Mansour Transportation Breadth Part 1 of 2

www.passpe.com Transportation. Module for Civil PE License D Dr. Shahin A.
Mansour, PE
Well Organized, Based on the Latest California Board Test

Plan and NCEES Exam Specifications, Detailed Tables of Weer i~9
Contents, Computer Generated Index, Simplified Concepts, ~~91 Sew~.
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127 Practice Problems with Detailed Solutions. 70 Figures. ~,y` ~ ~'~s
83 Tables. 48 Non-Code Equations & 98 Codes Egruations moo:~~ ~
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charts you need for the exam. All what you need at one `~~,. ~a
location and at your fingertips.
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• Separate AM and PM topics. Focus and study only the
sections you need.
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Civil PE License
Transportation Breadth (AM)Topics Per 2013 NCEES Exam
Specifications, Codes, and Design Standards
A Concise &Comprehensive Summary of Construction Engineering Equations (Code &
Non-Code), Tables, Charts, and Figures is Provided for a Quick Access in the Exam
Dr. Shahin A. Mansour,PE

First Edition
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ISBN 978-1-940409-01-6
O 2013 Professional Engineering Services(PES)
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, without a
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Preface
ur next generation of Civil PE books were carefully developed by Dr. Shahin A. Mansour, Ph.D.,
P.E., a nationally recognized expert in PE Exam Preparation courses and founder of Professional
Engineering Services, Inc., (PES). This generation is quickly becoming the Best in Class
solution for engineering professionals working to pass upcoming California Board and NCEES
exams. Each and every book in this comprehensive collection has been prepared with your readiness in
mind and will serve as a powerful guide throughout your PE Exam Preparation studies in Civil PE,
Seismic, and Surveying concentrations.
Dr. Mansour has taught and spoken to thousands of engineers and has been teaching PE, Seismic,
Surveying, and EIT/FE classes for the past 22 years enabling his products, classes, and seminars to
continuously evolve and adapt to the changing demands of this challenging field. His real-world
experience and intercommunication with so many engineers throughout America has greatly improved his
ability to craft concise and knowledgeable resources that work for professionals striving to pass their
Professional Engineering Licensing Board Exam and other California special exams.
One of the primary advantages of PES' preparation books is their compact and succinct format. The
experiences and feedback of engineering students and professionals that have worked with these materials
affirms our effective use of good, factual diagrams and illustrations to more fully explain concepts
throughout each text. In fact, Dr. Mansour makes great use of this style of teaching through figures,
comparative tables, charts, and illustrations to concisely convey important information to engineers
preparing for the exam. The primary focus of each book in our collection is targeted on subjects that are
directly relevant to the PE exam. This method provides substantial time savings to students that simply
don't have the wherewithal to digest leading competitive volumes, which typically exceed 1,000 pages.
Another strong asset of these next generation books is the separation of Breadth (a.m.) and Depth (p.m.)
topics. Each Civil PE, Seismic, and Surveying book is organized in accordance with the most current
exam specifications and has matured since their inception through the inputs, complaints, wishes, and
other feedback given from course participants and colleagues for over 25 years. Recent changes in the
format of the Civil PE exam have made it necessary to address the change from essay to multiple choice
problems, separation of a.m. and p.m. sections, and the introduction of the construction module. The
books' improved organization is completed with a very detailed Table of Contents, which addresses both
the a.m. and p.m. subjects and more, making them a favored resource for preparation as well as exam
time.
The best part in all this growth and continuous improvement is the ability to apply this knowledge and
experience to our supplemental products developed to give you the best head start for passing your
Professional Engineering Licensing Board Exam. Every book, DVD, seminar, and accompanying
Problems &Solutions workbooks are designed with all relevant codes, topics, board test plans, and
NCEES exam specifications. And, these study materials and seminars, also manage to cover these fields
of study in the same order as listed in the latest exam specifications for easy reference at-a-glance.
Not only are our next generation books written to be current and well-organized to save you time during
exam preparation and test taking; they are also affordable and authored by a highly qualified and
nationally recognized Civil Engineering Professor. Dr. Shahin A. Mansour, Ph.D., P.E has helped
thousands of students to pass their Professional Engineering Licensing Board Exam. His easy, step-by-
step approach to solving problems has gained him popularity and a great reputation among students and
professionals of all ages. We hope that you'll find the many resources at Professional Engineering
Services, Inc. to be exceptional textbooks, DVDs,and seminars —and as valuable a resource as we believe
them to be.
m
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Disclaimer
This publication is to help the candidates for the Transportation Module for PE Civil License. This
publication expresses the opinion of the author. Every effort and care has been taken to ensure that all
data, information, solutions, concepts, and suggestions are as accurate as possible. The author cannot
assume or accept the responsibility or liability for errors in the data, information, solutions, concepts, and
suggestions and the use ofthis material in preparation for the exam or using it during the exam.
Also, Professional Engineering Services (PES) and the author are in no way responsible for the failure of
registrants in the exam, or liable for errors or omission in the solutions, or in the way they are interpreted
by the registrants or others.
Errata Notification
PES and the author have made a substantial effort to ensure that the information in this publication is
accurate. In the event that corrections or clarifications are needed, those will be posted on the PES web
site at http:// www.passpe.com. PES and the author at their discretion, may or may not issue written
errata. PES and the author welcome comments or corrections which can be emailed to info(a~~passpe.com
How to Use This Book

This book was written to help you prepare for the PE-Civil. The following is a suggested strategy
preparation for the exam:
1- Have all references organized before you start. Also, familiarize yourself with the comprehensive
summary provided in this book.
2- Read the questions and ALL answers carefully and look for KEY WORDS in the question and the
4 possible answers.
3- Solve the easy questions first(ones that need no or minimum calculations) and record your answers
on the answer sheet.
4- Work on questions that require lengthy calculations and record your answers on the answer sheet.
5- Questions that seem difficult or not familiar to you and may need considerable time in searching in
your references should be left to the end
6- Never leave an answer blank
7- Remember the D3 rule:
DO NOT EXPECT THE EXAM TO BE EASY
DO NOT PANIC
DO NOT WASTE TOO MUCH TIME ON A SIGNLE EASY,DIFFICULT, OR
UNFAMILAR PROBLEM
About the Author
Dr. Shahin A. Mansour, PE, has been teaching PE, Seismic, Surveying and EIT courses for the last 22
years. Dr. Mansour taught Civil Engineering Courses for 8 years at New Mexico State University
(NMSU), Las Cruces, NM,USA. Also, he has been teaching Civil and Construction Engineering Courses
(graduate &undergraduate) at CSU,Fresno, CA,for the last 22 years.
Dr. Mansour has helped thousands of engineers to pass their Professional Engineering Licensing Board
Exams (Civil PE, Special Seismic and Surveying Exams). His easy, step-by-step approach to solving
problems has gained him popularity and a great reputation among students and professionals of all ages.
Dr. Mansour is a registered Civil Engineer in California. His educational background includes a BS
degree in Civil Engineering, a Master, and Ph.D. degrees in Structural Engineering from New Mexico
State University(NMSU), Las Cruces, NM, USA. Also, Dr. Mansour has two engineering degrees (B.S.
& M.S.)from Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
iv
www.passpe.com Transportation Module for Civil PE License D Dr. Shahin A.Mansour.PE
Acknowledgements
No one walks alone on the journey of life. Just where doyou start to thank those that joined you, walked
beside you, and helped you along the way continuously urged me to write a book.
Much of what I have learned over the years came as the result of being a father to 3 wonderful and
delightful children, Aroob, Munierah, and Abdallah all of whom, in their own ways inspired me and,
subconsciously contributed a tremendous amount to the content of this book. Without their nice work and
sincere commitments, this book would never have seen the road to the printing machine. A little bit of
each ofthem will be found here weaving in and out of the pages — Thanks kids!
I want to thank all Civil Engineers who attended my review classes for the last 22 years for their valuable
comments and suggestions to improve the quality of this book. They shared their knowledge, their ideas,
and numerous tips all of which culminated in the improvement ofthis book. Thanks guys!
Finally, I would like to give my special thanks to my wife Rufida whose patience, and love enabled me to
complete this work. With her unlimited support and encouragement most of my dreams came true.
Thank you my minister of interior!
Acknoyvledgments v
www passpe com Transportation Module for Civil PE License 8 Dr. Shahin A.Mansour,PE
MASTER TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface.......................................................................................iii
Disclaimer, Errata, How to use this book, About the author .........................iv
List of References per NCEES ............................................................ix
NCEES New Format for the PE (Civil) Exam.......................................... x
Summary ofthe Equations ................................................................1
Breadth (A.M.) Topics
1. Horizontal curves ...................................................................65
2. Vertical curves .....................................................................87
3. Sight distance .................................... ...................... ........ 97
4. Superelevation .....................................................................135
5. Vertical and/or horizontal clearances ...........................................145
6. Acceleration and deceleration ...................................................155
7. Highway functions and design criteria (not by NCEES)........ .......165
listed
Depth (P.M.) Topics
1. Traffic capacity studies ..........................................................
2. Traffic signals ................................................................ ...
3. Speed studies ......................................................................
4. Intersection analysis .............................................................
5. Traffic volume studies...........................................................
6. Sight distance evaluation .........................................................
7. Traffic control devices................................. .........................
8. Pedestrian facilities...............................................................
9. Driver behavior ancUor performance ...........................................
10. Intersections and/or interchanges ...............................................
11. Optimization and/or cost analysis (e.g., transportation route A or
transportation route B)...........................................................
12. Traffic impact studies ............................................................
13. Capacity analysis (future conditions)..........................................
14. Roadside clearance analysis .....................................................
15. Conflict analysis ..........................................:.......................
16. Work zone safety .................................................................
17. Accident analysis ..................................................................
18. Hydraulics
1. Culvert design..................................................................
2. Open channel — subcritical and supercritical flow........................
19. Hydrology
1. Hydrograph development and synthetic hydrographs....................
vi Master Table of Contents
www.passpe.com Transportation Module for Civil PE License D Dr. Shahin A.Mansour. PE
20. Engineering properties of soils and materials (e.g. index properties,

identification of types of soils; suitable or unsuitable, boring logs) .......
21. Soil mechanics analysis (e.g. Soil behavior, soil classification soil
compaction)........................................................................
22. Engineering economics ..........................................................
1. Value engineering and costing ..............................................
23. Construction operations and methods (e.g. erosion control measures,
excavation embankment)........................................................
24. Pavement structures (e.g. flexible and rigid pavement design)..............
Breadth A.M. To ics De th P.M. To ics

7 To ics 24 To ics
Total Number of Topics = 31
Master Table of Contents vii

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This page. is left intentionally blank
viii Master Table of Contents

www.passpe:com Transportation Module for Civil PE License D Dr. Shahin A.Mansour, PE
TRANSPORTAION A.M. LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter A —1 Horizontal Curves
Figure A-1 Types of Horizontal Curves..................................................................65
Figure A-2 Horizontal (top) and Vertical(bottom) Alignments....................................... 66
Figure A-3 Circular Horizontal Curve Terminology..................................................... 68
Figure A-4 Deflection, Central Angles and Chord Calculations..................................... 72
FigureA-5 Tangent Offset................................................................................... 75
Figure A-6 Compound Circular Curve................................................................... 76
Figure A-7 Reverse Curves: Parallel Tangents (Right) and Non-Parallel Tangent (Left).........79
Figure A-8 Spiral Curve....................................................:......................:........79
Figure A-9 Curve with (right) and without (left) spiral transition. The sharp "corners" at the
juncture of curve and straight line in the left view are quite obvious from the
driver's seat.(Fig. 3-15, page 3-69, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed......80
FigureA-10 Spiral Curve.......................................................................................81
Chapter A — 2 Vertical Curves

Figure A-11 Vertical Curve Terminology.................................................................................. 87
Figure A-12 Sag and Crest Vertical Curves................................................. ...........89
Figure A-13 of Vertical Curves
Types
(Figure 3-41, Page 3-.150, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6t" ed................89
Figure A-14 Sag Vertical Curve in Relation to Minimum Clearance and Cover.................... 92
Figure A-15 Unsymmetrical Vertical Curve..............................................................95
Chapter A — 3 Sight Distances
Figure A-16 Passing Sight Distance(TWO-LANE-HIGHWAYS)................................... 97

Figure A-17 Stopping Sight Distance (Driver's Eye Height 3.5' and Object height 2.0') .... 99 =
=
Figure A-18 Side Slope in Relation to Horizontal and Vertical Distances........................... 102
Figure A-19 Elements of Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highways..........................108
Figure A-20 Comparison of Design Values for Passing Sight Distance and Stopping Sight
Distance (Figure 3-1, Page 3-11, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6t" ed.).......112
Figure A-21 Minimum Turning Path for Passenger Car(P)Design Vehicle
(Figure 2-1, Page 2-10, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6`h ed.).................. 113
Figure A-22 Parameters Considered Determining the Length of a Crest Vertical Curve to
in
Provide Sight Distance
(Figure 3-42, Page 3-152, AASHTO Geometric Design 201 1, 6th ed.)................116
,
Figure A-23 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves-Open Road Conditions
(Figure 3-43, Page 3-154, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).................118
Figure A-24 Stopping and Passing Sight Distances(SSD)for Sag Vertical Curves.................120
Figure A-25 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves-Open Road Conditions
(Figure 3-44, Page 3-159, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6`" ed.).................122
Figure A-26 Conflict Points Between Traffic Streams at Unsignalized Four-Leg Intersectio......125
Figure A-27 Conflict Points Between Traffic Streams at a Typical Three-Way Intersection......125
Figure A-28 Minimum Sight Triangle at a No-Control or Yield-Control Intersection
(Case A C)....................................................................................127
&
Transportaion AM List of Figures ix
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Figure A-29 Intersection Sight Triangles

(Figure 9-15, Page 9-30, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)............... 128
Figure A-30 Minimum Sight Triangle at a No-Control or Yield-Control Intersection(Case A &
C)......................................................... .......................... .....130
Figure A-31 Intersection Sight Triangle Leg-Case A, No Traffic Control
(Figure 9-16, Page 9-34, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6~' ed.)...............132
Chapter A -4 Superelevation
Figure A-32 Force Diagram for. Superelevation.........................................................:.. 135

Figure A-33 Geometry for Ba11-Bank Indicator(Top: Manual &Electronic Ba11-Bank)
(Figure 3-3, Page 3-21, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011., 6th ed.)......:...........137
Figure A-34 Side Friction-Factors Assumed for Design.
(Figure 3-6, Page 3-25, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.):.................143
Chapter A -5 Vertical and/or Horizontal Clearances
Figure A-35 Vertical Curve Length Under or Over Obstruction.......................................... 145

Figure A-36 Sight Distance at Undercrossing
(Figure 3-45, Page 3-162, AASHTO Geometric Design; 2011, 6th ed.)...............145
Figure A-37 Diagram Illustrating Components for Determining Horizontal Si~ht Distance
(Figure 3-23, Page 3-109, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6` ed.)...............150
Figure A-38 Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
(Figure 3-22a, Page 3-107, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011,'6th ed:)..:...........152
Figure A-39 Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
(Figure 3-22b, Page 3-108, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)..............153
Figure A-40 Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves.................. 154
Figure A-41 Acceleration of Passenger Cars, Level Conditions
(Figure 2-24,.Page 2-34, AASHTO Geometric Design; 2011, 6~' ed.).................155
Chapter A -6 Acceleration and Deceleration
Figure A-41 Acceleration of Passenger Cars, Level Conditions

(Figure 2-24, Page 2-34, AASHTO Geometric Design, 201.1, 6th ed.).................155
Figure A-42 Deceleration Distances.for Passenger Vehicles Approaching Intersections
(Figure 2-25, Page 2-35, AASHTO Geometric Design,2011, 6th ed.).,...............156
Figure A-43 Typical Gore Area Characteristics
(Figure 10-61, Page 10-96, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)..............158
Figure A-44 Typical Single Lane Entrance Ramps
(Figure 10-69, Page 10-108, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)............159
Figure A-45 Typical Two-Lane Entrance Ramps
(Figure 10-73, Page 10-122, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, bth ed.)............159
x Transportaion AM List of Figures

Chapter A — 7 Highways functions and design criteria (not included in the

NCEES Topics)
Figure A-46 Hierarchy of Movement

(Figure 1-1, Page 1-2, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)....................165
Figure A-47 Hierarchy of Movement
Figure A-48 Schematic Illustration of a Functionally Classified Rural Highway Network
Figure A-49 Sechematic Illustration of a Portion of a Suburban Street Network
(Figure 1-4, Page 1-6, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)...... .........166
Figure A-50 Minimum Turning Path for Passenger Car (P) Design Vehicle
(Figure 2-1, Page 2-10, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).....:............172
Figure A-51 Reaction Time versus Expected and Unexpected Information
(Figure 2-26/2-27, Page 2-40/41, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6~' ed.)....:. 174
Figure A-52 Relation Between Peak-Hour and Average Daily Traffic Volumes on Rural Arterials
(Figure 2-28, Page 2-48, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6~' ed.).................176
Transportaion AM List of Figures xi

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TRANSPORTAION A.M. LIST OF TABLES

Chapter A-1 Horizontal Curves
Table A-1 Types of Horizontal Curves................................................. .. ......... 65

Table A-2 Chord and Arc Definitions for Horizontal Circulax Curves............................... 67
Table A-3 Degree-of-Curve Conversions.........................................,.................... b7
Table A-4 Arc and Chord Definitions Equations......................................................... 69
Table A-5 Length.of Circular Arc for a Compound Intersection Curve When Followed
by a Curve of One-Half Radius or Preceded by a Curve of Double Radius
(Table 3-25, Page 3-84, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed...................78
Table A-6 AASHTO Parameters for Spiral Transition.Curves
(Pages 3-69 to 3-73, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).. .. ......... 80
Table A-7 Shortt's Equation for Length of Spiral Transition Curves
(Page 3-70, AASHTO Geometric. Design, 2011, 6th ed.)................................ 83
Table A-8 Maximum Radius for.Use of a Spiral Curve Transition
(Table 3-20, Page 3-70, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)..................84
Table A-9 Minimum Length of Spiral Transition Curves
(Page 3-71, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)................................ 85
Table A-10 M~imum Length of Spiral Transition Curves
(Page 3-72, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)................................ 85
Table A-11 Desirable Length of Spiral Curve Transition
(Table 3-21, Page 3-73, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)................. 86
Chapter A-2 Vertical Curves
Table A-12 Types of Vertical Curves..................................................................... 88

