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Australian Geothermal Conference 2010

Petrophysical Methods for Characterization of Geothermal Reservoirs


Ben Clennell1, Lionel Esteban*1, Ludovic Ricard1,3, Matthew Josh1, Cameron Huddlestne-Holmes1, Jie
Liu2, Klaus Regenauer-Lieb1,2,3
1
CSIRO Earth Science & Resources Engineering, ARRC, 26 Dick Perry Avenue, Kensington
2
University of Western Australia, M004, 35 Stirling Av., 6009 Crawley
3
Western Australian Geothermal Centre of Excellence, ARRC, 26 Dick Perry Avenue, Kensington

Abstract: Australia has a unique wealth of non- the reservoir rock’s composition, structure,
volcanic geothermal resources. To tap these for porosity and permeability, temperature, pressure
local and distributed energy needs, optimal and mechanical properties, leading to a better
targeting and development strategies for the overall understanding of the resource.
reservoirs are needed. In the case of Hot
Sedimentary Aquifers (HSA), many tools for Petrophysical methods for the characterization of
formation evaluation developed in the oil and gas geothermal reservoirs have progressed
industry for High Pressure/ High Temperature significantly overseas particularly for the extreme
environments could be applied directly; this environments such as HR and volcanic sources.
applies both to downhole tools and laboratory In this paper we describe CSIRO’s expertise in
characterization methods. The standard suite of the Petroleum sector, which is directly applicable
petrophysical methods is adequate for to HSA. It is our intention to grow this expertise
determining basic matrix and fluid characteristics, further into the HR domain.
but for full characterization of flow and Our petrophysical characterization of geothermal
geomechanical parameters advanced acoustic reservoirs forms part of a larger collaborative
and nuclear magnetic resonance tools could find initiative of CSIRO and Universities working with
a place, at least for high value resources. In both industry and government with the aim to reduce
crystalline rock and HSA plays, image logs are a the risks of implementing geothermal technology
vital tool, not least for enabling improved core-to- through computationally assisted guidance of
log workflows. Understanding of the thermal drilling programs to target locations and depths.
properties of rock and how that relates to field The core of the required scientific innovation will
scale thermal structure is another challenge be to develop new data assimilation inversion
unfamiliar to most petrophysicists. Modelling from tools, which ensure that all available information,
pore/grain through to formations scale is vital for including geologic, geophysical, geomechanics,
assessing both thermal and flow performance. fluid dynamics, rock physics, geochemistry and
CSIRO and the Western Australian Geothermal economic data is integrated into the subsurface
Centre of Excellence have brought together and above-ground geothermal design. In this
experience and capabilities in rock physical and contribution we focus on the petrophysical
thermal properties and in this paper review what methods for characterization of geothermal
petrophysical tools and methods are available to reservoirs. These comprise the characterization of
the geothermal industry and illustrate some of the rock mechanical, thermal, geochemical and fluid
research currently underway. permeability properties.

Standard petrophysical tools and


Keywords: Petrophysics, Reservoir Character-
ization Thermal Conductivity, Heat Capacity, characterization workflows
Porosity, Permeability, HP/HT. Since the Schlumberger brothers invented the first
downhole electric log in the 1920s, the oil and gas
Introduction
industry has provided the platform to develop a
Australia’s immense geothermal energy resources wide range of petrophysical logging tools, (see
have the potential to contribute significantly to our Ellis and Singer 2007). The range of physical
nation’s demand for affordable and sustainable properties that can be sensed today is impressive
clean energy. However, for the efficient (Table 1). While the uptake of down-hole
exploitation of geothermal energy a good technologies in water, mining and environmental
characterization of the reservoir is a prerequisite. sectors has largely been limited by cost to a basic
suite, certain slim-hole and extreme environment
Petrophysics is the systematic investigation of tools have been developed outside of oil and gas,
rock and fluid physical properties to understand most notably for borehole imaging.
the rock type and fluid flow performance of
underground formations. Petrophysical Petrophysical characterization serves three main
techniques measure the physical and chemical purposes, each with its own workflow to: (1)
properties of the rock either in situ (well logging) define the lithostratigraphy, and therefore help in
or in a lab (core and chips). The data generated geological correlation between wells and definition
from these analyses can be used to characterize of reservoir structure; (2) quantify matrix, fluid and

