at 1995 levels. Soil pH was significantly higher on all lime plots and
electrical conductivity was slightly higher on plots treated with lime than on
control plots. Organic carbon levels were significantly higher in plots with
gypsum and high levels of the lime–gypsum combination (L2.5G1). The
effectiveness of the lime treatments was influenced by the initial soil pH (as
suggested by the findings of other studies).
The lime, and to a lesser extent the gypsum treatments, improved the physical
properties of the soil as measured by the Emerson aggregate test, penetrometer
resistance, infiltration, and water availability. A tillage effect was also
present resulting in less dispersion, decreased penetrometer resistance, and
higher infiltration rates in plots prepared with reduced tillage practices
than direct drill plots. Plant-available water content (AWC) was significantly
higher in the surface soil of plots treated with L2.5G1 than control
treatments. The L5G0 and L0G5 treatments did not significantly improve the
AWC. Crop yields were increased by some of the lime–gypsum treatments in
both 1995 and 1996. Corresponding with the increased AWC, the L2.5G1 treatment
produced the highest crop yields. Plots with reduced tillage had consistently
higher yields than those with direct drill treatment.
The long-term effects of lime (CaCO3), gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), and tillage on the physical and chemical
properties of a sodic red-brown earth - ResearchGate. Available from:
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/263026443_The_long-
 term_effects_of_lime_%28CaCO3%29_gypsum_%28CaSO4.2H2O%29_and_tillage_on_the_physical_and
_chemical_properties_of_a_sodic_red-brown_earth [accessed Apr 4, 2015].

Last, but not least, Gypsum has been used for more than 200 years as a soil amendment and fertiliser.
Indeed, it improves water penetration and workability of impermeable sodic ‘alkali’ soils; it softens soils
with a high clay content; it helps neutralise soil acidity; and it adds plant nutrients: Calcium and Sulphur.

Gypsum contains sulphur as sulphate, the form taken up by plant roots. The sulphur in gypsum is readily
available, so gypsum can be used where a quick response to sulphur is required. Gypsum has little if any
effect on soil pH. It cannot be used as a substitute for lime to correct soil acidity, i.e. to raise the pH.

1. Foliar feeding is a technique of feeding plants by applying liquid fertilizer directly to

their leaves. Plants are able to absorb essential elements through their leaves.
The absorption takes place through their stomata and also through their epidermis.

Production Ammonium phosphate fertilizers first became available in the 1960s and DAP rapidly
became the most popular in this class of products. It is formulated in a controlled reaction of phosphoric
acid with ammonia, where the hot slurry is then cooled, granulated, and sieved. DAP has excellent
handling and storage properties. The standard grade of DAP is 18-46-0 and fertilizer products with a
lower nutrient content may not be labeled as DAP. The inputs required to produce one ton of DAP
fertilizer are approximately 1.5 to 2 tons of phosphate rock, 0.4 tons of sulfur (S), to dissolve the rock,
and 0.2 tons of ammonia. Changes in the supply or price of any of these inputs will impact DAP prices
and availability. The high nutrient content of DAP is helpful in reducing handling, freight, and application
costs. DAP is produced in many locations in the world and is a widely traded fertilizer commodity