Table A-13 Types of Vertical Curves..................................................................... 88
Chapter A-3 Sight Distances
Table A-14 Four Types of Sight Distances...............................................................97

Table A-15 Height of Driver's Eye Sight Distances
(Page 3-14 to 3-15, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).......................98
Table A-16 Height of Object and Sight Distances
(Page 3-14 to 3-15, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).......................98
Table A-17 Braking Sight Distance Equations on Flat Grades
(Page 3-3, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6t" ed.).................................. 100
Table A-18 Stopping Sight Distance Equations on Level Roadways
(Page 3-4, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6t" ed.)................................. 100
Table A-19 Stopping Sight Distance on Level Roadways
(Table 3-1, Page 3-4, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).................... 101
Table A-20 Braking Sight Distance Equations on a Grade
(Page 3-5, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).................................. 102
Table A-21 Stopping Sight Distance Equations on a Grade............................................104
Table A-22 Stopping Sight Distance on Grades
(Table 3-2, Page 3-5, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).....................104
xii Transportaion AM List of Tables

www.passpe.com Transportation Module for Civil PE License D Dr. Shahin A Mansour PE
Table A-23 Decision Sight Distance Equations for Avoidance Maneuvers A and B
(Page 3-8, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011,6th ed.).................................. 106
Table A-24 Decision Sight Distance Equations for Avoidance Maneuvers C,D, and E
(Page 3-8, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6t" ed.)............... ....... ..... 106
Table A-25 Decision Sight Distance
(Table 3-3, Page 3-7, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).................... 107
Table A-26 Passing Sight Distance for Design of Two-Lane Highways
(Table 3-4, Page 3-9, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6t" ed.).................... 109
Table A-27 Minimum Passing Zone Lengths to BE Included in Traffic Operational Analyses
(Table 3-5, Page 3-14, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6t ed.)...................114
Table A-28 Crest Vertical Curve Length and Sight Distances
(Page 3-151, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6~' ed.).............................. 115
Table A-29 Crest Vertical Curve Length and Stopping Sight Distance for Heights of 3.5 ft
(eye) and 2.0 ft (object)
(Page 3-152, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).............................. 115
Table A-30 Crest Vertical Curve Length and Passing Sight Distance for Height of 3.5 ft(eye)
for Both Drivers
(Page 3-156, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6t" ed.).............................. 116
Table A-31 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance
(Table 3-34, Page 3-155, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)................117
Table A-32 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Passing Sight Distance
(Table 3-35, Page 3-157, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6t" ed.)................117
Table A-33 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves for 1-Degree Upward Angle
(Page 3-158, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)............... ............. 120
Table A-34 Length of Sag Vertical Curves Considering Comfort*
Table A-35 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves
(Table 3-36, Page 3-161, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)............... 121
Table A-36 Types of Highway Crossings................................................................ 124
Table A-37 Level of Service(LOS) Criteria(Automobile Mode)for Two-Way Stop-Controlled
(TWSC)
(Exhibit 19-1, Page 19-2, HCM 2010, Volume 3)........................................ 125
Table A-38 Level of Service(LOS) Criteria (Pedestrian Mode)for Two-Way Stop-Controlled
(TWSC)
(Exhibit 19-2, Page 19-2, HCM 2010, Volume 3).......:............. ................ 126
Table A-39 Level of Service(LOS) Criteria for All-Way Stop-Controlled(AWSC)
(Exhibit 20-2, Page 20-3, HCM 2010, Volume 3)...................:.................... 126
Table A-40 Intersection Sight Triangles and Types of Traffic Control............................. 129
Table A-41 Types of Traffic Control At the At-Grade Intersections................................ 129
Table A-42 Length of Sight Triangle.Leg-Case A,No Traffic Control
(Table 9-3, Page 9-33, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.).................. 130
Table A-43 Adjustment Factors for Sight Triangle Distance Based on Ap~roach Grade
(Table 9-4, Page 9-35, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6t ed.).................. 131
~ Chapter A-4 Superelevation ~

Table A-44 Superelevation Design Classifications per AASHTO.................................... 135
Table A-45 Formula for Vehicle Operation on a Curve................................................ 136
Transportaion AM List of Tables xiii

www.passpe.com Transportation Module for Civil PE License D Dr. ShahinA.Mansour PE
Table A-46 AASHTO Recommended Ball-Bank Readings for Comfort Speed................... 138.
Table A-47 Minimum Radius Using emax and f,,,ax
(Page 3-31, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)..................................138
Table A-48 Minimum Radius Using Limiting Values of e andf
(Table 3-7, Page 3-32, AASHTO Geometric Design, 201 1, 6th ed.)...................140 -
Chapter A-5 Vertical and/or Horizontal Clearances
Table A-49 Case l-Sight Distance Greater than the Sag Vertical Curve Length(S > L)
(Page 3-162, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)............. ............... 146
Table A-50 Case 2-Sight Distance Less than the Sag Vertical Curve Length(S < L)
Table A-51 Case 1-Sight Distance Greater than the Sag Vertical Curve Length(S > L)
Table A-52 Case 2-Sight Distance Less than the Sag Vertical. Curve Length(S < L)
Table A-53 Horizontal Sightline Offset(HSO)
(Page 3-109, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6'h edition).....:.................... 150
Chapter A-6 Acceleration and Deceleration
Table A-54 Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Grades of Two
Percent ar Less(G < 2%)
(Table 10-3, Page 10-110, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)...............160
Table A-55 Minimum Deceleration Lengths for Exit Terminals with Flat Grades ofTwo
Percent or Less(G < 2%)
Table A-56 Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Grade(G > 2%o)
Chapter A-7 Highways functions and design criteria.(not included in the

NCEES Topics)
Table A-57 Classification of Design Vehicles

(Page 2-1, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)................................. 167
Table A-58 Design Vehicle Dimensions(SI Units)
(Table 2-la, Page 2-3, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6~' ed.)...................168
Table A-59 Design Vehicle Dimensions(U.S. Customary Units)
(Table 2-lb, Page 2-4, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011,6th ed.)...................169
Table A-60 Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles (SI Units)
(Table 2-2a, Page 2-6, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)................... 170
Table A-61 Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles (U.S. Customary Units)
(Table 2-2b, Page 2-7, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed.)...................171
Table A-48 Level of Service Measures in HCM 2010..................................................178
Table A-48 General Definitions of Level of Service
(Table 2-4, Page 2-66, AASHTO Geometric Design; 2011, 6'h ed.):..................180
xiv Transportaion AM List of Tables

www.passpe.com Transportation Module for Civil PE License ~ Dr. Shahin A.Mansour. PE
Civil PE - Transportation Module

Codes,Design Standards, and References
Codes &Design Standards:

1- AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design ofHighways and Streets, 2011 edition (6t" edition),
American Association of State Highway &Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
2 - AASHTO Guidefor Design ofPavement Structures(GDPS-4-M)1993„ and 1998 supplement,

American Association of State Highway &Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
3 - AASHTO Roadside Design Guide, 4th edition, 2011, American Association of State Highway &
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
4 - AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide: A Manual of Practice, interim edition, July
2008, American Association of State Highway &Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
5 -The Asphalt Handbook(MS-4), 2007, 7th edition, Asphalt Institute, Lexington ,KY
6- Highway Capacity Manual(HCM 2010), Transportation Research Board—National Research Council,

Washington, DC.
7-Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2009, including Revisions 1 and 2 dated May 2012, U.S.
Department of Transportation—Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
8 - Design and Control ofConcrete Mixtures, 2011, 15th edition, Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
IL.
9- Hydraulic Design ofHighway Culverts, Hydraulic Design Series Number 5, Publication No. FHWA-
NH1-01-020, September 2001, revised May 2005, U.S. Department of Transportation—Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
References:
1- Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, F.L. Manning, S.S. Washburn, 5th ed, 2013,
Wiley Publishing Co.
2- Traffic &Highway Engineering, Garber and Hoel, 4`h edition, Cengage Learning, 2009.
Codes, Design Standards, and Refernces xv

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The National Council of Examiners,for Engineering and Surveying

Principles and.Practice of Engineering Examination
TRANSPORTATION Design Standards
Effective Beginning with the Apri12013 Examinations
1- AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design ofHighways and Streets, 2011 edition

(6th edition), American Association of State Highway &
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
2- AASHTO AASHTO GuidefoN Design ofPavement St~^uctures(GDPS-4-
M)1993„ and 1998 supplement, American Association of State
Highway &Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
3- AASHTO Roadside Design Guide, 4th edition, 2011, American Association of
State Highway &Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
4- AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide: A Manual of
Practice, interim edition, July 2008, American Association of State
Highway &Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
5-AI The Asphalt Handbook(MS4), 2007, 7~' edition, Asphalt Institute,
Lexington , KY
6- HCM Highway Capacity Manual(HCM2010), Transportation Research
Board—National Research Council, Washington, DC.
7- MUTCD Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2009, including
Revisions 1 and 2 dated May 2012, U.S. Department of
TransportationFederal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
8- PCA .Design and Control ofConcrete Mixtures, 2011, 15th edition, Portland
Cement Association, Skokie, IL.
9- FHWA Hydraulic Design ofHighway Culverts, Hydraulic Design Series
Number 5, Publication No. FHWA-NHI-01-020, September 2001,
revised May 2005, U.S. Department ofTransportation—Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
xviii NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications

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NCEES Principles and Practice of Engineering

CIVIL BREADTH and TRANSPORTATION DEPTH Exam Specifications
Effective Beginning with the Apri12008 Examinations
(with design standards updated October 29, 2012)
• The civil exam is a breadth and depth examination. This means that examinees work
the breadth(AM)exam and one of the five depth(PM)exams.
• The five areas covered in the civil examination are construction, geotechnical,
structural, transportation, and water resources and environmental. The breadth exam
contains questions from all five areas of civil engineering. The depth exams focus
more closely on a single area of practice in civil engineering.
• Examinees work all questions in the morning session and all questions in the
afternoon module they have chosen. Depth results are combined with breadth results
for final score.
• The exam is an 8-hour open-book exam. It contains 40 multiple-choice questions in
the 4-hour AM session, and 40 multiple-choice questions in the 4-hour PM session.
• The exam uses both the International System of Units (SI) and the US Customary
System (USCS).
• The exam is developed with questions that will require a variety of approaches and
methodologies, including design, analysis, and application. Some problems may
require knowledge of engineering economics.
• The knowledge areas specified as examples of kinds of knowledge are not exclusive
or exhaustive categories.
• The specifications for the AM exam and the Transportation PM exam are
included here. The design standards applicable to the Transportation PM exam are
shown on the last page.
CIVIL BREADTH Exam Specifications
Approximate Percentage of Examination
I. CONSTRUCTION 20%
A. Earthwork Construction and Layout
1. Excavation and embankment(cut and fill)
2. Borrow pit volumes
3. Site layout and control
B. Estimating Quantities and Costs
1. Quantity take-off methods
2. Cost estimating
C. Scheduling
1. Construction sequencing
2. Resource scheduling
3. Time-cost trade-off
D. Material Quality Control and Production
1. Material testing (e.g., concrete, soil, asphalt)
E. Temporary Structures
1. Construction loads
NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications xix
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II. GEOTECHNICAL 20%

A. Subsurface Exploration and Sampling
1. Soil classification
2. Boring log interpretation (e.g., soil profile)
B. Engineering Properties of Soils and Materials
1. Permeability
2. Pavement design criteria
C. Soil Mechanics Analysis
1. Pressure distribution
2. Lateral earth'pressure
3. Consolidation
4. Compaction
5. Effective and total stresses
D. Earth Structures
1. Slope stability
2. Slabs-on-grade
E. Shallow Foundations
1. Bearing capacity
2. Settlement
F. Earth Retaining Structures
1. Gravity walls
2. Cantilever walls
3. Stability analysis
4. Braced and anchored excavations
III. STRUCTURAL 20%

A. Loadings
1. Dead loads
2: Live loads
3. Construction loads
B. Analysis
1. Determinate analysis
C. Mechanics of Materials
1. Shear diagrams
2. Moment diagrams
3. Flexure
4. Shear
5. Tension
6. Compression
7. Combined stresses
8. Deflection
D. Materials
1. Concrete (plain, reinforced)
2. Structural steel (structural, light gage, reinforcing)
E. Member Design
1. Beams
2. Slabs
3. Footings
xx NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications

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IV. TRANSPORTATION 20%

A. Geometric Design
1. Horizontal curves
2. Vertical curves
3. Sight distance
4. Superelevation
5. Vertical andlor horizontal clearances
6. Acceleration and deceleration
V. WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL 20%
A. Hydraulics — Closed Conduit
1. Energy and/or continuity equation (e.g., Bernoulli)
2. Pressure conduit(e.g., single pipe, force mains)
3. Closed pipe flow equations including Hazen-Williams, Darcy-Weisbach Equation
4. Friction and/or minor losses
5. Pipe network analysis (e.g., pipeline design, branch networks, loop networks)
6. Pump application and analysis
B. Hydraulics —Open Channel
1.Open-channel flow (e.g., Manning's equation)
2. Culvert design
3. Spillway capacity
4. Energy dissipation (e.g., hydraulic jump, velocity control)
5. Stormwater collection (e.g., stormwater inlets, gutter flow, street flow, storm sewer pipes)
6. Flood plains/floodways
7. Flow measurement —open channel
C. Hydrology
1. Storm characterization (e.g., rainfall measurement and distribution)
2. Storm frequency
3. Hydrographs application
4. Rainfall intensity, duration, and frequency(IDF) curves
5. Time of concentration
6. Runoff analysis including Rational and SCS methods
7. Erosion
8. Detention/retention ponds
D. Wastewater Treatment
1. Collection systems (e.g., lift stations, sewer networks, infiltration, inflow)
E. Water Treatment
1. Hydraulic loading
2. Distribution systems
Total 100%
NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications xxi

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National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying

Principles and Practice of Engineering
Civil - TR.ANSPORTATION Depth Exam Specifications
A competent transportation engineer should have a basic knowledge in drainage, soils, and pavement
design. Culvert design and pavement design are knowledges that have not been tested previously under
the current Civil exam specifications. Beginning with the April 2010 exam, Section V of the
Transportation module has been broadened to permit testing in these important transportation
knowledges.
Approximate Percentage
of Examination
I. Traffic Analysis 22.5%
A. Traffic capacity studies
B. Traffic signals
C. Speed studies
D. Intersection analysis
E. Traffic volume studies
F. Sight distance evaluation
G. Traffic control devices
H. Pedestrian facilities
I. Driver behavior and/or performance
II. Geometric Design 30%
A. Horizontal curves
B. Vertical curves
C. Sight distance
D. Superelevation
E. Vertical and/or horizontal clearances
F. Acceleration and deceleration
G. Intersections and/or interchanges
III. Transportation Planning 7.5%
A. Optimization and/or cost analysis (e.g., transportation route A or transportation route B)
B. Traffic impact studies
C. Capacity analysis (future conditions)
IV. Traffic Safety 15%

A. Roadside clearance analysis
B. Conflict analysis
C. Work zone safety
D. Accident analysis
xxii NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications

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V. Other Topics 25%

A. Hydraulics
1. Culvert design
2. Open channel — subcritical and supercritical flow
B. Hydrology
1. Hydrograph development and synthetic hydrographs
C. Engineering properties of soils and materials (e.g. index properties, identification oftypes of soils;
suitable or unsuitable soil. Boring logs)
D. Soil mechanics analysis (e.g. soil behavior, soil classification, soil compaction)
E. Engineering economics
1. Value engineering and costing
F. Construction operations and methods (e.g., erosion control measures, excavation/embankment)
G.Pavement structures (e.g. flexible and rigid pavement design)
NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications xxiii

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A Policy on Geometric design of Highways and Streets(GDHS-6)