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Australian Geothermal Conference 2010
flow properties of the reservoir and (3) assess
stresses and geomechanical properties in situ.
Table 1
1. For definition of lithology and structure one is
Type of tool Physics employed- Geothermal looking to use tools, such as gamma ray,
what is measured application resistivity and sonic, which show substantial
Resistivity- Direct current Relations between contrasts between different lithologies. At this
galvanic injected into the porosity, water stage, quantitative relationships are less important
formation, usually saturation and water than the signatures that mark boundaries between
focused electrode salinity. correlated rock units. In crystalline rock situations
array. magnetic susceptibility (not generally used in oil
Resistivity- Coil magnetic field Relations between and gas exploration) is valuable to identify certain
induction transmitter induces porosity, water geological markers. At the next level of detail we
ground loops in saturation and water require identification of features such as tilted
formation, measures salinity. beds, coal seams, igneous dykes, faults and
conductivity of fractures. Dip logs and image logs are most useful
formation here. The best type of imaging tool for a
Gamma ray- Scintillator detects Shaliness, heat geothermal hole (borehole televiewer for air or
standard total radioactivity of production clean water filled holes, ultrasonic scanning tool)
formation may be different from that used mostly in oil and
Spontaneous Electrochemically Pore water salinity. gas (formation resistivity array imager). In
potential (SP) and electrokinetically Indicator of clay layers crystalline rocks, flow properties begin and end
induced potentials vs sand layers, with fractures, so image logs are especially vital.
permeability of the Resistivity images have the advantage that open
latter. and flowing fractures may have different contrast
Density log Uses backscattered Sensitive to formation to closed or non-flowing ones.
gamma rays from a bulk density, based on
radioactive source, atomic number In the laboratory we gain complimentary
typical 137Cs. contrasts. lithological information from petrographic analysis
Photoelectric Measured from Indicates mineral of cores and cuttings samples, usually aided by
effect relative energy electron density optical and electron microscopy. Structural
absorption from the logging of core can define fault and fracture sets,
density source determine relative timing, and differentiate natural
Neutron log Detects neutron Sensitive to water from drilling-induced fractures, which is not
absorption from content including clay always possible from borehole images alone.
hydrogen nuclei bound water 2. For quantitative formation evaluation for a HSA
Sonic Log Compressional wave Porosity and strength target reservoir, combining the basic “oilfield”
velocity (stiffness) of formation tools performs a vital function. Density and
Gamma ray- Energy sensitivity Shaliness, rock neutron tools enable porosity to be delineated,
spectral detectors distinguish geochemistry heat along with some understanding of matrix
U, Th and K production mineralogy and especially clay content. Neutron-
Magnetic Measures magnetic Can provide good porosity to density porosity ratio can indicate
susceptibility permeability of the lithological zones not completely saturated with water, and
formation by discrimination, even of with gamma ray, indicates clay content. Clay
inductive coupling or very thin layers, and in fraction has a first order effect on permeability,
other means. crystalline rocks even if porosity is constant. Sonic logs can
Geochemical Measures spectra of Identifies a wide range reinforce the interpretation of porosity, and
Logging Tool gamma absorption- of specific elements, indicate zones that are more or less fractured.
re-emission especially heavy ones Resistivity and spontaneous potential can be
Elemental Measures gamma Identifies a narrow analysed together with an understanding of the
Capture spectra from nuclei range of specific clay content and porosity, to deduce pore water
Spectroscopy activated by neutron elements, especially content, saturation and salinity. This information
capture heavy ones also helps integrate downhole observations with
Dielectric log Permittivity from Porosity/saturation surface electromagnetic geophysical surveys
attenuation and independent of salinity. such as deep resistivity or magnetotellurics (MT).
phase of propagating Shale and texture
Wireline-conveyed formation testing (e.g. MDT*)
electromagnetic indicator
is the final technology used in a standard “oilfield”
wave
petrophysical evaluation. Drawdown and build-up
Nuclear Transverse Fluids content, pore
tests define permeability and can also be
magnetic relaxation time of size and permeability
combined with fluid sampling. Wireline testers
resonance hydrogen nuclei estimate
offer a much more versatile solution than larger
Waveform Compressional and Geomechanics scale packer tests or drill stem tests, though the
sonic shear waves