(AASHTO - 6th Edition-2011, Green Book)
Pa e To is/Exhibit/Fi ure/E uation

CHAPTER 1: HIGHWAY FUNCTIONS
1-8 1.3.1 Definitions of Urban and Rural Areas
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA
2-1 2.1 Desi n Vehicles
2-3 Table 2-la: Desi n Vehicle Dimensions SI Units
2-4 Table 2-lb: Desi n Vehicle Dimensions US Units
2-6 Table 2-2a: Turning Radius of Design Vehicles(SI Units)
2-7 Table 2-2b: Turning Radius of Design Vehicles(US Units)
2-10/2-32 Fi ure 2-1/Fi ure 2-23: Minimum Turnin Path for Vehicles
2-34/2-35 Figure 2-24 &Figure 2-25: Accel, Decel. For Passenger Vehicles
&
2-47 30 Hourl Volume
2-54 Running Speed/Design Speed
2-58 Traffic Flow Relationships
2-62 Acceptable Congestion
2-66 Levels of Service(LOS)
2-67 Table 2-5: Guidelines for Selection of Design Levels of service(LOS
2-78/2-79 Pedestrian Walking S eeds &Level of Service LOS)
2-82 2.8.1 Key Factors Related to Traffic Crashes
CHAPTER 3: ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
3-2 3.2.2 Stopping Sight Distance
Brake Reaction Time
3-3 Brakin Distance
3-3 Default Values of t and a for SSD
3-4 Table 3-1: Sto in Si ht Distance
3-5 Table 3-2: Sto in Si ht Distance on Grades
3-7 Table 3-3: Decision Si ht Distance
3-9 Table 3-4: Passin Si ht Distance for Desi n of Two-Lane Hi hwa s
Figure 3-1: Comparison of Design Values for Passing Sight Distance and Stopping
3-11
Si ht Distance
???? Measurin and recordin si t distance on lans
???? Su erelevation - theoretical E uation 3-8
-
???? Su erelevation - theoretical E uation 3-9
-
???? Exhibit 3-12: Side friction factors assumed for desi n
3-30 Maximum Su erelevation Rates for Streets and Hi hwa s
3-32 Table 3-7: Minimum Radius Usin Limitin Values of e and f
3-54 Table 3-13a: Superelevation on Low Speed Urban Streets
3-55 Table 3-13b: Su erelevation on Low S eed Urban Streets
???? Exhibits 3-19 to 3-23: Design Superelevation Rates based on Method 5
???? Su erelevation runoff L
r,
???? T ent nmout I{
???? Exhibit 3-33: Guidelines for distribution ofrunoff between tan ent and curve
Tables, Figures, and Exhibits of AASHTO 2011, Green Book, GDHS-6
3-71 Table 3-20: Maximum Radius for Use of S iral Transition
3-71 Minimum length of spiral(eq. 3-26 and 3-27)
3-72 Maximum e.3-28 len h of s iral
3-72 Desirable len th of s iral curve
3-76 Com ound.circular curve len h Exhibit 3-42
3-85 3.3.9 Offtrackin
???? Exhibit 3-47: Traveled wa widenin for WB-50 vehicle
3-91 3.3.10 Traveled-Wa Widenin on Horizontal Curves
???? Horizontal sightline offset(HSO)
???? Exhibits 3-59 and 3-60 Critical len the of rade exam les on .240
???? Lane dro to er len formula MUTCD
~~~~ Exhibit 3-64: Recommended Length of Turnout Including Taper Exhibit 3-66:
Rollin Resistance on various surfaces
???? Arrester bed'desi n e uations 3-39 and 3=40
3-155 Exhibit 3-72: SSD on crest vertical curve
3-157 Exhibit 3-73: PSD on crest vertical curve
3-161 Exhibit 3-75: SSD on sa vertical curve
3-162 Si ht distance at undercrossin s
CHAPTER 4: CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS
47 4.3 Lane widths
4-10 4.4.2 Width of Shoulders
4-16 4.7 Curbs and utter standards
441 4.14 Noise Control
4-70 4.19.3 Park-and-Ride Facilities
CHAPTER S: LOCAL ROADSAND STREETS
5-2 5.2 Local Rural Roads
5-2 Table 5-1: Minimum desi n s eed for local rural roads
5-3 Table 5-2: Maximum rades for local rural roads
S-4 Table 5-3: Desi n Controls SSD and K for Crest and Sa curves
5-5 Table 5-4: Desi n Controls PSD and K .for Crest curves
5-6 Table 5-5: Minimum width oftraveled wa and shoulders
5-8 Vertical clearance
???? Horizontal clearance
5-11 5.3 Local Urban Streets
5-12 Sight distance
5-13 Grades
???? Curve radius
5-13 Cross slope
5-12 Superelevation
5-13 Width of Travelled Way
5-14 Medians
???? Exhibit 5-11: Minimum illumination levels
5-23 5.4 SPECIAL-PURPOSE ROADS
5-27 Table 5-9: Sto in si ht distance for Crest and Sa Curves
5-29 Table 5-10: Passin si ht distance for Crest Curves
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5-26 Table 5-8: Maximum Grades for Recreational Roads
???? Exhibit 5-16: Minimum Radius Horizontal Curve for Gravel Surface
CHAPTER 6: COLLECTOR ROADS AND STREETS
6-2 6.2 RURAL COLLECTORS
6-4 Table 6-3: Sto in Si ht Distance on Crest and Sa Curves
6-5 Table 6-4: Passin Si ht Distance on Crest Curves
6-3 Exhibit 6-2: Maximum Grades far Rural Collectors
(-3 Superelevation
6-6 Table 6-5: Minimum Width of Traveled Wa &Shoulders
6-8 Vertical and horizontal clearances
6-11 `6.3 URBAN COLLECTORS
6-12 Grades
6-13 Cross slope
6-13 Superelevation
6-12 Table 6-8: Maximum Grades for Urban Collectors
???? Sidewalk widths
~??? Vertical and horizontal clearances
CHAPTER 7: RURAL AND URBAN ARTERIALS
7-1 7.2 RURAL ARTERIALS
7-3 Table 7-1: Minimum Si ht Distance for Arterials
7-2 Table 7-2: Maximum Grades for Rural Arterials
???? Vertical clearances
7.5 Table 7-3: Minimum.,Width of Traveled Way &Shoulders..(by Design Speed and
ADT DIVIDED ARTERIALS .454
7-12 7.2.11 DIVIDED ARTERIALS
7-26 7.3 URBAN ARTERIALS
7 -29 Table 7-4: Maximum Grades for Urban Arterials
7-45 Princi les to accommodate left turn maneuvers
CHAPTER 8: FREEWAYS
???? Pavement and shoulders
8-4 Table 8-1: Maximum rades for rural and urban freewa s
8-4 8.2.9 Vertical clearance
8-6 8.3 RURAL FREEWAYS
8-11 8.4.3 DEPRESSED FREEWAYS
8-16 8.4.4 ELEVATED FREEWAYS
8-22 8.4.5 GROUND-LEVEL FREEWAYS
8-24 8.4.6 COMBINATION TYPE FREEWAYS
CHAPTER 9: INTERSECTIONS
9-10 9.3.1 Three-le intersections
9-14 9.3.2 Four-le intersections
9-19 9.3.3 Multi-le intersections
9-21 9.3.4 Roundabouts
9-57/9-59 Table 9-15: Ed e of traveled wa for various turn an les at intersections
9-60/9-63 Table 9-16: Ed e oftraveled wa at intersections utilizin 3-centered com ound
Tables, Figures, and Exhibits of AASHTO 2011, Green Book, G

curve
Figures 9-23 to 9-30: Min edge oftraveled way designs,for right. angle turns (P, SU,
9-64/9-79
WB- 40, WB-50, WB-62, WB-100T, WB-109D
9-94 9.6.3 ISLANDS
?`??? SIGHT TRIANGLES
???? INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE - Case A -Intersections with No Control
~~~~ INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE - Case B -Intersections with Stop Control on
Minor
~~~~ INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE - Case C -Intersections with Yield Control on
Minor
???? INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE - Case D -Intersections with Si nal Control
~~~~ INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE - Case E -Intersections with All Way Stop
Control
???? INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE - Case F -Left Turn from ma'or Road
???? Exhibit 9-75: Guide for Left Turn Lanes on Two-Lane Hi hwa s
???? Deceleration Len h
???? Stora e len th
???7 Ta er desi n
???? Exhibit 9-95: Ta er Desi n for Auxilia lanes
???? Railroad-Hi hwa Grade Crossin s
???? Exhibit 9-103: Case A - Movin vehicle to safel cross or sto at railroad crossin
~~~ Exhibit 9-104: Case B - Required sight distance for combination oftruck and train
" " seed
CHAPTER 10: GRADE SEPERATIONS AND INTERCHANGES
10-3 Fi ure10-1: Interchan e confi urations
10-11 10.8.1 GRADE SEPARATION STRUCTURES
10-17 Overcrossin vs. undercrossin
10-19 10.8.4 UNDERPASS ROADWAYS
10-22 10.8.5 OVERPASS ROADWAYS
???? Exhibit 10-8: Lon itudinal distance to attain rade se aration
10-27 10.9 INTERCHANGES
10-28 10.9.2 THREE LEG DESIGNS
10-35 10.9.3 FOUR LEG DESIGNS
???? SPUI- Sin le Point Urban Interchan e
10-48 CLOVEREAFS
10-53 DIRECTIONAL AND SEMI-DIRECTIONAL
10-73 Lane Balance Princi le
10-87 10.9.6 RAMPS
10-89 Tab1e10-1: Guide Values or Ram Desi n S eed based on Hi hwa Desi n S eed
???? Exhibit 10-67: Dei n Widths for Turnin Roadwa s RAMPS
???? Exhibit 10-70: Minimum Acceleration Len the for Entrance Terminals
???? Exhibit 10-71: S eed Chan e Lane Ad'ustment Factor as Function of Grade
10-115 Exhibit 10-73: Minimum Deceleration Len the for Exit Terminals

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LIST OF SYMBOLS
(Chapter 9, HCM 2010-Reprinted with permission)
This section lists and defines the symbols and abbreviations used in the H C M , along with their units if
applicable. If a symbol has more than one meaning, the chapter or chapters of the specific use are cited in
parentheses after the definition.
%HV ..................percentage of heavy vehicles (decimal)
%OHP ................percentage of segment with occupied on-highway parking
%VL: ..................percentage of traffic present in lane L;
VLmax ••••••••••••••percentage of the total approach flow in the lane with the highest volume (decimal)
A ......................critical flow ratio for the arterial movements
al .......:...............passenger load weighting factor
AADT .................. annual average daily traffic (veh/day)
A: .....................expected passings per minute of mode i by average bicycle
Ap .....................pedestrian space (fl/p)
AT .......................expected active passings per minute by the average bicycle during the peak 15 min
ATSd ...................average travel speed in the analysis direction(mi/h)
ATSF .................. average travel speed for the facility (mi/h)
ATS: ...................average travel speed for directional segment i (mi/h)
ATSp~ ..................average travel speed in the analysis segment as affected by a passing lane(mi/h)
AVO: ..................average vehicle occupancy on segment i (p/veh)
bd~ ...................... destination adjustment factorj
BFFS ..................base free-flow speed (mi/h)
b1 ........................ bunching factor for lane group i
BLOS ..................bicycle level of service score
bo.: ....................origin adjustment factor i
BPTSFd ...............base percent time-spent-following in the analysis direction
c..........................base capacity
C ........................ cycle length (s)
c;,PCE •••••••••••••••••.capacity for lane i(pc/h)
C' ....................... cycle length (steps)
cQ ........................ adjusted mainline capacity (veh/h)
cA ........................ average capacity (vehlh)
cQ,1e p ..................available capacity of an exclusive-lane lane group with protected left-turn operation
(veh/h)
cQ'........................ adjusted capacity of work or construction zone
cQ~~....................... actual capacity ofthe flared lane (veh/h)
cb ........................ capacity ofthe bicycle lane (bicycles/h)
Cbypass,pce •••••• ~••.•••capacity of the bypass lane, adjusted for heavy vehicles (pc/h)
~dATS •••••••• ~ • ~••••••••capacity in the analysis direction under prevailing conditions based on ATS (pc/h)
CdPTSF ••••••••••••••••••capacity in the analysis direction under prevailing conditions based on PTSF (pc/h)
Ce ........................equilibrium cycle length (s)
~e,L,pce ~••••••~••••••~•~• capacity ofthe left entry lane, adjusted for heavy vehicles(pc/h)
ce,R,pCe ••.•••••••••••••.• capacity ofthe right entry lane, adjusted for heavy vehicles (pc/h)
CGDS ..................common green time with demand starvation potential (s}
CGS...................common green time between the upstream ramp green and the downstream arterial
through green (s)
CGUD •••••••••••••••.•.common green time between the upstream through green and downstream through
green (s)
Symbols, Chapter 9- HCM 2010
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ci.........................set of critical phases on the critical path
c:......................... capacity for lane i (veh/h)
CIF-L ...................... capacity of a basic freeway segment with the same free-flow speed as the weaving
segment under equivalent ideal conditions, per lane (pc/h/ln)
cIW .....:................ capacity of all lanes in the weaving segment.under ideal conditions (pc/h)
~IWL ••••••••••••••••••••.capacity of the weaving.segment under equivalent ideal conditions (pc/h/ln)
cl ......................... capacity of a left-turn movement with permitted left-turn operation (veh/h)
cle ....................... capacity of an exclusive-lane lane group with permitted left-turn operation (veh/h)
cl,e,p .....................capacity of an exclusive-lane lane group with protected left-turn operation (veh/h)
CL+TH •••••••••••••••••••capacity of the through and left-turn movements (veh/h)
cm,~.......................capacity of movementj
c,,,,x ...................... capacity of movement x (veh/h)
cm,Y ......................movement capacity of the y movement in the subject shared lane (veh/h)
C„~ax..................... maximum cycle length (s)
c„~g....................... merge capacity (veh/h)
Cm........................minimum cycle length (s)
cn.......................... nonmerge capacity for the inside lane (veh/h)
cp,x.......................potential capacity of movement x (veh/h)
CpCe ......................lane capacity adjusted for heavy vehicles (pc/h)
CP: .....................change period (yellow change interval plus red clearance interval).for phase i(s)
cg1r ......................shared lane capacity for upstream right-turn traffic movement(veh/h)
cR ........................ capacity of the right-turn movement(veh/h)
c,.,x .......................capacity of movement x assuming random flow.during .the unblocked period
cS ......................... saturated capacity (veh/h)
CS ...................... critical sum (veh/h)
CSep .....................capacity of the lane if both storage areas were_ infinitely long (veh/h)
csH.......................capacity ofthe shared lane (veh/h)
cs~ .......................capacity of a shared-lane lane group with permitted left-turn.operation (veh/h)
crhru •••••••••••••.•..••••capacity for the exiting through movement(veh/h)
cru,n ••••••••••••••••••••capacity for the exiting turn movement(veh/h)
CV ...................... critical phase flow rate (veh/h)
d .........................demand flow rates (veh/h, Chapter 10); control delay (s/veh, Chapter 17); interchange
delay (s/veh, Chapter 22)
D ........................density(pc/mi/ln, Chapter 14); distance between the two intersections ofthe
interchange (ft,.Chapter 2.2)
d~ ........................conditional delay to first through vehicle (s/veh)
d1b........................ baseline uniform delay (s/veh)
d2.........................incremental delay (s/veh)
d3.........................initial queue delay(s/veh)
dA ........................ control.delay on the approach (s/veh)
da......................... acceleration deceleration delay (s)
DQ ....................... access-point density on segment(points/mi)
DQ.: ......................adjusted volume for destinationj(veh/h)
dAJ ....................... approach control delay for approachj(s/veh)
dA,x ......................control delay on approach x (s/veh)
dad ...................... transit vehicle acceleration/deceleration delay. due to a transit stop (s/veh)
dap.: .....................delay due to left and right turns from the street into access point intersection i (s/veh)
dap,l .....................through vehicle delay due to left turns (s/veh)
daps ....................through vehicle delay due to right turns (s/veh)
dapproach ••••••••••••••control delay for the approach (s/veh)
Symbols-Chapter 9- HCM 2010
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db .......................bicycle delay (s/bicycle)
D~ ....................... distance to nearest signal-controlled crossing (ft)
Dd ...................... diversion distance (ft)
DDHV ................ directional design-hour volume (veh/h)
DF ...................... average density for the facility (pc/mi/ln)
dg .......................average pedestrian gap delay(s)
dgd ......................average gap delay for pedestrians who incur nonzero delay
D: .......................person-hours of delay on segment i (Chapter 2); density for segment i(pc/mi/ln,
Chapter 10)
d: ........................vehicle demand on segment i (veh, Chapter 2);control delay for lane i(s/veh, Chapter
19) .
dl ........................ intersection control delay (s/veh)
dintersection ••~ ~ ••••••••control delay for the entire intersection (s/veh)
D~ .......................volume for destinationj(veh/h)
d1 ........................ computed control delay for the left-turn movements (s/veh)
dM,LT ••••••••••••~•••••• delay to major left-turning vehicles(s/veh)
DMD ....................density in the major diverge influence area (which includes all approaching freeway
lanes)(pc/mi/ln)
dmg .....................merge delay (s/veh)
dnm ......................nonmerge delay for the inside lane (s/veh)
do~heY ................... delay due to other sources along the route (s/veh)
Dp ......................phase duration (s)
dp ....................... average pedestrian delay (s)
Dp,Q ....................phase duration for phase a, which occurs just before phase b (s)
Dp,b ....................phase duration for phase b, which occurs just after phase a(s)
dp,d ......................pedestrian delay when traversing Crosswalk D (s/p)
Dp,j .....................phase duration for left-turn phase l(s)
Dp,...: ................... duration of the phase serving the minor-street through movement(s)
Dp,t .....................phase duration for coordinated phase t(s)
dpi ...................... pedestrian delay when crossing the segment at a signalized intersection (s/p)
Cl~pd ......................pedestrian diversion delay (s/p)
Dped ....................pedestrian density(p/ft2)
dpp ...................... pedestrian delay when walking parallel to the segment(s/p)
dps ...................... transit vehicle delay due to serving passengers (s)
dpw ...................... pedestrian waiting delay (s/p)
dpx .......................crossing delay (s/p)
DQA ................... distance to the downstream queue at the beginning ofthe upstream arterial green (ft)
DQ:.....................distance to the downstream queue at the beginning ofthe upstream green for approach i
(ft)
DQR ...................distance to the downstream queue at the beginning ofthe upstream ramp green (ft)
DR ......................density in the ramp influence area(pc/mi/ln)
dr ..:.....................computed control delay for the right-turn movements(s/veh)
dYe ......................transit vehicle delay reentering the traffic stream from a transit stop (s/veh)
DS .......................speed index for off-ramps
ds ........................ saturated uniform delay (s/veh)
dSep .....................control delay for the movement considered as a separate lane
ds~ ........................control delay in shared left-turn and through lane group (s/veh)
ds, ....................... control delay in shared right-turn and through lane group (s/veh)
DSV ...................daily service volumes
D.~ ...................... distance between stored vehicles(= 8 ft)
Symbols, Chapter 9- HCM 2010 7
DSV: ................... daily service volume for level of service i (veh/day)
dt ........................ control delay in exclusive through lane group (s/veh)
d~,1 ......................average delay to through vehicles in the inside lane (s/veh)
dT: ......................total delay associated with interval i (veh-s)
dt~r ••••„•...••.•••.••••,through vehicle delay per right-turn maneuver(s/veh)
dts .......................delay due to a transit vehicle stop for passenger pickup (s/stop)
Dup .....................unbalanced phase duration (s)
Dup.: .................... unbalanced phase duration for phase i (s)
d,,g ....................time-in-queue per vehicle(s/veh)
dx~ ....................length of discrete segmentj(mi)
e .........................ridership elasticity with respect to changes in the travel time rate (Chapter 17); the
extension of effective green time into the clearance interval (s, Chapter 22)
E ........................ weighted events per minute
EL ....................... equivalent number of through cars for a protected left-turning vehicle
EL,,,t .....................modified through-car equivalent for a protected left-turning vehicle
ELl ...................... equivalent number of through cars for a permitted left-turning vehicle
EL~,m ...................modified through-car equivalent for a permitted left-turning vehicle
EL2...................... equivalent number ofthrough cars for a permitted left=turning vehicle when opposed by
a queue on a single-lane approach
EL2,,,, ...................modified through-car equivalent for a permitted left-turning vehicle when opposed by a
queue on a single-lane approach
ep ........................ permitted extension of effective green (s)
ER .......................passenger-car equivalent for recreational vehicles (Chapter 10); equivalent number of
through cars for a protected right-turning vehicle (Chapter 18)
ER,ap .................... equivalent number ofthrough cars for a protected right-turning.vehicle at an access
point
ER,,,, ....................modified through-car equivalent for a protected right-turning vehicle
ET .......................passenger-car equivalent for trucks and buses
ETA ..................... passenger-car equivalent for trucks operating at crawl speed
F ........................total events on the path (events/h)