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Australian Geothermal Conference 2010
latter are required in crystralline rocks or used in both sedimentary and crystalline rocks,
otherwise low-matrix-permeability settings. including hydrothermal zones, in the Ocean
Drilling Program, with excellent results. The GLT
Laboratory measurements on core substantially
is complex, having active neutron and gamma
reduce the uncertainty in formation evaluation. At
sources coupled with filtered detectors and a
the CSIRO petrophysics laboratory for example,
passive natural gamma ray spectroscopy module.
we routinely measure porosity and permeability of
Hot sources raise obvious issues of HSE
core samples under overburden conditions,
permitting. The ECS approach can be engineered
electrical properties at a wide range of
to use a non-chemical neutron source called a
frequencies corresponding to different logging
minitron, essentially a small particle accelerator in
tools, and sonic compressional and shear wave
the tool. However, the number of elements
velocities under conditions of (P, T) in situ stress.
detected by ECS is limited, as is its track record
3. Stresses in the Earth are complex, and defining for hard rock situations.
stress conditions in a borehole can be a difficult
Another oilfield technology of potential value in
process. Generally it is based on the analysis of
hot sedimentary aquifers is Nuclear Magnetic
break-out and fracture patterns observed in image
Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. NMR tools
logs, complimented by formation pressure tests
measure the magnetic spin relaxation of hydrogen
designed to open natural fractures and/or induce
nuclei, and offer the only way to determine rock
new fractures. To interpret these results and
pore size distribution and thereby estimate
make predictions of reservoir performance,
formation permeability in a continuous way. This
“fracture-ability”, well stability in the reservoir and
is an excellent way to interpolate point
overburden, it is desirable to have core suitable
measurements from permeability tests on core,
for geo-mechanical testing. From core tests
and compare with formation tests from MDT.
unconfined compressive stress, cohesive strength
NMR also provides a salinity-independent total
and frictional strength parameters can be
porosity and an estimate of clay content. CSIRO
determined directly and used to construct a
is currently comissioning an elevated P/T NMR
Mechanical Earth Model. At CSIRO we conduct
core testing capability which will help to assess
such tests routinely, and have recently obtained a
the value proposition of NMR petrophysics for
High Pressure (to 150 MPa confining, >500 MPa
HSA geothermal applications.
axial) High Temperature (to 200 C) triaxial rig and
with 20 channel acoustic emission to monitor in Temperature limits on measurements
3D the development and coalescence of
fractures. Sonic logs are used widely for Some technologies such as NMR, which depends
geomechanical interpretation, and core on magnets, and some spectroscopic tools with
measurement of P and S velocities and their crystal detectors have inherent temperature
anisotropy is very helpful for defining rock physics limitation making their application to hotter
and mechanical property models. This also closes geothermal settings unlikely. On the other hand,
the loop for seismic-to-log-to-core workflows. various logging tools have been developed
specifically for geothermal boreholes: the extreme
Smarter petrophysics: geothermal environment televiewer for example. The
applications of non-standard tools. exploitation of ultra-deep (>5000 m) and High
Pressure High Temperature (HPHT, or >150 C >
The limited scope of standard tools has led to 70 MPa) oil fields has also driven the
more exotic physics being applied to formation development of sophisticated petrophysical tools
evaluation in oil and gas. Some special tools have that can perform in extreme environments,
obvious HSA applications but require cost/benefit leading to a convergence of technology towards
to be proven. Extreme condition versions of some the needs of the burgeoning geothermal market.
advanced oilfield tools do not even exist yet. Major players like Schlumberger, Baker Hughes
An obvious “upgrade” is to use a spectral gamma and Weatherford compete in this market with
ray tool that quantifies the U, Th and K content of small and specialised tool suppliers, including a
the formation. This enables quantification of in situ growing number from Australia. Standard tools
heat production, and is also useful for rock typing. are available up to at least 260 C and 200 MPa.
Natural gamma tools can be cross-calibrated with We therefore see expanding options to deploy
laboratory spectral gamma ray detection such oilfield tools—or cheaper versions of them—
instruments used for recovered cores or chips. into the geothermal marketplace.

Geochemical Logging Tool (GLT*  ) and neutron In the laboratory also, standard oilfield analysis
activation (e.g. ECS* or FLEX*) logs can be equipment for porosity, permeability, resistivity
employed to quantify a subset of the chemical etc. is not designed for the extremes of
elements in the formation. The GLT has been geothermal conditions. A typical operating range
is 70 MPa and 100C. At least in a research
context, systems have been engineered enabling
* MDT, GLT and ECS are marks of Schlumberger. all of these parameters to be obtained under in
FLEX is a mark of Baker Hughes

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Australian Geothermal Conference 2010
situ formation conditions and throughout
prolonged experiments (e.g. Milsch et al. 2008).
Understanding the thermal structure
Whether it is a Hot Sedimentary Aquifer (HSA) or
Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS), appraisal
and exploitation of a geothermal reservoir
requires a detailed characterization of thermal
properties and heat flows. The temperature
distribution on the underground is driven by the
surface climate, the characteristics of the rocks to
conduct, produce and accumulate the heat and
also the fluid circulation into the rocks and the
basal (or mantle) heat flow. When estimating the
temperature at depth, we have to consider the
main mechanism driving the thermal flow and Figure 1. Isogeotherms and formation temperature/ depth
temperature distribution according to the profile in a hypothetical rock sequence (adapted Jorden and
controlling equation. Campbell, 1984).
T  
 

C  V .grad T   div .grad T   A z   0 These parameter estimations are important at the
t exploration stage to evaluate the geothermal
potential and must be refined at the production
Here ρ is mass density, C the specific heat stage where the underground geothermal system
capacity, T the temperature, V the fluid velocity will be significantly affected by the production and
vector, lambda the thermal conductivity, and A the re-injection of a working fluid.
specific heat production per unit rock volume. In
the absence of fluid flow, rock thermal Determining thermal properties
conductivity estimation is adequate for the Most of the research on thermal properties has
characterization of the thermal conduction regime. focused on modeling of the thermal propagation in
An estimation of the specific heat of the rock will geological reservoirs. But the needs in
provide direct insights on the stored heat. This petrophysical data, particularly in geothermal
parameter will also play an important role during reservoirs, have never been so important to verify
the production of the reservoir as the rock and validate models. Two main approaches are
releases the stored energy to the working fluid. available to provide hard data on thermal
The radiogenic heat production rate of the rocks structure and properties downhole logging and
in combination with stratigraphic information will laboratory measurements. Both methods have
enable us to estimate the local heat flow value. If their advantages and disadvantages:
advection is significant, in the system, then
permeabilities, porosity and fracture • Logging data give access to a continuous
characterization are needed to quantify V and records with depth but with high uncertainties
thus the contribution of the advective flow to the because of some chemico-physical processes
temperature distribution. that actively occurs during the data recording
(heat flow, fluid flow, mudcakes, fracturations...)
In terms of fluid transport characterization, the key or simply because of the limited sensitivity and
parameters to identify are the permeabilities depth resolution of the tools (Beck et al., 1971).
(absolute for water only and relative, when steam Three general logging methods are available: (1)
and liquid are both present in the reservoir), relaxation methods (Wilhelm, 1990), (2) direct
porosity and the thickness of the targeted thermal measurements downhole with no control
reservoir. Initial and time lapse values from repeat at all on chemico-physical influences and (3) the
logging passes will be of interest to design and classical correlation methods which combine
assess any well stimulation processes and to logging parameters such as sonic traveltime,
quantify the contribution of the local hydrogeology hydrogen index, density, porosity, lithology and
to the temperature distribution. temperature (Brigaud et al., 1989; Demongodin et
al., 1991; Griffiths et al., 1992). All of these
methods use empirical models and some form of
averaging or effective medium theory to predict
the thermal properties. To calculate the thermal
conductivity and diffusivity accurately from such
methods, the tools being employed must be
capable of distinguishing the different minerals
and fluids sensitively.