fa ........................ adjustment factor for area type (0.90 if CBD, 1.00 otherwise)
fA ........................ adjustment for access points(mi/h)
fad ....................... proportion of transit vehicle stop acceleration/deceleration delay not due to traffic
control
fbb •••••••••• ~ ~ •••••••••••adjustment factor for blocking effect of local buses that stop within intersection area
Fb: ...................... indicator variable for boundary intersection control type (1.0 if signalized, 0.0 if two-
way STOP-controlled)
Fed ......................roadway crossing difficulty factor
.fcs •~••••••••••••~•••••••. adjustment for cross section (mi/h)
Fde~Qy ...................pedestrian delay adjustment factor
fdr ••••.•••••.••••••••••••• proportion of dwell time occurring during effective green
fF ........................ cdjustment for the presence of merge, diverge, and weaving segments along a facility
FFS ....................free-flow speed (mi/h)
fg ........................ adjustment factor for approach grade
fg,ATS ••••••••••••••••.••grade adjustment factor
fgPTSF•••••••••••••••••••grade adjustment factor for PTSF determination
Fh .......................headway factor
fxv ••••••••••••••••••••••heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
,fxv,ATS •••••~ •••••••~ •••heavy-vehicle adjustment factor for average travel speed
fHy,e ....................heavy-vehicle adjustment factor for the lane
8 Symbols-Chapter 9- HCM 2010
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fH[;PTSF •••~••••••••~•• heavy-vehicle adjustment factor for PTSF determination
fL ........................signal spacing adjustment factor
Fl ........................ pasenger load factor (passengers/seat)
,tic •••••••••••••••••••••• adfustment for lateral clearance(mi/h)
fLpb •••~•••••~•••••••~••• pedestrian adjustment factor for left-turn groups
f~ ....................... adjustment for lane and shoulder width (mi/h)
fiT •••••••••••••••••••.••. adfustment factor for left-turn vehicle presence in a lane group
fiU •••••••••••••••••••••. adfustment factor for lane utilization
fiW ••.••••.•••••••••.•••• adfustment for lane width(mi/h)
fM ....................... adfustment for median type (mi/h)
F,,, ......................number of meeting events (events/h)
fnp,A~s ••••••••••••••••••adjustment factor for ATS determination for the percentage of no-passing zones in the
analysis direction
fnp,PrsF ••~••••••~•••••• adjustment to PTSF for the percentage of no-passing zones in the analysis segment
FO4 ....................force-off point for Phase 4(s)
fp ........................driver population factor
Fp .......................number of passing events (events/h)
Fp .......................pavement condition adjustment factor
fpb ....................... pedestrian blockage factor or the proportion of time that one lane on an approach is
blocked during 1 h
fped ••••••••••••••••••••••entry capacity adjustment factor for pedestrians
,fpr,ATS ••••••••••••••••••adjustment factor for the effect of passing lane on average travel speed
,fpr,PTSF ~••••••••••••••••adjustment factor for the impact of a passing lane on percent time-spent-following
fib ..................... pedestrian-bicycle adjustment factor for right-turn groups
vehicle presence in the lane group
fRT •~~••••••••••••••••~•. adjustment for right-turning
FS ....................... motorized vehicle speed adjustment factor
f~ .......................sidewalk width coefficient
fTISi •••••~••••••••••••••• time-interval scale factor for time period i
Ftt .......................perceived travel time factor
f ........................adfustment factor for traffic pressure
F,. ....................... motorized vehicle volume adjustment factor
fw ........................adfustment factor for lane width
Fw ......................cross-section adjustment factor
g ......................... effective green time (s)
G ........................percent grade (Chapter 17); green time (s, Chapter 22)
Gaped ca11 •••••••••••••••average green interval given that the phase is called by a pedestrian detection (s)
G~veh,~arr ••••••••••.•••.average green interval given that the phase is called by a vehicle detection (s)
g'........................ effective' green time adjusted because of the presence of a downstream queue (s)
G3 ......................green interval duration for Phase 3(s)
gQ ....................... available effective green time (s)
GA ..................... green interval for the external arterial approach (s)
gb ....................... effective green time for the bicycle lane (s)
GD .....................green interval for the downstream arterial through movement(s)
gds .....................supplemental service time.for shared single-lane approaches (s)
ge ........................ green extension time (s)
gf ........................time before the first left-turning vehicle arrives and blocks the shared lane (s)
gf„~~ ...................maximum time before the first left-turning vehicle arrives and within which there are
sufficient through vehicles to depart at saturation (s)
g: ........................ effective green time for lane group i(s)
gl ........................ effective green time for left-turn phase (s)
Gmax ...................maximum green setting (s)
Gmjn .................... minimum green setting (8)
gp ....................... effective green time for permitted left-turn operation (s)
Gp ...................... displayed green interval corresponding to gp (s)
Gp,min •••••••••• ~ •••••••minimum green interval duration based on pedestrian crossing time (s)
geed ..................... pedestrian service time (s)
gped,mi •• ~ ~ •••••••~ ••••••pedestrian service time for the phase serving the minor-street through movement(s)
gps ......................queue service time during permitted left-turn operation (s)
gq .......................opposing queue service time(=gs for the opposing movement)(s)
Gq ......................displayed green interval corresponding to gq(s)
GR .....................green interval for the left-turning ramp movement(s)
gs ........................queue service time (s)
gu .......................duration of permitted left-turn green time that is not blocked by an opposing queue (s)
Gu ...................... unbaianced green interval duration for a phase (s)
GU:..................... green interval for the upstream approach i(s)
gWalk,mi ••• •••••••••••••effective walk time for the phase serving the minor-street movement(s)
h ......................... average headway for each through lane
hl~<h<HI ••••••••••••••average headway of those headways between 0 and HI (s/veh)
HI ......................maximum headway that the first through vehicle can have and still incur delay (s/veh)
hQ~~ .....................headway adjustment(s)
hd .......................departure headway or average time between departures of successive vehicles on a
given approach (s)
hHV,adj •••••••••••••••••headway adjustment for heavy vehicles (s)
hI ........................ saturation headway for the internal through approach (s)
h;s ....................... saturation headway or time between departures of successive vehicles on a given
approach for a particular case (case i)(s)
hLTad> ••••••••••••.••.••headway adjustment for left turns (s)
horher •••••••••••••.•,••• full stop rate due to other sources (stops/veh)
hRTad> ••••••••••••••~••• headway adjustment for right turns (s)
HSeg ....................spatial stop rate for the segment(stops/mi)
i .......................... crosing event index
I .........................cdjustment factor for type, intensity, and proximity of work activity (pc/h/ln, Chapter
10); upstream filtering adjustment factor (Chapter 18)
IQ,Seg ••••••••••••••.•••••automobile traveler perception score for segment
I6,,,,r ••••••••••••••.••••••bicyclist perception score for intersection
Ib,link ••••••~•••••~•••••• bicyclist perception score for link
Ib,seg ••••••••••.•••••••••bicyclist perception score for segment
Ib,S=g ••••••••••••••••••••bicycle perception score for signalized intersection
ID ......................interchange density; the number of interchanges within f3 mi ofthe center of the
subject weaving segment divided by 6(int/mi)
Iic •••••••~•••••••••••••• lane-changing intensity; LCALI/LS(Ic/ft)
Ip,,n~ .....................pedestrian perception score for intersection
Ip,link •••••••••••••••••••pedestrian perception score for link
Ip,Seg ....................pedestrian perception score for segment
Ip,s,g ....................pedestrian perception score for signalized intersection
Ipk .......................indicctor variable for on-street parking occupancy(= 0 ifppk > 0.0)
IS ........................interval between vehicle-in-queue counts (s)
Ish ••••••.•••••••••••••••• indicctor variable for shared lane(= 1.0 if the subject left turn is served in a shared lane;
0 if the subject left turn is served in an exclusive lane)

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It .........................indicator variable = 1.0 when equations are used to evaluate delay due to left turns;
0.00001 when equations are used to evaluate delay due to right turns
It,Seg ....................transit passenger perception score for segment
j..........................time step associated with platoon arrival time t'
k .........................iperemental delay factor
K ........................ proportiop of AADT occurring in the peak hour (decimal)
k: ........................ density of users of mode i (users/mi)
km~n .....................minimum incremental delay factor
L ........................ cycle lost time (s)
11 ........................ start-up lost time (s)
ll,p .......................permitted start-up lost time (s)
lz ........................ clearance lost time (s)
LQ ....................... available queue storage distance (ft/ln)
LA ....................... length of acceleration lane (ft)
La,~orab •••••••••••••••••available queue storage distance for the combined movement(ft/ln)
LQ,~t .................... available queue storage distance for the left-turn movement (ft/ln)
LQ,rh,~ .................. available queue storage distance for the through movement (ft/ln)
LQ,ru,,, ••••••••••••••••••available queue storage distance for the turn movement (ft/ln)
LB .......................base length of the segment, measured from the points at which the edges of the travel
lanes of the merging and diverging roadways converge (ft)
LCALL ••••••••••.••••••total rate of lane changing of all vehicles within the weaving segment (lc/h)
L~~ ...................... curb-to-curb crossing distance (ft)
LCFR ...................minimum number of lane changes that afreeway-to-ramp weaving vehicle must make
to complete the freeway-to-ramp movement successfully
LCL .................... left-side lateral clearance (ft)
LCMIN .................minimum rate of lane changing that must exist for all weaving vehicles to complete
their weaving maneuvers successfully (lc/h)
LCD ..................total rate of lane changing by nonweaving vehicles within the weaving segment(lc/h)
LCR ....................right-side lateral clearance (ft)
LCD ................... minimum number oflane changes that aramp-to-freeway weaving vehicle must make
to complete the ramp-to-freeway movement successfully
LCD ................... minimum number of lane changes that must be made by one ramp-to-ramp vehicle to
complete a weaving maneuver
LCW ....................total rate of lane changing by weaving vehicles within the weaving segment(lc/h)
Ld .......................length of Crosswalk D (it)
LD .......................length of deceleration lane (ft)
Lp_,q ....................lost time on the external arterial approach due to the presence of downstream queue (s)
LDOWN ••• ~ ~ ••• ~ • ~••~ ~ ••distance between the subject ramp junction and the adjacent downstream ramp junction
eft)
LD_R .................... lost time on the external ramp approach due to the presence of downstream queue (s)
LDS .....................additional lost time due to demand starvation (s)
Lds ...................... length of the stop line detection zone (ft)
Lds,lr ••••••••••••••••••.• lepgth of the stop line detection zone in the left-turn lanes (ft)
Lds,rt •••••••••••~•••••~•• length of the stop line detection zone in the right-turn lanes (ft)
Lds,rh •••••••••••••••••..length ofthe stop line detection zone in the through lanes (ft)
LD_U. ................... lost time on the upstream approach i due to the presence of a downstream queue (s)
LEg ..................... equilibrium separation distance
Lh ....................... average vehicle spacing in stationary queue (ft/veh)
LHy ..................... stored heavy-vehicle lane length = 45 (ft)
Lt ........................length of segment i(mi)
Lp~ ......................stored passenger car lane length = 25 (ft)
Lp~ ...................... average passenger trip length(mi)
lr .........................length of segment traveled by route (< L)(ft)
LS .......................distance between adjacent signalized intersections.(ft)
LS .......................short length of the segment, defined as the distance over which lane changing is not
prohibited or dissuaded by markings (ft)
Lt ........................total length of directional segment i(mi)
lt.: .......................phase ilost time(s)
LTA .....................left-turn flow rate per cycle (veh/cycle)
LUP ..................... distance between the subject ramp junction and the adjacent upstream ramp junction (ft)
L,. .......................detected length of vehicle (ft)
Lyyl .....................influence area ofthe weaving segment(ft)
LwMAX ••••~•••••••••••• maximum length of a weaving segment (ft)
M ....................... pedestrian space (ft2/p)
MI ......................meetings per minute of users already on path segment
MAH ..................maximum allowable headway (s/veh)
MAH* .................equivalent maximum allowable headway for the phase (s/veh)
MAH~ .................maximum allowable headway for the concurrent phase that also ends at the barrier
(s/veh)
~Hir,e •••••••••••••• •maximum allowable headway for permitted left-turning vehicles in exclusive lane
(s/veh)
MAH~t,e,p .............maximum allowable headway for protected left-turning vehicles in exclusive lane
(s/veh)
MAH~t,s ...............maximum allowable headway for permitted left-turning vehicles in shared lane (s/veh)
MAHI~,s,p .............maximum allowable headway for protected left-turning vehicles in shaxed lane (s/veh.)
MAHr~,e,p ............maximum allowable headway for protected right-turning vehicles in exclusive lane
(s/veh)
MAHrr,s •••••••••••••••maximum allowable headway for permitted right-turning vehicles in shared lane (s/veh)
MAHrh ................maximum allowable headway for through vehicles (s/veh)
Mcorner ••••••••••••••••comer circulation area per pedestrian (ft2/p)
M~ti.. ....................crosswalk circulation area per pedestrian (ft2/p)
and ......................set of all automobile movements that cross Crosswalk D
m: ....................... average speed of mode i (mi/h)
m~ .......................number of lane groups on approachj
MS ......................speed index for on-ramps(merge areas)
MT ......................total number of expected meetings per minute during the peak 15 min
My ......................motorist yield rate (decimal)
nls ......................count of vehicles during the peak IS-min period (veh.)
n~s,m~ ••.••••••••••••••••count of vehicles traveling on the major street during a IS-min period (veh/ln)
n60 ...................... count of vehicles during a 1-h period (veh)
Nap .....................number of influential access-point approaches along the segment
Napo ................... number of access-point approaches on the right side in the opposing direction of travel
(points)
Naps .................... number of access-point approaches on the right side in the subject direction oftravel
(points)
NArreY,al ••••••••••••••••number of lanes for the upstream arterial through movement
Nb .......................bus stopping rate on the subject approach (buses/h)
N~ .......................total number of pedestrians in the crossing platoon (p)
Ncomb •••••••••••••••~•• number of lanes for the combined movement(In)
Nd .......................number of traffic lanes crossed when traversing Crosswalk D (In)
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Nd. ...................... number of pedestrians arriving at the corner each cycle having crossed the major street
~)
Ndo .....................number of pedestrians arriving at the corner each cycle to cross the major street(p)
Ne .......................number of exclusive lanes in movement group (In)
Nf .......................number of fully stopped vehicles (veh/ln)
Nfs! .....................number offully stopped vehicles in shared left-turn and through lane group (veh/ln)
Nfsr .....................number of fully stopped vehicles in shared right-turn and through lane group (veh/ln)
Nfr ......................number of fully stopped vehicles in exclusive through lane group (veh/ln)
ng ....................... arrival count during green(veh)
Ng ....................... number of lane groups for which t exceeds 0.0 h
n: ........................number of lanes serving phase movement i
N: .......................number of lanes in segment i
NI .......................number of lanes in exclusive left-turn lane group (In)
Nlr ......................number of lanes in shared left- and right-turn lane group (In)
Nlr .......................number of lanes in the left-turn bay (In)
Nm ......................parking maneuver rate adjacent to lane group (maneuvers/h)
nM~ ....................length of the storage area such that the approach would operate as separate lanes
No .......................number of outer lanes on the freeway (1 for asix-lane freeway; 2 for an eight-lane
freeway)
Np ....................... spatial distribution of pedestrians(p, Chapter 19); number of partial stops (Chapter 30)
nped .....................number of conflicting pedestrians (p/h)
Need ....................number of pedestrians crossing during an interval (p)
n9 .......................maximum number of opposing vehicles that could arrive after gfand before gu (veh)
NqQ ..................... available queue storage (veh)
Nga,~omb ••••••••••~•~•. available queue storage for the combined movement(veh)
Nq~,<< ...................maximum queue storage for the left-turn movement(veh)
Nq~~h~ ................maximum queue storage for the through movement(veh)
Ngx,~„rn ................maximum queue storage fora turn movement(veh)
Nr ....................... number of lanes in exclusive right-turn lane group (In)
NRamp-L •••••••••••••••number of lanes for the upstream ramp left-turning movement
N,t~;,d ••••••••••••••••.•number of right-turn channelizing islands along Crosswalk D
ns ........................number of sneakers per cycle(= 2,0 veh)
NSl ...................... number of lanes in shared left-turn and through lane group (In)
Ns, ......................number of lanes in shared right-turn and through lane group (In)
Nt .......................total number of stops
Nth ...................... number ofthrough lanes (shared or exclusive)(ln)
NTH ..................... number ofthrough lanes (shared or exclusive)(ln)
Nto~ .....................total number of circulating pedestrians arriving each cycle (p)
Nrr ...................... number of transit routes along the subject segment
Nrs ...................... average number of transit stops along the subject route (stops)
N~rn .................... number of lanes in the turn bay (In)
N~. ...................... number ofturning vehicles during the walk and pedestrian clear intervals (veh)
NWL ....................number of lanes from which a weaving maneuver may be completed with one lane
change or no lane changes
nx ........................number of calls necessary to extend the green to max out
OQ.: ..................... adjusted volume for origin i (veh/h)
OCCb;~g •••••.••••••••bicycle occupancy
OCCpedu •••••••.•.•••pedestrian occupancy after the opposing queue clears
OCCr .................relevant conflict-zone occupancy
O: .......................volume for origin i (veh/h)
P ........................proportion ofvehicles arriving during the green indication
p'........................cdjustment to the major-street left, minor-street through impedance factor
pap,tr •••••••.••••••.•••••proportion.of Nap,othat can be accessed by a left turn from the subject direction of
travel
pb ....................... proportion of time blocked (decimal)
pb,X ••••••••••••.••••..•••proportion oftime that the subject movement x is blocked by the major-street platoon
PBCDEF ~ •••••••••••••••probability that an individual will respond with a score of B, C, D,E, or F
Pbe •••.•••••••••~•••••••• proportion of stops on segment with benches (decimal)
Pbo •••••••••••.••••••••.• probability of two blocked lanes in the opposing direction
Pbs ••••••••••••••••••••.• probability of two blocked lanes in the subject direction
pburlding ~ ~ ••••• ~••••••••proportion of sidewalk length adjacent to a building face (decimal)
P~ .......................pavement condition rating
PC......................pedestrian clear setting (s)
PCDEF ••••••••••••••••• probability that an individual will respond with a score of C, D,E, or F
p~urb ••••••••••.•••••••••proportion of segment with curb on the right-hand side (decimal)
PDEF •••••••••••••~••••• probability that an individual will respond with a score of D,E, or F
Pdo ......................probability of delayed passing in opposing direction
P~ ...................... probability of delayed passing in subject direction
PEF ••••••~•••••••••••••• probability that an individual will respond with a score of E or F
PF ....................... probability that an individual will respond with a score of F
PFD •••• ~ ~•••~ ••~ ••••••• ~ proportion of diverging traffic remaining in Lanes 1 and 2 immediately upstream of the
deceleration lane
pfence ••••• ~ •••~•••••••• •proportion of sidewalk length adjacent to a fence or low wall (decimal)
PFM • ~ ••••• ~ • ~ •••••••••• proportion offreeway vehicles remaining in Lanes 1 and 2 immediately upstream of the
on-ramp influence area
PHF ...................peak hour factor
Pxv •••••••••••••••••••••percentage of heavy vehicles in the corresponding- movement group(%)
PHVa ...................adjusted percentage of heavy vehicles in the midsegment demand flow rate(%)
p: ........................path mode split for user group i
p;,~ .......................seed proportion of volume from origin i to destinationj(decimal)
p~ ........................ distance required to pass mode i(mi)
PL ....................... proportion of left-turning vehicles in the shared lane
P~~ ...................... probability of a lane change among the approach through lanes
Ptr ••••••••~•••~•••••••••• proportion of left-turning vehicles on the subject approach (decimal)
PLT •••••••••••••••••••••proportion of left-turning vehicles in the lane
PLT,seg •• ~ ••••• ~ ••••••••proportion of intersections with left-turn lanes (or bay) on segment(decimal)
Ptro •••••~ •••••••••••••••proportion ofleft-turning vehicles in the opposing traffic stream
Pmds ••••••••••••••••••.•probability of delayed passing for mode m
P„o ...................... probability of blocked lane in opposing direction
P,,.T ......................probability of blocked lane in subject direction
por ••••••••••••••••••••••• proportion of transit vehicles arriving on time (decimal)
po.. ...................... probability of left-turn bay overflow (decimal)
ppk ......................proportion of on-street parking occupied (decimal)
PR ....................... proportion of recreational vehicles in the traffic stream (Chapter 10); proportion of
right-turning vehicles in the shared lane (Chapter 30)
prm ••••••••••••••••••••••proportion of link length with restrictive median (decimal)
Prr ••••••••••••••••••••••proportion ofright-turning vehicles on the subject approach (decimal)
PRT ~••••~•••~~•••.~•~•~• proportion ofright-turning vehicles in the lane
psy, ••••••••••.•••••••••••proportion of stops on segment with shelters (decimal)
PT ....................... proportion oftrucks and buses in the traffic stream
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PT ......................passage time setting (s)
PTC •••••••••••••••••••••proportion oftrucks operating at crawl speed (decimal)
PTds •••••••••••••••••••. total probability of delayed passing
PT~t .....................passage time setting for phase serving left-turning vehicles (s)
PTr~ ....................passage time setting for phase serving right-turning vehicles (s)
PTSFd ................percent time-spent-following in the analysis direction (decimal)
PTSFF ................percent time-spent-following for the facility (decimal)
PTSF: .................percent time-spent-following for segment i(decimal)
PTSFpI ................percent time-spent-following for segment as affected by the presence of a passing lane
(decimal)
PT~h ....................passage time setting for phase serving through vehicles (s)
P~urn •••••••••~••••~••••• proportion ofturning vehicles in the shared lane = PL or PR (decimal)
Pwtndow •••~ ••••••••~ •••proportion of sidewalk length adjacent to a window display (decimal)
px ........................ probability of phase termination by extension to the maximum green limit
q ........................arrival flow rate = v/3,600 (veh/s)
Q ........................back-of-queue size (veh/ln)
q ....................... arrival flow rate for the phase (veh/s)
q'alu~ ••••••.••••••.•••••arrival flow rate in time stepjat a downstream intersection from upstream source u
(veh/step)
q'u.: .....................departure flow rate in time step i at upstream source u (veh/step)
Ql ......................first-term back-of-queue size (veh/ln)
QZ ......................second-term back-of-queue size (veh/ln)
Qz,sl ••••••••.••.••••••••second-term back-of-queue size for shared left-turn and through lane group (veh/ln)
Q2,sr ••••.•••••••••••••••second-term back-of-queue size for shared right-turn and through lane group (veh/ln)
Q2,~ .....................second-term back-of-queue size for exclusive through lane group (veh/ln)
Q2+3 ....................back-of-queue size (veh/ln)
Q3 ...................... third-term back-of-queue size (veh/ln)
Q3,S1 ••.••••••••••••••.••.third-term back-of-queue size for shared left-turn and through lane group (veh/ln)
Q3,Sr •.••••••••••••••.••.third-term back-of-queue size for shaxed right-turn and through lane group (veh/ln)
Q3,~ .....................third-term back-of-queue size for exclusive through lane group (veh/ln)
Q9s •••.•••••••.••••••••• 95th percentile queue(veh)
QA .......................estimated average per lane queue length for the through movement in the downstream
(internal) link at the beginning of upstream arterial Phase A (ft)
Qb ...................... initial queue at the start of the analysis period (veh)
Qb,comb •••••••••••.••.. initial queue for the combined movement(veh)
qd .......................arrival flow rate for downstream lane group (veh/s)
Qe .......................queue at the end ofthe analysis period (veh)
Qe0 •••••••••••••••••••••queue at the end of the analysis period when v > cA and Qb = 0.0(veh)
Qf .......................queue size at the end of gf(veh)
qg ....................... arrival flow rate during the effective green time (veh/s)
qt ........................hourly directional path flow rate for user group i(modal users/h)
Q: .......................queue size at the end of interval i(veh)
QINITIAL ••••••••••••••• length ofthe queue stored at the internal approach at the beginning ofthe interval
during which this approach has demand starvation potential
q„ ....................... outside lane flow rate = v„/ 3,600(veh/s)
Qob •••••••.•••.•••.••••• bicycle demand in the opposing direction (bicycles/h)
Qp ......................queue size at the end of permitted service time (veh)
Qp'......................queue size at the end of permitted service time, adjusted for sneakers(veh)
Q9 .......................queue size at the start of gu(veh)
qr ........................arrival flow rate during the effective red time (veh/s)
Qr ....................... queue size at the end of effective red time(= qr r)(veh)
QR ......................estimated average per lane queue length for the through movement in the downstream
(internal) link at the beginning of upstream ramp Phase R (ft)
Q,.b •••••••••••••••••.•••• bicycle demand in the same direction (bicycles/h)
QSep ..................... average queue length for the movement considered.as a separate lane (veh)
QT ......................total hourly directional path demand (modal users/h)
Qrdo •.••••••••••••••••••total time spent by pedestrians waiting to cross the major street during one cycle (p-s)
r ......................... effective red time(= C - g)(s)
R ........................manual adjustment for on-ramps (veh/h, Chapter 10); radius of comer curb (Chapter
18); critical flow ratio for the exit-ramp movements(Chapter 22)
R, b, c .................intermediate calculation variables
rQ ........................ acceleration rate = 3.5 (ft/s2)
rat .......................transit vehicle acceleration rate (ft/s2)
R~ .......................red clearance interval (s)
R~,m~ ....................red clearance interval of the phase serving the minor-street through movement(s)
rd ........................ deceleration rate
~'ar •••••••••••••~~~~•••••• transit vehicle deceleration rate (ft/s2)
Rp .......................platoon ratio
Rg ...................... queue storage ratio
rqg ...................... queue growth rate (veh/h)
RS ......................reference sum flow rate (1,530 x PHF xfQ)(veh/h)
RW .....................reciprocal of path width= 1/path width (ft)
s ......................... saturation flow rate (veh/h, Chapter 4); mean service rate (veh/h, Chapter 4); standard
deviation of the set of runs for a particular performance measure (Chapter 7); adjusted
saturation flow rate (veh/h/ln, Chapter 17)
S ............:............ average travel speed (mi/h)
so ........................base saturation flow rate (veh/hg/ln)
So .......................speed constant(mi/h)
So........................free-flow speed of segment i(mi/h)
sl ........................ saturation flow rate for the inside lane (veh/h/ln)
S85,,,,~ ••••••..•••••.••.•• 85th percentile speed at a midsegment location on the major street(mi/h)
SQ .......................average speed on the intersection approach (mi/h)
Sb .......................bicycle running speed (mi/h)
SF ...................... service flow rates
Sf ........................free-flow speed (mi/h)
SF .......................free-flow speed of the ramp at the junction point(mi/h)
SF:......................service flow rate for LOS i (veh/h)
SFI:.....................service flow rate under ideal conditions(pc/h)
SFM .....................mean speed- of sample(v > 200 veh/h)(mi/h)
Sfo .......................base free-flow speed (mi/h)
SpR ..................... free-flow speed of the ramp (mi/h)
S: ........................ average vehicle speed on segment i(mi/h)
s: ........................ saturation flow rate for phase movement i (veh/hg/ln)
sl ........................ saturation flow rate in exclusive left-turn lane group with permitted operation (veh/h/ln)
sly ....................... maximum flow rate in which a lane change can occur = 3,600/tl~ (veh/h/ln)
sly ....................... saturation flow rate in shared left- and right-turn lane group (veh/h/ln)
sly ........................ saturation flow of an exclusive left-turn lane with protected operation (veh/h/ln)
S,u~ ...................maximum.average speed of weaving vehicles expected in a weaving segment(mi/h)
SMIN ••••• ~••••••••••••••minimum average speed of weaving vehicles expected in a weaving segment(mi/h)
SNw .....................average speed of nonweaving vehicles within the weaving segment(mi/h)
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so ........................base saturation flow rate (pc/h/ln)
So .......................average speed of vehicles in outer lanes ofthe freeway, adjacent to the 1,500-ft ramp
influence area(mi/h)
So,rooat ~•••••••••~~•••••• local base saturation flow rate (pc/h/ln)
sp ........................saturation flow rate of a permitted left-turn movement(veh/h/ln)
Sp .......................posted speed limit(mi/h, Chapter 15); pedestrian walking speed = 3.5 ft/s (Chapter 30)
Sped .....................pedestrian speed (ft/min)
Spf .......................free-flow pedestrian walking speed (ft/s)
Spy .......................posted speed limit(mi/h)
Sprevaling,t ••••••••••••••prevailing saturation flow rate for lane group i (veh/h/ln)
Sglr ...................... shared lane discharge flow rate for upstream right-turn traffic movement(veh/h/ln)
s.......................... saturation flow rate in exclusive right-turn lane group with permitted operation
(veh/h/ln)
SR .......................average speed in the ramp influence area(mi/h)
SRa ......................adjusted motorized vehicle running speed (mi/h)
SRS ......................transit vehicle running speed (mi/h)
SS ........................threshold speed defining a stopped vehicle(= 5.0 mi/h)
ssl ....................... saturation flow rate in shared left-turn and through lane group with permitted operation
(veh/h/ln)
Sst,min •••••••••••••••••••minimum saturation flow rate in shared left-turn and through lane group with permitted
operation (veh/h/ln)
ss~z ...................... saturation flow rate in shared left-turn and through lane group during Period 2
(veh/h/ln)
Sspo~ ....................average spot speed (milh)
ssr ....................... saturation flow rate in shared right-turn and through lane group with permitted
operation (veh/h/ln)
sr ........................ saturation flow rate in exclusive through lane group (veh/h/ln)
St ........................ effective speed factor
ST,seg •~••••~••••••••~••. travel speed ofthrough vehicles for the segment(mi/h)
STb,seg ••~•~•••••••.••.•. travel speed of through bicycles along the segment(mi/h)
srh ....................... saturation flow rate of an exclusive through lane(= base saturation flow rate adjusted
for lane width, heavy vehicles, grade, parking, buses, and area type)(veh/h/ln)
STp,seg •••••••••••••••••.travel speed ofthrough pedestrians for the segment (ft/s)
STr,seg •••••••••••••••••.travel speed of transit vehicles along the segment(mi/h)
SV:....................... service volume for LOS i (veh/h)
SW ......................average speed of weaving vehicles within the weaving segment(mi/h)
sti,,_r .....................transit wait-ride score
t .......................... duration of unmet demand in the analysis period (h, Chapter 18); path segment travel
time for average bicycle (min, Chapter 23)
T ........................analysis time period
t' ......................... platoon arrival time (steps)
t p .......................blocked period duration (steps)
t R .......................segment running time (steps)
To ........................time at which a vehicle would have arrived at the stop line if it had been traveling at the
reference speed
T~ .......................time at which a vehicle would have arrived at the stop line if it had been traveling at the
"running" speed
Tz .......................time at which a vehicle is discharged at the stop line
t 3,LT•••••••••...••••••••• adjustment factor for intersection geometry
tQ ........................ average duration of unmet demand in the analysis period (h)
to .......................adjusted duration of unmet demand in the analysis period (h)
TQ~ ......................amenity time rate (min/mi)
Tbt~ ......................base travel time rate = 6.0 for the central business.district of a metropolitan area with 5
millionpersons or more, otherwise 4.0 (min/mi)
T~ .......................time until spillback(h)
t~ ........................queue clearing time (Chapter 18); critical headway for a single pedestrian (s, Chapter
19)
t~,base ••••••••~•~•••••••• base critical headway (s)
t~,G .....................adjustment factor for grade (s)
t~,xv ••••••••••••••••••••adjustment factor for heavy vehicles (s)
t~,X ....................... critical headway (i.e., the minimum time that allows intersection entry for one minor-
stream vehicle)for minor movement x (s)
tag ....................... critical gap (s)
t~~ ........................ciearance time ofthe right-turn vehicle (s)
td ........................dwell time (s)
td: ....................... duration of time interval i during which the arrival flow rate and saturation flow rate are
constant(s)
teS .......................excess wait time due to late arrivals (s)
TeS ......................excess wait time rate due to late arrivals(min/mi)
tf..........................follow-up headway (s, Chapter 21); service time for fully stopped vehicles (s, Chapter
30)
tfbase •••••••••••••••••••base follow-up headway (s)
tfHV...................... adfustment factor for heavy vehicles (0.9 for major streets with one lane in each
direction, 1.0 for major streets with two or three lanes in each direction)
tfx ........................follow-up headway (i.e., the time between the departure of one vehicle from the minor
street and the departure of the next vehicle under a continuous queue condition) for
minor movement x (s)
tom.........................follow-up headway (s)
t:..........................lost time for ith vehicle in queue (s, Chapter 4); duration of unmet demand for lane
group i in the analysis period (h, Chapter 18)
t~..........................transit vehicle running time loss (min/mi)
tL .........................lost time per phase (s)
tL' .......................adjusted lost time (i.e., the time during which the signalized intersection is not used
effectively by any movement)(s)
tL" ...................... adjusted lost time for the internal appzoaches (s)
tlQ~e ......................threshold late time = 5.0 typical(min)
tl~ ........................ critical merge headway = 3.7(s)
TLS .....................total lateral clearance (ft)
To~~••••••••••••••••.••.•.crosswalk occupancy time(p-s)
Tp ....................... analysis time period
tpr ....................... pedestrunperception of signal indication and curb departure time(= 7.0 s)
tps ....................... pedestrun service time (s)
Tpt~ ...................... perceived travel time rate (min/mi)
tg ........................time duration of queue (s)
tR ........................ segment running time (s)
lRb ....................... segment running time of through bicycles (s)
T~ ..................... total ramp density (ramps/mi)
tRt .......................segment running time of transit vehicle (s)
is ......................... pedestrun start-up time and end clearance time (s, Chapter 19); service time or average
time spent by a vehicle in first position waiting to depart(s, Chapter 20)
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TSB .....................time-space available for circulating pedestrians (ftZ-s)
TScorner •••••••••.•••••available corner time-space (ft2-s)
TS~w.....................available crosswalk time-space (ft2-s)
TSB,,,* ................... effective available crosswalk time-space (ftz-s)
TSri......................time-space occupied by turning vehicles (ft2-s)
tt.: .......................duration of trapezoid or triangle in interval i(s)
7'7':......................total travel time of all vehicles in segment i(veh-h)
TTi15 ...................total travel time consumed by all vehicles traversing directional segment i during the
15-min analysis period (veh-h)
U ........................speed of average bicycle (mi/h)
u,„ .......................minimum speed of the first through vehicle given that it is delayed (ft/s)
u,t .......................right-turn speed (ft/s)
v ......................... actual flow rates
V ........................demand volume under prevailing conditions (veh/h)
v~ ........................flow rate for the inside lane (veh/h/ln)
v12 ......................demand flow rate in Lanes 1 and 2 of the freeway immediately upstream ofthe ramp
influence area (pc/h)
vls ...................... pedestrian flow rate during the peak 15 min (p/h)
VIS ......................volume during the peak 15 min of the analysis hour(veh/15 min)
v2 ........................flow rate in the adjacent through lane (veh/h/ln)
v3 ........................flow rate in Lane 3 of the freeway (pc/h/ln)
vQ,l ......................adjusted arrival volume in the shared lane (veh/h)
vQ,b ......................flow rate of pedestrians traveling through the corner from Sidewalk A to Sidewalk B, or
vice versa(p/h)
vA,x ••••.•••••••••.••••••volume or flow rate on approach x (veh/h)
v~/NA ..................arterial flow feeding the subject queue, divided by the respective number of lanes
Vapp .....................average demand flow rate per through lane (upstream of any turn bays on the approach)
(veh/h/ln)
vArteria! ••••••••••~ •••••upstream arterial through flow(v/h)
vb« ......................bicycle flow rate (bicycles/h)
vb;~g ....................bicycle flow rate during the green indication (bicycles/h)
v~ ........................ conflicting flow rate
vc,min •••••••••••••••~••• minimum platooned flow rate (veh/h), assumed to be I,000N, where N is the number of
through lanes per direction on the major street
v~,pCe ...................conflicting flow -rate (pc/h)
v~,u,x ....................conflicting flow for movement x during the unblocked period (veh/h)
v~,x ......................conflicting flow rate for movement x (veh/h)
v~: .......................flow rate of pedestrians arriving at the comer after crossing the minor street(p/h)
v~o •••••••••••••.••••••••flow rate of pedestrians arriving at the comer to cross the minor street(p/h)
vD ....................... flow rate on the adjacent downstream ramp (pc/h)