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Australian Geothermal Conference 2010
• Lab measurements enable control of all the shape, short time measurements (10-30s),
parameters (mineralogy, porosity, water content, contactless tool and without time and cost of
fractures) but the sampling (except for drill- special sample preparation. Hence the OTC offers
cuttings) is never continuous and the in-situ the opportunity to investigate direct thermal
reservoir conditions are difficult to reproduce in conductivity, diffusivity, pore space and geometry
the lab. Moreover, lab equipment and protocols on full cores and anisotropic thermal properties of
are not infallible. Poor sample quality, samples under various conditions, and with a
representativeness, coupling, effects of fractures wide range of form factor, size, and prevailing
etc., limit typical accuracy to around 5% or so. It is conditions (wet/dry, elevated temperature, etc).
rare that specific information is gathered on
The combination of the two petrophysical
anisotropy: this requires measurement of the
approaches (lab and downhole) can be very
tensor components of thermal conductivity and
powerful and removes most of their respective
diffusivity. At the highest temperatures, non-linear
disadvantages. Lab measurements allow
properties and especially thermal expansion make
parameter calibrations and better control on the
good measurements a challenge.
logging interpretations. Proper integration of
One new technology that can help overcome petrophysical data from lab and downhole
some of these issues is Optical Thermal Scanning sources enables us to test, correct and enhance
(Fig. 2). OTS is a non-destructive non-contact the existing theoretical models used to predict
measurement of the thermal conductivity and steady state and dynamic thermal behaviour.
thermal diffusivity on rocks and minerals at room
conditions (Popov et al., 1999). OTS is able to Petrophysical property modelling
scan a sample surface with 3 temperature The characterisation of geothermal reservoirs is a
sensors in combination with a focused mobile and typical multi-scale problem. CSIRO and
continuously operated constant heat source. The WACOGS have developed a number of workflows
heat source and sensors move at the same speed to model and upscale rock physical properties
relative to the sample and are calibrated before appropriate for geothermal problems. An exciting
and after each measurement with rock standards, recent advance with wide uptake in the petroleum
which leads to high accuracy quoted as 1.5%, a industry is the incorporation of so-called Digital
sampling size from 1 cm to 70 cm long having any Rock or Digital Core methods whereby high
resolution 3D images of real rocks form the basis
for physical property calculations. In the example
workflow presented here we analyse small scale
rock properties in 3D based on micro-computed
tomography (micro-CT), and scale up for
hydraulic properties by using percolation theory.
Firstly, the original images of microtomography
are converted to binary images, and 3-D binary
models are built up from the tomography slices.
Image processing and segmentation is crucial
which recognises target phases (pores, different
minerals) according to their greyscale values in
the images. Fig. 3 shows the pore-structure of a
synthetic sandstone sample of size 1.3*1.3*1.17
3
mm after segmentation in which the pore
interiors are “painted” light blue. Micro-scale
characterisations are analysed based on 3-D
binary models, including volume fraction (porosity
for pores of porous media), percolation (or
connectivity), specific surface area (SSA),
tortuosity, and anisotropy.
Stochastic analyses of all phases are the second
step of this multi-scale characterisation. It
conducts scale-dependent probabilities and the
size of representative volume element (RVE). Our
stochastic analysis uses the moving window
method, in which a cubic sub-volume with variable
Fig. 2. Optical Thermal Scanner instrument for rock thermal side-length L moves all over the model. In this
property measurements on full cores (modified from Popov et way, the probabilities of volume fraction,
al., 2010). Optical Head: sensor (1) measure the rock percolation and anisotropy of different scales are
temperature at room condition and sensors (2 and 3) obtained. The size of the RVE is determined when
measure the rock temperature after heating from the heat these probabilities are convergent with the
source (4). increasing sub-volume-size L (Liu et al. 2009).

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Australian Geothermal Conference 2010

Fig.4 A RVE of a synthetic sandstone sample for


permeability simulation.
Fig. 3. Pore-structure of a synthetic sandstone sample, light
blue denotes inside of pores. Model size is 1000*1000*900
voxels, resolution of voxels is 1.3 μm.