va,Ars •.•••••••••••.••••demand flow rate for ATS determination in the analysis direction(pc/h)
vd,PTSF .•••••••••••••••• demand flow rate in the analysis direction for estimation ofPTSF (pc/h)
vd. .......................flow rate of pedestrians arriving at the corner after crossing the major street(p/h)
vdo ......................flow rate of pedestrians arriving at the corner to cross the major street(p/h)
VdOFFlSij •••••••••••••.adjusted 15-min exit demand for time period i and exiting locationj(veh)
ve ........................entry flow rate
veX .......................exit flow rate
Vex,pce ••••••~••~•••~•••• conflicting exiting flow rate (pc/h)
vF .......................flow rate on freeway immediately upstream ofthe ramp influence area under study
(pc/h)
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vFF ......................freeway-to-freeway demand flow rate in the weaving segment(pc/h)
vFO .....................flow rate on the freeway immediately downstream of the merge or diverge area (pc/h)
vFR ...................... freeway-to-ramp demand flow rate in the weaving segment(pc/h)
vg ........................ demand flow rate for movement group (veh/h)
vgl ......................demand flow rate in the single exclusive lane with the highest flow rate of all exclusive
lanes in movement group (veh/h/ln)
vh ........................ pedestrian demand during the analysis hour(p/h)
v. ........................ demand flow rate for movement i (pc/h, Chapter 19); phase movement volume for
phase i (veh/h, Chapter 22)
V:...........:............demand volume for movement i (veh/h, Chapter 19); speed of path user of mode i
(mi/h, Chapter 23)
vt ....................... demand flow rate (veh/cycle/ln)
v;,l .......................major-street through vehicles in shared lane (veh/h)
v,,2 ....................... major-street turning vehicles in shared lane (veh/h)
vt,ATS •••• ~ ~ •••••• ~ •••••••demand flow rate i for ATS estimation (pc/h)
v~,~........................ volume entering from origin i and exiting at destinationj(veh/h)
v1,pce.•••••••••••••••••••• demand flow rate for movement i (pc/h)
v;,PTSF ••.•••••••••••••••demand flow rate i for determination ofPTSF (pc/h)
v~ .........................flow rate of movement j
vl ......................... demand flow rate in exclusive left-turn lane group (veh/h/ln)
vL ........................major left-turn/U-turn flow rate (veh/h)
vL+Tx •••••••••••••••••••through and left-turn volume (veh/h)
v1r ....................... demand flow rate in shared left- and right-turn lane group (veh/h)
vet ....................... left-turn demand flow rate (veh/h)
vrrperm •~•~••••••~•••••• permitted left-turn demand flow rate (veh/h)
v... ....................... midsegment demand flow rate (direction nearest to the subject sidewalk)(veh/h)
v,,,Q ...................... adjusted midsegment demand flow rate (vehlh)
vmg ......................merge flow rate (veh/h/ln)
VMT:...................vehicle miles traveled for segment i(veh-mi)
VMTi15 ................total vehicle miles traveled by all vehicles.in directional segment i during the 15-min
analysis period (veh-mi)
v„ ........................flow rate for the outside lane (veh/h/ln)
vNW ..................... nonweaving demand flow rate in the weaving segment(pc/h)
vo ........................opposing demand flow rate (veh/h)
vo,ATS ••••• ~ •••• ~ •••••••.demand flow rate for ATS determination in the opposing direction (pc/h)
vo,PTSF •••••••••••~••••• demand flow rate in the opposing direction for estimation ofPTSF (pc/h)
voA ......................average per lane demand flow in outer lanes adjacent to the-ramp,influence area (not
including flow in Lanes 1 and 2)(pc/h/ln)
VOFFIS~ •••••••••~••••• 15-min exit count for time period i and exiting locationj(veh)
voL....................... directional demand flow rate in the outside .lane (veh/h)
VONIS~ ••••••••••• ~ •••• 15-min entering count for time period i and entering locationj(veh)
vp ........................ demand flow rate under equivalent base conditions (pc/h/ln, Chapter 11); pedestrian
flow per unit width(p/ft/min, Chapter 17)
Vped .....................pedestrian flow rate (p/minlft)
vped:..................... pedestrian flow rate in the subject crossing for travel direction. i (p/h)
Vpedg..................... pedestrian flow rate during the pedestrian service time (p/h)
vR .......................flow rate on the on-ramp or off-ramp (pc/h, Chapter 13); right-turn volume (veh/h,
Chapter 19)
VR ......................volume ratio
vR/NR ..................ramp flow that feeds the subject queue, divided by the respective number of lanes
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v~2 .....................sum of the flow rates in Lanes 1 and 2 and the ramp flow rate (on-ramps only)(pc/h)
vRamp-L •••••••••••••••••upstream ramp left-turning flow (v/h)
vim-.......................ramp-to-freeway demand flow rate in the weaving segment(pc/h)
vim.......................ramp-to-ramp demand flow rate in the weaving segment(pc/h)
vr~ ........................right-turn demand flow rate (veh/h)
vrtor••••••••••••••••••••••right-turn-on-red flow rate (veh/h)
vs.........................transit frequency for the segment(veh/h)
VSep ......................flow rate for the movement(veh/h)
vsl ........................demand flow rate in shared left-turn and through lane group (veh/h)
Vsi,tr •••••••••••••.••••••••left-turn flow rate in shared lane group (veh/h/ln)
vs,........................demand flow rate in shared right-turn and through lane group (veh/h)
vsr,Yr •••••••••••••••••••••right-turn flow rate in shared lane group (veh/hfln)
vt ......................... demand flow rate in exclusive through lane group (veh/h/ln, Chapter 17); transit
vehicle flow rate in pattern = Ev;(veh/h, Chapter 17)
with ........................thmugh demand flow rate (veh/h)
V~o~ ......................total number of vehicles arriving during the survey period (veh)
vU ......................flow rate on the adjacent upstream ramp (pc/h)
vW .......................weaving demand flow rate in the weaving segment(pc/h)
vX ........................flow rate for movement x (veh/h)
vy .......................flow rate of the y movement in the subject shared lane (veh/h)
w ........................lane width of the lane that the minor movement is negotiating into (ft)
W .......................weaving intensity factor (Chapter 12); effective width of crosswalk (ft, Chapter 30)
Wl ......................effective width of combined bicycle lane and shoulder (ft)
WQ ......................effective width of Sidewalk A (ft)
WA ...................... available sidewalk width (ft)
WaA .................... adjusted available sidewalk width (ft)
Walk ...................pedestrian walk setting (s)
Wb ......................effective width of Sidewalk B (ft)
Wbl ..................... width ofthe bicycle lane (ft)
Wbuf ....................buffer width between roadway and available sidewalk (ft)
Wed .....................curb-to-curb width of the cross street (ft)
Wd ...................... effective width of Crosswalk D (ft)
We ...................... average effective width of the outside through lane (ft)
WE ......................effective crosswalk width (ft)
W:.......................width of signalized intersection as measured along the segment centerline (ft)
Wo .....................sum offixed-object effective widths and linear-feature shy distances at a given point
along the walkway (ft)
.:
Wo ....................adjusted fixed-object effective width on inside of sidewalk (ft)
Wo,o ...................adjusted fixed-object effective width on outside of sidewalk (ft)
Wog ..................... width of the outside through lane (ft)
WoL ....................outside lane width (ft)
Wos .....................width of paved outside shoulder (ft)
wq .......................queue change rate (veh/s)
WS ......................paved shoulder width (ft)
WS.: ..................... shy distance on inside of sidewalk (ft)
WS,o ....................shy distance on outside of sidewalk (ft)
W~ .......................total width of the outside through lane, bicycle lane, and paved shoulder (ft)
WT ......................total walkway width at a given point along the walkway (ft)
Wv ......................effective width as a function of traffic volume (ft)
x ......................... degree of utilization
X ........................volume-to-capacity ratio
XI .......................volume-to-capacity ratio in the shared lane
XA ....................... average volume-to-capacity ratio
X~ ....................... critical intersection volume-to-capacity ratio
X.........................volume-to-capacity ratio for lane group i
Xu ....................... weighted volume-to-capacity ratio for all upstream movements contributing to the
volume in the subject movement group
Y ........................yellow-plus-all-red change-and-clearance interval (s)
Y~ .......................sum of the critical flow ratios
y~.: ......................critical flow ratio for phase i
Ymt ...................... change interval ofthe phase serving the minor-street through movement(s)
YP2 .....................yield point for Phase 2(s)
y~ ........................effective flow ratio for the concurrent phase when dictated by travel time
D ........................headway of bunched vehicle stream (s/veh)
0* .......................equivalent headway of bunched vehicle stream served by the phase (s/veh)
O:........................headway of bunched vehicle stream in lane group i (s/veh)
~. .........................flow rate parameter (veh/s)
~,* .......................flow rate parameter for the phase (veh/s)
~,~,; ••••••••••••••••••••••flow rate parameter for lane group i served in the concurrent phase that also ends at the
barrier (veh/s)
~,: ........................flow rate parameter for lane group i
~,1 ........................flow rate parameter for the exclusive left-turn lane group (veh/s)
~,r ........................flow rate parameter for the exclusive right-turn lane group (veh/s)
~,Si .......................flow rate parameter for shared left-turn and through lane group (veh/s)
~,5, •••••••••••••••••••••••flow rate parameter for shared right-turn and through.lane group (veh/s)
~,r ........................flow rate parameter for exclusive through lane group (veh/s)
6spot •••~•••••••••••••••• standard deviation of spot speeds (mi/h)
~V;q ....................sum of vehicle-in-queue counts(veh)
~p ....................... combined proportion offree (unbunched) vehicles for the phase
~p1 ........................ proportion of free (unbunched) vehicles in lane group i

GLOSSARY
(Chapter 9, HCM 2010- Reprinted with permission)
Chapter 9, Glossary and Symbols, defines the terms used in the Highway Capacity Manual(HCM)and presents the symbols
and abbreviations used in the manual. Highway transportation terminology has evolved over time to create multiple
definitions, and the confusion has been compounded by technical jargon. The definitions, abbreviations, and symbols
presented here are intended to establish a consistent terminology for use in the HCM. It is recognized that other
definitions and usage could exist.
Q
Acceleration lane — A paved noncontiguous lane, including tapered areas, allowing vehicles to accelerate when they enter the
through-traffic lane ofthe roadway.
Acceleration/deceleration delay —Delay experienced by vehicles slowing from and subsequently returning to their running
speed.
Access point — An intersection, driveway, or opening on either side of a roadway.
Accesspoint density —The total number of access points on both sides ofthe roadway, divided by the length ofthe segment.
Accessibility —The percentage of the populace able to complete a selected trip within a specified time.
Accuracy —'The degree of an estimate's agreement with a standard or true value.
Active passings —The number of other path users traveling in the same direction as an average bicyclist a bicyclist
(i.e.,
traveling at the average speed of all bicycles) who are passed by that bicyclist.
Active priority — A form of traffic signal priority that adjusts signal timing in reaction to the arrival of a bus.
Active traffic management(ATM) —The dynamic and continuous monitoring and control of traffic operations on a facility to
improve its performance.
Actuated control — Consists of a defined phase sequence in which the presentation of each phase is dependent on whether the
phase is on recall or the associated traffic movement has submitted a call for service through a detector.
Adjustment — An additive or subtractive quantity that adjusts a parameter for a base condition to represent a prevailing
condition.
Adjustmentfactor — A factor that adjusts a parameter for a base condition to represent a prevailing condition.
Aggregate delay —The summation of delays for multiple lanes or lane groups, usually aggregated for an approach, an
intersection, or an arterial route.
Algorit/:m — A set of rules for solving a problem in a finite number of steps.
All-way STOP-controlled(AWSC)intersection — An intersection with STOP signs on all approaches. The driver's decision to
proceed is based on a consensus of right-of-way governed by the traffic conditions of the other approaches and the rules
of the road (e.g., the driver on the right has the right-of-way iftwo vehicles arrive simultaneously).
Alternative too[ — An analysis procedure outside of the HCM that may be used to compute measures of transportation system
performance for analysis and decision support.
Analysds hour — A single hour for which a capacity analysis is performed on a system element.
Analysis period — A single time period (for example, the peak 15 min of the peak hour) during which a capacity analysis is
performed on a system element.
Analytical model — A model based on traffic flow theory, combined with the use of field measures of driver behavior, resulting
in an analytic formulation of the relationship between the field measures and performance measures such as capacity and
delay.
Annual average daily traffic(AADT) —The total volume of traffic passing a point or segment of a highway facility in both
directions for 1 year divided by the number of days in the year.
Approach — A set of lanes at an intersection that accommodates all left-turn, through, and right-turn movements from a given
direction.
Approac/z delay —The control delay for a given approach.
ApproacJz grade —The average grade along the approach, as measured from the stop line to a point 100 ft upstream of the stop
line along a line parallel to the direction of travel. An uphill condition has a positive grade, and a downhill condition has a
negative grade.
Area — An interconnected set of transportation facilities serving movements within a specified geographic space, as well as
movements to and from adjoining areas.
Area type — A description ofthe environment in which a system element is located.
Arrival rate —The mean of the statistical distribution of vehicles arriving at a point or uniform segment of a lane or roadway.
Arrival type —Six assigned categories for the quality of progression for a given approach to a signalized intersection.
Arterial street — A street interrupted by traffic control devices (e.g., signals, STOP signs, or YIELD signs) that primarily serves
through traffic and that secondarily provides access to abutting properties. See also urban street.
Automobile mode — A travel mode that includes all motor vehicle traffic using a roadway except transit buses. It includes such
vehicles as trucks, recreational vehicles, motorcycles, and tour buses.
Auxiliary lane —Seefreeway auxiliary lane.
Glossary, Chapter 9- HCM 2010 23
Available time-space —The product of available time and available space for pedestrian circulation on a crosswalk at a
signalized intersection.
Average bus stop spacing —The average distance between bus stops along a street,
Average grade —The total rise from the beginning of the composite grade to the point of interest, divided by the length of the
grade (to the point of interest).
Average running speed —The length of a segment divided by the average running time of vehicles that traverse the segment.
Average spot speed —See time mean speed.
Average travel speed —The length of the highway segment divided by the average travel time of all vehicles traversing the
segment, including all stopped delay times. Equal to space mean speed.
B
Back of queue —The maximum backward extent of queued vehicles during a typical cycle, as measured from the stop line to
the last queued vehicle.
Barrier —
1. Aseparation of intersecting movements in distinct rings to prevent operating conflicting phases at the same time.
2. A physical object or pavement marking designed to prevent vehicles from entering or departing a section ofroadway.
Barrier pair — A pair of phases within the same ring and barrier that cannot be displayed concurrently.
Base conditions — A set of specified standard conditions (e.g., good weather, good and dry pavement conditions, familiar users,
no impediments to traffic flow) that must be adjusted to account for prevailing conditions that do not match.
Base length —The distance between the points in a weaving segment where the edges of the travel lanes of the merging and
diverging roadways converge.
Base saturationflow rate —The saturation flow rate under base conditions.
Baseline uniform delay —The average uniform delay when there is no initial queue.
Basicfreeway segment — A length of freeway facility whose undersaturated operations are unaffected by weaving, diverging,
or merging,
Bicycle — A vehicle with two wheels tandem, propelled by human power, and usually ridden by one person.
Bicyclefacility — A road, path, or way specifically designated for bicycle travel, whether exclusively or with other vehicles or
pedestrians.
Bicycle lane — A portion of a roadway designated by striping, signing, and pavement markings for the preferential or exclusive
use of bicycles.
Bicycle mode — A travel mode under which a nonmotorized bicycle is used on a roadway or pathway.
Bicycle path — A bikeway physically separated from motorized traffic by an open space or barrier, either within the highway
right-of-way or within an independent right-of-way.
Bicycle speed —The riding speed of bicycles, miles per hour or feet per second.
in
Bicycle track — A one-way bicycle facility separated from both motor vehicle traffic and the sidewalk by low curbs,
Body ellipse —The practical minimum area for standing pedestrians.
Bottleneck — A system element on which demand exceeds capacity.
Boundary intersection — An intersection defining the endpoint of an urban street segment.
Breakdown —The transition from noncongested to congested conditions typically observed as a speed drop accompanied by
queue formation.
Breakdownflow —The flow at which operations transition from noncongested to congested.
Buffer width —The distance between the outside edge of the paved roadway (or face of curb, if present) and the near. edge of
the sidewalk.
Bus — Aself-propelled, rubber-tired road vehicle designed to carry a substantial number of passengers (at least 16) and
commonly operated. on streets and highways.
Bus lane — A highway or street lane reserved primarily for buses during specified periods. It maybe used by other traffic under
certain circumstances, such as making a right or left turn, or by taxis, motorcycles, or carpools that meet the requirements
ofthe jurisdiction's traffic laws.
Bus mode — A transit mode operated by rubber-tired vehicles that follow fixed routes and.schedules along roadways.
Bus shelter — A structure with a roof and (typically) three enclosed sides that protects waiting transit passengers from wind,
rain, and sun.
Bus stop — A designated area along a street where one or more buses can simultaneously stop to load and unload passengers. It
can be on-line (buses stop wholly or partially in the travel lane) or off-line (buses stop out ofthe travel lane ).
Busway — Aright-of-way restricted to buses by a physical separation from other traffic lanes.
Bypass lane — A lane provided at a roundabout that allows a particular traffic movement to avoid using the circulatory
roadway.
C
Calibration —The process by which the analyst modifies model parameters so that the model estimates best reproduce field-
measured local traffic conditions.
24 Glossary-Chapter 9- HCM 2010

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Cal!— A registration of a demand for right-of-way by vehicles or pedestrians to a controller.
Capacity —The maximum sustainable hourly flow rate at which persons or vehicles reasonably can be expected to traverse a
point or a uniform section of a lane or roadway during a given time period under prevailing roadway, environmental,
traffic, and control conditions.
Case —See degree-of-conflict case.
Central area pricing — An areawide implementation of congestion pricing that imposes tolls for vehicles both entering and
traveling within a central area street network during certain hours of certain days.
Central business district (CBD) — An area with characteristics including narrow street rights-of-way, frequent parking
maneuvers, vehicle blockages, taxi and bus activity, small-radius turns, limited use of exclusive turn lanes, high
pedestrian activity, dense population, and midblock curb cuts.
Change interval —See yellow change interval.
Circulatingflow —The flow conflicting with the entry flow on the subject approach to a roundabout (i.e., the flow passing in
front ofthe splitter island next to the subject entry).
Circulation area —
1. The portion of a sidewalk intended to be used for pedestrian movement.
2. The average area available to each person using a pedestrian facility.
Circulation time-space —The total available time-space minus the time-space occupied by pedestrians waiting to cross a
crosswallc.
Circulatory roadway —The continuous flow section of a roundabout that requires other vehicles entering the roadway to yield.
Class Itwo-lane highways — Highways where motorists expect to travel at relatively high speeds, such as major intercity
routes, primary connectors of major traffic generators, daily commuter routes, or major links in state or national highway
networks.
Class II two-lane highways — Highways where motorists do not necessarily expect to travel at high speeds, such as access
routes to Class I facilities, scenic or recreational routes, or routes passing through rugged terrain.
Class III two-lane l:ighways — Highways serving moderately developed areas, such as portions of a Class I or Class II
highway that pass through small towns or developed recreational areas.
Clearance Interval —See red clearance interval.
Clearance lost time —The time at the end of a signal phase during which the movements served by that phase are not used by
any traffic because drivers decelerate and stop in response to the presentation of a yellow indication.
Clearance time —
1. The interval after a bus is ready to depart during which a loading area is not available for use by a following bus,
consisting ofthe sum of reentry delay and the time for a bus to start up and travel its own length, clearing the stop.
2. See clearance lost time and red clearance interval.
Climbing lane — A passing lane added on an upgrade to allow traffic to pass heavy vehicles whose speeds are reduced.
Cloverleaf interchange — An interchange with four loop ramps and four diagonal ramps, with no traffic control on either
crossing roadway.
Collector street — A surface street providing land access and traffic circulation within residential, commercial, and industrial
areas.
Collector-distributor road(GD road) — A continuous roadway without local access provided parallel to a freeway mainline
through one or more interchanges for the purpose of removing weaving movements or closely spaced merges and
diverges from the mainline.
Common green tune —The period of time when the phases at the two intersections of an interchange both provide a green
indication to a particular origin-destination movement.
Complete trip — A vehicle that enters the spatial domain of an analysis during the analysis period and is able to exit the domain
successfully before the end of the analysis period.
Composite grade — A series of adjacent grades along a highway that cumulatively has a more severe effect on operations than
each grade separately.
Compressed diamond Interchange — A diamond interchange with a separation of400 to 800 ft between the two intersections.
Computational engine — A software implementation of one or more models,
Conflict —The crossing, merging, or diverging oftwo traffic movements at an intersection.
Conflicting approach — At an all-way STOP-controlled intersection, an approach to the left or right ofthe subject approach.
Conflictingflow rate —The total flow rate in conflict with a specific movement at an unsignalized intersection.
Conflicting movements — Vehicular, pedestrian, or bicycle streams that seek to occupy the same space at the same time.
Congestion —
1. Low-flow, high-occupancy traffic operations that arise when demand approaches or exceeds a system element's
capacity.
2. A difference between the highway system performance expected by users and how the system actually performs-for
example, an intersection that may seem very congested in a rural community may not even register as an annoyance in
a large metropolitan area.
Congestion pricdng —The practice of charging tolls for use of all or part of a facility or a central area according to the severity
of congestion.
Continuousflow interchange — A diamond interchange form where left-turning traffic from the arterial street to an -ramp is
on
crossed to the left side of the roadway in advance of the interchange. Between the crossover and the near ramp terminal,
the left-turning traffic travels in its own roadway between the opposing through arterial sheet traffic (on its right) and
right-turning traffic from the off-ramp (on its left). The left turning traffic continues straight at the near ramp terminal and
turns left onto the onramp at the far ramp terminal without conflict from opposing through vehicular traffic. Also known
as a displaced left-tum interchange.
Control condition —The traffic controls and regulations effect for a segment of street or highway, including the type,
in
phasing, and timing of traffic signals; STOP signs; lane use and riun controls; and similar measures.
Control delay —Delay associated with vehicles slowing in advance of an intersection, the time spent stopped on an intersection
approach, the time spent as vehicles move up in the queue, and the time needed for vehicles to accelerate to their desired
speed.
Controlled — Having a traffic control device that interrupts traffic flow (e.g., a traffic signal, STOP sign, or YIELD sign).
Conventional diamond interchange — A diamond interchange with a separation of 800 ft or more between the two
intersections.
Coordinated actuated control — A variation of semiactuated operation that uses the controller's force-off settings to
constrain the noncoordinated phases associated with the minor movements such that the coordinated phases are
served at the appropriate time during the signal cycle and progression for the major movements is maintained.
Corridor — A set of parallel transportation facilities, for example a freeway and an arterial street.
Crawl speed —The maximum sustained speed that can be maintained by a specified type of vehicle on a constant
upgrade of a given percent.
Critical density —The density at which capacity occurs for a given facility.
Critical headway —The minimum headway in the major traffic stream that will allow the entry of one minor-street
vehicle.
Critical lane groups —The.lane groups that have the highest flow ratio for a given signal phase.
Critical phase —One phase of a set of phases that occur in sequence and whose combined flow ratio is the largest for the
signal cycle.
Critical segment —The segment that will break down first, given that all traffic, roadway, and control conditions do not
change, including the spatial distribution of demands on each component segment.
Critical speed —The speed at which capacity occurs for segment.
a
Critical volume-to-capacity ratio —The proportion of available intersection capacity used by vehicles critical lane
in
groups.
Cross flow — A pedestrian flow that is approximately perpendicular to and crosses another pedestrian stream. The
smaller ofthe two flows is the cross-flow condition.
Crossing time —The curb-to-curb crossing distance divided by the pedestrian walking speed specified in the Manual on
Uniform Traffic Control Devices.
Crosswalk —See pedestrian crosswalk.
Crosswalk occupancy time —The product of the pedestrian service time and the number of pedestrians using a
crosswalk during one signal cycle.
Curb extension — An extension of the sidewalk to the edge ofthe travel or bicycle lane.
Cycle — A complete sequence of signal indications.
Cycle failure — A condition where one or more queued vehicles are not able to depart an intersection as a result of
insufficient capacity during the cycle which they arrive.
in
Cycle length —The time elapsed between the endings of two sequential terminations of a given interval. For coordinated
signals, this is measured by using the coordinated phase green interval.
Cyclic spillback — A condition where the downstream boundary intersection is signalized and its queue backs into the
upstream intersection as a result of queue growth during the red indication.
D
Dfactor —The proportion of traffic moving in the peak direction oftravel on a given roadway during the peak hour.
Daily service volume —The maximum total daily volume in both directions that can be sustained in a given segment
without violating the criteria for LOS i in the peak direction in the worst 15 min of the peak hour under prevailing
roadway, traffic, and control conditions.
Deceleration lane — A paved noncontinuous lane, including tapered areas, allowing vehicles leaving the through-traffic
lane of the roadway to decelerate.
Default value — A representative value that may be appropriate in the absence of local data.
Degree-of-conflict case —For all-way STOP-controlled intersections, a particular combination of vehicle presence on
other approaches with respect to the subject approach.
Degree ofsaturation —See demand-to-capacity ratio
Delay — Additional travel time experienced by a driver, passenger, bicyclist, or pedestrian beyond that required to travel

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at the desired speed.
Delayed passing maneuver —The inability of an average bicyclist to make a passing maneuver immediately due to the
presence of both another path user ahead of the overtaking average bicyclist in the subject direction and a path
user in the opposing direction.
Demand —The number of vehicles or other roadway users desiring to use a given system element during a specific
time period, typically 1 h or 15 min.
Demandflow rate —The count of vehicles arriving at the system element during the analysis period, converted to an
hourly rate. When measured in the field, this flow rate is based on a traffic count taken upstream of the queue
associated with the system element, This distinction is important for counts made during congested periods
because the count of vehicles departing the system element will produce a demand flow rate that is lower than the
true rate.
Demand starvation — A condition occurring when a signalized approach has adequate capacity but a significant
portion of the traffic demand is held upstream and cannot use the capacity provided because of the signalization
pattern.
Demand volume —The number of vehicles that arrive to use the facility. Under noncongested conditions, demand
volume is equal to the observed volume.
Demand-to-capacity ratio —The ratio of demand volume to capacity for a system element.
Density —The number of vehicles occupying a given length of a lane or roadway at a particular instant. See also
pedestrian density.
Departure headway —The average time between departures of successive vehicles on a given approach at an all-way
STOP-controlled intersection.
Descriptive model— A model that shows how events unfold given a logic that describes how the objects involved will
behave.
Design hour — An hour with a traffic volume that represents a reasonable value for designing the geometric and
control elements of a facility.
Design hourfactor —The proportion of the AADT that occurs during the design or analysis hour. See also Kfactor.
Design-level analysis — An application of the H C M to establish the detailed physical features that will allow a new or
modified facility to operate at a desired LOS or performance value.
Desdgn speed — A speed used to design the horizontal and vertical alignments of a highway.
Detection zone —The portion of a signalized intersection approach where a vehicle can be detected by the signal
controller (with use of in-pavement loops or other technology), resulting in the display of the green indication for
the approach being extended.
Deterministic model — A mathematical model that is not subject to randomness. For a given set of inputs, the result
from the model is the same with each application.
Deterministic queue delay —The component of control delay representing the delay to all vehicles arriving during the
analysis period when the demand flow rates exceed the capacity of an approach, computed by accumulating the
vehicular inputs and outputs under the assumption of uniform arrivals.
Diamond interchange — An interchange form where one diagonal connection is made for each freeway entry and exit,
with one connection per quadrant.
Directional design hour volume —The traffic volume for the design hour in the peak direction offlow.
Directional distribution — A characteristic of traffic that volume may be greater in one direction than in the other
during any particular hour on a highway. See also Dfactor.
Directionalflow rate —The flow rate of a highway in one direction.
Directional segment — A length of two-lane highway in one travel direction with homogeneous cross sections and
relatively constant demand volume and vehicle mix.
Directional split — See Dfactor.
Diverge — A movement in which a single stream of traffic separates into two streams without the aid of traffic control
devices.
Diverge segment —Seefreeway diverge segment.
Diverging diamond dnterchange — A diamond interchange form where through traffic on the arterial switches sides of
the street. at each of the ramp terminals, allowing left turns to ramps to be made without conflict from opposing
through vehicular traffic.
Double-crossover interchange —See diverging diamond interchange.
Downstream —The direction of traffic flow.
Driver populationfactor — A parameter that accounts for driver characteristics that differ from base conditions and their effects
on traffic.
Dual entry — A mode of operation (in a multiring controller) in which one phase in each ring must be in service. If a call does
not exist in a ring when it crosses the barrier, a phase is selected in that ring to be activated by the controller in a
predetermined manner.

Duration ofcongestion —The amount of time that congestion persists within a transportation system.
Dwell time —The sum of the time required to serve passengers at a transit stop and the time required to open and close the
vehicle doors.
Dwell time variability —The distribution of dwell times at a stop because of fluctuations in passenger demand for buses and
routes.
Dynamic traffic assignment model — A descriptive model that is based on an objective (e.g., minimize the travel time or
disutility associated with a trip) that is gradually improved over a sequence of iterations until the network reaches a state
of equilibrium.
E
Effective. available time-space —The available crosswalk time-space, adjusted to account for the effect turning vehicles have
on pedestrians.
Effective green time —The time during which a given traffic movement or set of movements may proceed at the saturation
flow rate; it is equal to the split time minus the lost time.
Effective red time —The time during which a given traffic movement or set of movements is directed to stop; it is equal to the
cycle length minus the effective green time.
Effective walk time —The time that a WALK indication is displayed to a crosswalk, plus the portion of the DON'T WALK
indication used by pedestrians to initiate their crossing.
Effective walkway width —The portion of a pedestrian facility's width that is usable for pedestrian circulation.
85th percentile speed — A speed value that is exceeded by 15% ofthe vehicles in a traffic stream.
Empirical model — A model that describes system performance and that is based on the- statistical analysis offield data.
Entrance ramp —See on-ramp.
Entryflow —The traffic flow entering a roundabout on the subject approach.
Environmental conditions — Conditions such as adverse weather, bright sunlight directly in drivers' eyes, and abrupt transitions
from light to dark (such as at a tunnel entrance on a sunny day) that may cause drivers to slow down and increase their
spacing, resulting in a drop in a roadway's capacity.
Event— A meeting or a passing on a shareduse path or bicycle facility.
Event-based model — A simulation model that advances from one event to the next, skipping over intervening points in -time
when no event occurs.
Excess wait time —The average number of minutes transit passengers must wait at a stop past the scheduled departure time.
Exclusive bus lane — A highway or street lane reserved for buses.
Exclusive off-street bicycle paths —Paths physically separated from highway traffic provided for the exclusive use of bicycles.
Exclusive turn lane — A designated left- or right-turn lane used only by vehicles making those turns.
Exitflow —The traffic flow exiting a roundabout to the subject leg.
Exit ramp —See off-ramp.
Extent ofcongestion —The maximum geographic length ofthe congestion on a transportation system at any one time.
F
Facility — A length ofroadway, bicycle path, or pedestrian walkway composed of a connected series of points and segments.
Failure rate —The probability that a bus will arrive at a bus stop and find all available loading areas already occupied by other
buses.
Far-side stop — A transit stop where transit vehicles cross an intersection before stopping to serve passengers.
Fixed-object effective width —The sum of the physical width of a fixed object along a walkway or sidewalk, any
functionally unusable space associated with the object, and the buffer given it by pedestrians.
Fixed obstrurtio~a — A nonmovable object along a roadway, including light poles, signs, trees, abutments, bridge rails,
traffic barriers, and retaining walls.
Flared approach — At two-way STOP-controlled intersections, a shared right-nun lane that allows right-turning
vehicles to complete their movement while other vehicles are occupying the lane.
Flow rate —The equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles or other roadway users pass over a given point or section of a
lane or roadway during a given time interval of less than 1 h, usually 15 min.
Flow ratio —The ratio of the actual flow rate to the saturation flow rate for a lane group at an intersection.
Follow-up headway —The time between the departure of one vehicle from the minor street and the departure of the
next vehicle using the same major-street headway, under a condition of continuous queuing on the minor street.
Follower density —The number of followers per mile per lane; the following state is defined as a condition in which a
vehicle is following its leader by no more than 3 s.
Force-off — A point within a cycle where an actuated phase must end regardless of continued demand. These points in
a coordinated cycle ensure that the coordinated phases are provided a minimum amount of green time.
Fourphase pattern — A type of operation at an all-way STOP-controlled intersection with multilane approaches,
where drivers from a given approach enter the intersection together, as right-of-way passes from one approach to
the next and each is served in turn.
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Freeflow — A flow oftraffic unaffected by upstream or downstream conditions.
Freeflow speed —
1. The theoretical speed when the density and flow rate on a study segment are both zero.
Z. The prevailing speed on freeways at flow rates between 0 and 1,000 passenger cars per hour per lane (pc/h/In).
Freeway — A fully access-controlled, divided highway with a minimum of two lanes (and frequently more) in each
direction.
Freeway auxiliary lane — An additional lane on a freeway to connect an on-ramp and an off-ramp.
Freeway- diverge segment — A freeway segment in which a single traffic stream divides to form two or more separate
traffic streams.
Freeway facility — An extended length of freeway composed of continuously connected basic freeway, weaving,
merge, and diverge segments.
Freeway facility capacity —The capacity of the critical segment among those segments composing a defined freeway
facility.
Freeway merge segment — A freeway segment in which two or more traffic streams combine to form a single traffic
stream.
Freeway section — A portion of a freeway facility with a constant demand and a constant number of lanes.
Freeway weaving segment — Freeway segments in which two or more traffic streams traveling in the same general
direction cross paths along a significant length of freeway without the aid of traffic control devices (except for
guide signs).
Ful[ stop —The slowing of a vehicle to less than 5 mi/h.
Fully actuated control — A signal operation in which vehicle detectors at each approach to the intersection control the
occurrence and length of every phase.
Furniture zone —The portion of the sidewalk between the curb and the area reserved for pedestrian travel; it may be