Once at the RVE size or larger, the estimated


properties are reliable for application to that
particular rock type. Meanwhile, the probability
distribution functions can be used to create “digital
rocks” at any size which have certain common
characteristics, but vary in their details. For
example, one may vary porosity, connectivity, or
fracture density and see the effects.
(a)
Physical properties of geothermal reservoirs, in
particular, permeability, elastic parameters, and
thermal expansion coefficient are calculated on
the digital rock elements using numerical
simulations. Permeability can be simulated by
using the finite difference Stokes equation solver
Permsolver and based on micro-scale pore
3
structures. Fig. 4 is a RVE of size 1 mm of a
synthetic sandstone sample. The simulated
permeability is 1763 millidarcy. Thermo-
mechanical properties are computed by using a (b)
finite element method based on the mineral Fig.5 (a) RVE of a digital rock with two weak minerals of
properties and structure. Fig. 5(a) is a RVE of a different shapes, matrix is not shown; (b) relationships of
digital rock which includes two weak minerals of stress and strain in x and z-directions for matrix and RVE,
different shapes. Fig. 5(b) gives the relationships respectively. Oriented microstructure makes the RVE be
of stress and strain components of the RVE and remarkably anisotropic, although minerals of matrix and
matrix, respectively. Although matrix and weak inclusions are all isotropic.
inclusive minerals are all isotropic, the
microstructure makes the upscaled properties of
the RVE remarkably anisotropic, see Fig.5(b), in exponent of correlation length, percolation
which red and black lines correspond to x and z- threshold, and crossover length, for the purpose
directions, respectively. As stress and strain of upscaling.
values in Fig. 5(b) are volumetric means on For the synthetic sandstone sample shown in Fig.
element sets, the relationships for the matrix show 4, the critical exponent of correlation length and
a slight anisotropy over all elements in the RVE the fractal dimension extracted from micro-
(see blue and green lines in Fig.5b), which is tomography are close to the theoretical values.
reasonable. With these simulated results, thermo- The percolation threshold of this structured
mechanical properties of the representative medium is 3.94%, while the sample has a porosity
volume element can be computed. of 24.4%, which is far above the percolation
To extrapolate properties from microscale to threshold. In addition, the crossover length of the
macroscale it is necessary to combine micro- critical model is smaller than 50 μm. Based upon
scale properties with scaling laws. We use these observations, we can directly use the
percolation theory to extract the main critical transport properties obtained from the micro-scale
parameters including fractal dimension, critical analysis for upscale modelling in the macro-scale.

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Australian Geothermal Conference 2010
The simulated permeability of 1763 md in 1 mm estimation of lateral changes in main sedimentary
scale is close to the experimental test units at basin scale. Rock at great depth, Eds.
permeability on a plug sample of 2567 md. Maury and Fourmaintraux, Rotterdam, A.A.
Results show that the detection of the scale Balkema. ISBN 90 6191 975 4, Vol.1, 403-409.
dependence of permeability is accurate from the
crossover length of 50 micron to the cm laboratory Demongodin, L., Pinoteau, B., Vasseur, G. and
scale (Liu et al. 2010). Gable, R., 1991. Thermal conductivity and well
logs: a case study in the Paris basin. Geophys. J.
These upscaling methods based on statistical Int., 105, 675-691.
physics on small rock samples (potentially even
cuttings) can be combined with more geologically Ellis, D.V. & Singer, J.M., 2007. Well Logging for
informed methods of geostatistics, based on core- Earth Scientists. Second Edition, Springer, 2007.
and log based lithofacies or flow units, to populate
Griffiths, C.M., Brereton, N.R., Beausillon, R. and
reservoir models at the larger scale.
Castillo, D., 1992. Thermal conductivity prediction
Summary from petrophysical data: a case study. Geological
Applications of Wireline Logs II. Geological
The characterization of geothermal reservoirs Society Special Publication, 65, 299-315.
requires the integration of field, laboratory and
computational petrophysical methods. The Jorden, J.R. and Campbell, F.L., 1984. Well
formulation and parameterization of rock property Logging I – Rock Properties, Borehole
models is based on proper combination of Environment, Mud and Temeprature logging. SPE
remotely sensed (e.g. seismic) downhole and of AIME, N.Y., Dallas, 131-146.
core measurements. These methods combining
Liu J., Regenauer-Lieb K., Hines C., Liu K.,
interpretation and modelling provide critical inputs
Gaede O., and Squelch A., 2009. Improved
to the understanding of the geothermal reservoir.
estimates of percolation and anisotropic
From early exploration, hard petrophysical data permeability from 3-D X-ray microtomographic
and good physical understanding will help to model using stochastic analyses and
constrain and develop regional and reservoir visualization. Geochem., Geophys. Geosyst.,10,
models of the geothermal resources not only to Q05010, doi: 10.1029/2008GC002358.
evaluate the resources but also to plan its
production. At the development stage, these data Liu J. and Regenauer-Lieb K., 2010. Application
contribute to reduce the risk on the well design, of percolation theory to microtomography of
well stimulation, hydraulic fracturing but also the structured media: percolation threshold, critical
field sustainability during production. exponents and upscaling, submitted to Physics
CSIRO, with WAGCOE and other partners around Review E.
Australia, is investing in applied R&D and critical Ocean Drilling Program Downhole Logging Guide.
infrastructure to improve the application of http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/BRG/ODP/LOGGIN
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Demonstration projects now underway in WA will
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methods described here. C.F. and Burkhardt, H., 1999. Characterization of
rock thermal conductivity by high-resolution
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