used for landscaping, utilities, or pedestrian amenities.
G
Gap —The space or time between two vehicles, measured from the rear bumper of the front vehicle to the front bumper
of the second vehicle. See also headway.
Gap acceptance —The process by which a driver accepts an available gap in traffic to perform a maneuver.
Gap out — A type of actuated operation for a given phase where the phase terminates because of a lack of vehicle calls
within the passage time.
General terrain — An extended length of highway containing a number of upgrades and downgrades where no single
grade is long enough or steep enough to have a significant impact on the operation of the overall segment.
Generalized service volume table — Asketch-planning tool that provides an estimate of the maximum volume a system
element can carry at a given level of service, given a default set of assumptions about the system element.
Geometric condition —The spatial characteristics of a facility, including approach grade, the number and width of
lanes, lane use, and parking lanes.
Geometric delay —Delay caused by geometric features causing vehicles to reduce their speed in negotiating a system
element.
Gore area —The area located immediately between the left edge of a ramp pavement and the right edge of the roadway
pavement at a merge or diverge area.
Green time —The duration of the green indication for a given movement at a signalized intersection.
Green time (g/C) ratio —The ratio of the effective green time of a phase to the cycle length.
Growth factor — A percentage increase applied to current traffic demands to estimate future demands.
H
Hard conversion —The conversion of a value from U.S. customary units to metric units (or vice versa) through the
application of rounding, such as from 12 ft to 3.6 m. See also soft conversion.
Headway —The time between two successive vehicles as they pass a point on the roadway, measured from the same
common feature of both vehicles (for example, the front axle or the front bumper).
Heavy vehicle — A vehicle with more than four wheels touching the pavement during normal operation.
High-occupancy vehicle (HOV) — A vehicle with a defined minimum number of occupants(>1); HOVs often include
buses, taxis, and carpools, when a lane is reserved for their use.
Higlzway — A general term for denoting a public way for purposes of vehicular travel, including the entire area within
the right-of-way.
Hindrance — Discomfort and inconvenience to a bicyclist as a result of meeting, passing, or being overtaken by other
pathway users.
Holding area wa#ing time —The average time that pedestrians wait to cross the street in departing from the subject
corner.

www.~asspe.com Transportation Module for Civil PE License D Dr. Shahin A.Mansour,PE
Impedance —The reduction in the capacity of lower-rank movements caused by the congestion of higherrank
movements at a two-way STOP-controlled intersection.
Incident —Any occurrence on a roadway that impedes the normal flow of traffic.
Incident delay —The component of delay that results from an incident, compared with the no-incident condition.
Incomplete trip — A vehicle that is unable to enter and exit successfully the spatial domain of an analysis within the
analysis period.
Incremental delay —The second term of lane group control delay, accounting for delay due to the effect of random,
cycle-by-cycle fluctuations in demand that occasionally exceed capacity (i.e., cycle failure) and delay due to
sustained oversaturation during the analysis period.
Influence area —
1. The base length of a freeway weaving segment plus 500 ft upstream of the entry point to the weaving segment
and 500 ft downstream of the exit point from the weaving segment; entry and exit points are defined as the
points where the appropriate edges of the merging and diverging lanes meet.
2. The acceleration lanes) and Lanes 1 and 2 of the freeway mainline for a distance of 1,500 ft downstream of the
merge point.
3. The deceleration lanes) and Lanes 1 and 2 of the freeway for a distance of 1,500 ft upstream of the diverge
point.
Initial queue —The unmet demand at the beginning of an analysis period, either observed in the field or carried over
from the computations of a previous analysis period.
Initial queue delay —The third term of lane group control delay, accounting for delay due to a residual queue
identified in a previous analysis period and persisting at the start of the current analysis period.-This delay results
from the additional time required to clear the initial queue.
Inputs —The data required by a model.
Instantaneous acceleration — An acceleration determined from the relative speeds of a vehicle at time t and time t -0t,
assuming a constant acceleration during fit,
Instantaneous speed — A speed determined from the relative positions of a vehicle at time t and time t -fit, assuming a
constant acceleration during 0t.
Intelligent transportation system (ITS) — Transportation technology that allows drivers and traffic control system
operators to gather and use real-time information to improve vehicle navigation, roadway system control, or both.
Intensity ofcongestion —The amount of congestion experienced by users of a system.
Interchange — A system of interconnecting roadways providing for traffic movement between two or more highways
that do not intersect at grade.
Interchange density —The average number of interchanges per mile, measured over 3 mi upstream and 3 mi
downstream from the midpoint of the weaving segment.
IntercJzange ramp terminal — A junction.of a ramp with a surface street serving vehicles entering or exiting a freeway.
Internal link —The segment between two signalized intersections at an interchange ramp terminal.
Interruptedflow — Traffic flow on facilities characterized by traffic signals, STOP signs, YIELD signs, or other fixed
causes of periodic delay or interruption to the traffic stream.
Intersection delay —The total additional travel time experienced by drivers, passengers, or pedestrians as a result of
control measures and interaction with other users of the facility, divided by the volume departing from the
corresponding cross section of the facility.
Interval — A period of time in which all traffic signal indications remain constant.
Isolated intersection — An intersection experiencing negligible influence from upstream signalized intersections,
where flow is effectively random over the cycle and without a discernible platoon pattern evident in the cyclic
profile of arrivals.
J
Jam density —The maximum density that can be achieved on a segment. It occurs when speed is zero (i.e., when there
is no movement of persons or vehicles).
K
Kfactor —The proportion of AADT that occurs during the peak hour. See also design hourfactor.
L
Lane I—The highway lane adjacent to the outside shoulder.
Lane 2 —The highway lane adjacent to and left of Lane 1.
Lane balance — A condition when the number of lanes leaving adiverge point is equal to the number of lanes
approaching it, plus one.
Lane distribution — A parameter used when two or more lanes are available for traffic in a single direction and the

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volume distribution varies between lanes,. depending on traffic regulation, traffic composition, speed and volume,
the number of and location of access points, the origin-destination patterns of drivers, the development
environment, and local driver habits.
Lane group — A lane or set of lanes designated for separate analysis.
Lane group delay —The control delay for a given lane group.
Lane utilization —The distribution of vehicles among lanes when two or more lanes are available for a movement. See
also prepositioning.
Lane width —The lateral distance between stripes for a given lane.
Lateral clearance —
1. The total left- and right- side clearance from the outside edge of travel lanes to fixed obstructions on a
multilane highway.
2. The right-side clearance distance from the rightmost travel lane to fixed obstructions on a freeway.
Leg — A set of lanes at an intersection accommodating all approaching movements to and departing movements from a
given direction.
Level ofservice (LOS) — A quantitative stratification of a performance measure or measures that represent quality of
service, measured on an A-F scale, with LOS A representing the best operating conditions from the traveler's
perspective and LOS F the worst.
Level ofservice score(LOS score) — A numerical output from a traveler perception model that typically.indicates the
average rating that travelers would give a transportation facility or service under a given set of conditions.
Level terrain —Any combination of grades and horizontal or vertical alignment that permits heavy vehicles to maintain
the same speed as passenger cars, typically containing.short grades of no more than 2%.
Light raBl mode — A transit mode operated by vehicles that receive power from overhead wires and that run on tracks
that can be located at grade within street rights-of-way. See also streetcar mode.
Link — A length of roadway between two nodes or points.
Link length —The urban street segment length minus the width of the upstream boundary intersection.
Loadfactor —The number of passengers occupying a transit vehicle divided by the number of seats on the vehicle.
Loading area — A curbside space where a single bus can stop to load and unload passengers; bus stops include one or
more loading areas.
Local street — A street that primarily serves aland-access function.
Local transit service — Transit service making regular stops along a street (typically every 0.25 mi or less),
Loop ramp — A ramp requiring vehicles to execute a left turn by turning right, accomplishing a 90-degree left turn by
making a 270-degree right turn.
Lost time —The time during which a movement's phase is active and the approach is not used effectively by that
movement; it is the sum of clearance lost time and start-up lost time.
M
Macroscopic model — A mathematical model that considers traffic operations averaged over specified time intervals
and specified segments or links without recognizing individual vehicles in the traffic stream.
Mainline —The primary through roadway as distinct from ramps, auxiliary lanes, and collector-distributor roads.
Mainline output —The maximum number of vehicles that can exit a freeway node, constrained by downstream
bottlenecks or by merging traffic.
Major diverge area — A junction where one freeway segment diverges to form two primary freeway segments with
multiple lanes.
Major merge area — A junction where two primary freeway segments, each with multiple lanes, merge to form a
single freeway segment.
Ma,~or street —The street not controlled by STOP signs at a two-way STOP-controlled intersection.
Ma~jor weaving segment — A weaving segment with at least three entry and exit legs,-each with two or more lanes.
Managed lanes — A limited number of lanes set aside within a freeway cross section where multiple operational
strategies are utilized and actively adjusted as needed for the purpose of achieving predefined performance
objectives. Examples include priced lanes and special-use lanes such as high-occupancy vehicle, express, bus-
only, or truck-only lanes.
Maas out — A type of actuated operation for a given phase where the phase terminates because it has reached the
.designated maximum green time for the phase.
Maximum green —The maximum amount of time that a green signal indication can be displayed in the presence of
conflicting demand.
Maximum recall — A form of phase recall where the controller places a continuous call for vehicle service on the
phase. This results in the presentation ofthe green indication for its maximum duration every cycle.
Maximum weaving length —The length at which weaving turbulence no longer has an impact on the capacity of the
weaving segment.
Median —The area in the middle of a roadway separating opposing traffic flows.

Meeting — An encounter of bicycles or pedestrians moving in the opposite direction of the subject bicycle flow.
Merge — A movement in which two separate streams of traffic combine to form a single stream without the aid of
traffic signals or other right-of-way controls.
Merge segment —Seefreeway merge segment.
Mesoscopic model — A mathematical model for the movement of clusters or platoons of vehicles incorporating
equations to indicate how the clusters interact.
Microscopic model — A mathematical model that captures the movement of individual vehicles and their car-
following, lane-choice, and gap-acceptance decisions at small time intervals, usually by simulation.
Midblock stop — A transit stop located at a point away from intersections.
Minimum green —The least amount of time that a green signal indication will be displayed when a signal phase is
activated.
Minimum recall — A form of phase recall where the controller places a continuous call for vehicle service on the phase
and then services the phase until its minimum green interval times out. The phase can be extended if actuations
are received.
Minor movement — A vehicle making a specific directional entry into an unsignalized intersection that must yield to
other movements.
Minor street —The street controlled by STOP signs at a two-way STOP-controlled intersection.
Mixed-traffic operation — Operation of a transit mode in lanes shared with other roadway users.
Mobility -The ability of people and goods to travel from place to place.
Mode —See travel mode.
Model — A procedure that uses one or more algorithms to produce a set of numerical outputs describing the operation
of a segment or system, given a set of numerical inputs.
Model application —The physical configuration and operational conditions to which a traffic analysis tool applied.
is
Mountainous terrain —Any combination of grades and horizontal and vertical alignment that causes heavy vehicles to
operate at crawl speed for significant distances or at frequent intervals.
Move-up time —The time it takes a vehicle to move from second position into first position on an approach to an all-
way STOP-controlled intersection.
Movement capacity —The capacity of a specific traffic stream at aSTOP-controlled intersection approach, assuming
that the traffic has exclusive use of a separate lane.
Movement groups — An organization of traffic movements at a signalized intersection to facilitate data entry. A
separate movement group is established for:
or
(a) each turn movement with one more exclusive turn lanes and
(b)the through movement(inclusive of any turn movements that share a lane).
Multilane highway — A highway with at least two lanes for the exclusive use of traffic in each direction, with no
control or partial control of access, but that may have periodic interruptions to flow at signalized intersections. no
closer than 2 mi.
Multilane roundabout — A roundabout with more than one lane on at least one entry and at least part of the circulatory
roadway.
Multimodal —Being used by more than one travel mode.
a
Multimodal analysis — A type of HCM analysis where the LOS of each travel mode on facility is evaluated
simultaneously.
Multiple weaving segment — A portion of a freeway where a series of closely spaced merge and diverge areas creates
overlapping weaving movements(between different merge-diverge pairs).
N
Near-side stop — A transit stop located on the approach side of anintersection. Transit vehicles stop to serve
passengers before crossing the intersection.
Nopassing zone — A segment of a two-lane, two-way highway along which passing is prohibited one or both
in
directions.
Node —The endpoint of a link. See also point.
Nonlocal transit service — Transit service on routes with longer stop spacing than local service (e.g., limited-stop, bus
rapid transit, or express routes).
Nonweavingflow —The traffic movements in a weaving segment that are not engaged in weaving movements.
Nonweaving movement — A traffic flow within a weaving segment that does not need to cross paths with another
traffic flow while traversing the segment.
Nonnative model — A mathematical model that identifies a set of parameters providing the best system performance.
Off-line bus stop —See bus stop.

Off-ramp — A ramp that accommodates diverging maneuvers.
www.passpe.com Transportation for Civil PE License 8 Dr. Shahin A.Mansour. PE
Off-street path —See shared pedestrian-bicycle path.
Offset —The time that the reference phase begins (or ends) relative to the system master time zero.
On-line bus stop —See bus stop.
On-ramp — A ramp that accommodates merging maneuvers.
On-street transitway — A portion of a street right-of-way dedicated to the transit mode, physically segregated from
other traffic, and located in the median or adjacent to one side of the street.
One-sided weaving segment — A weaving segment in which no weaving maneuvers require more than two lane
changes to be completed successfully.
Operations-level analysis — An application of an HCM methodology where the user supplies all or nearly all required
inputs to the procedure.
Opposing approach — At an all-way STOP-controlled intersection, the approach approximately 180 degrees opposite
the subject approach.
Opposingflow rate —The flow rate for the direction oftravel opposite to the direction under analysis.
Outputs —The performance measures produced by a model.
Overflow queue — Queued vehicles left over after a green phase at a signalized intersection.
Oversaturatedflow — Traffic flow where:
(a)the arrival flow rate exceeds the capacity of a point or segment,
(b) a queue created from a prior breakdown of a facility has not yet dissipated, or
(c) traffic flow is affected by downstream conditions.
P
Partial cloverleafinterchange (parclo) — An interchange with one to three (typically two)loop ramps and two to four
diagonal ramps, with major turning movements desirably being made by right-turn exits and entrances.
Partial diamond Interchange — A diamond interchange with fewer than four ramps, so that not all of the freeway-
street or street-freeway movements are served.
Partial stop — A situation where a vehicle slows as it approaches the back of a queue but does not come to a full stop.
Passage time —The maximum amount of time one vehicle actuation can extend the green interval while green is
displayed. It is input for each actuated signal phase; also referred to as vehicle interval, extension interval,
extension, or unit extension.
Passenger-car equivalent —The number of passenger cars that will result in the same operational conditions as a
single heavy vehicle of a particular type under specified roadway, traffic, and control conditions.
Passenger loadfactor —See loadfactor,
Passenger trip length —The average distance traveled by a passenger on board a transit vehicle.
Passing lane — A lane added to improve passing opportunities in one direction of travel on a conventional two-lane
highway.
Passing sight cldstance —The length of highway required to complete normal passing maneuvers in which the passing
driver can determine that there are no potentially conflicting vehicles ahead before beginning the maneuver.
Passive priority — A form of traffic signal priority that is pretimed, such as the setting of a street's signal progression to
favor buses.
Pavement condition rating — A description of the road surface in terms of ride quality and surface defects.
Peak hour —The hour of the day in which the maximum volume occurs. See also analysis hour.
Peak hourfactor (PHF) —The hourly volume during the analysis hour divided by the peak 15-min flow rate within
the analysis hour; a measure of traffic demand fluctuation within the analysis hour.
Pedestrian — An individual traveling on foot.
Pedestrian dear Interval —Time provided for pedestrians who depart the curb during the WALK indication to reach the
opposite curb (or the median).
Pedestrian crosswalk — A connection between pedestrian facilities across sections of roadway used by automobiles,
bicycles, and transit vehicles. Crosswalks can be marked or unmarked.
Pedestrian density —The number of pedestrians per unit of area within a walkway or queuing area.
Pedestrianflow rate —The number of pedestrians passing a point per unit of time. See also unit widthflow rate.
Pedestrian mode — A travel mode under which a journey (or part of a journey) is made on foot along a roadway or
pedestrian facility.
Pedestrian overpass — Agrade-separated pedestrian facility over such barriers as wide or high-speed roadways,
railroad tracks, busways, or topographic features.
Pedestrian plaza — A large, paved area that serves multiple functions, including pedestrian circulation, special events,
and seating.
Pedestrian queuing area — A place where pedestrians stand temporarily while waiting to be served, such as at the
corner of a signalized intersection.
Pedestrian recall — A form of phase recall where the controller places a continuous call for pedestrian service on the
phase and then services the phase for at least an amount of time equal to its walk and pedestrian clear intervals

(longer if vehicle detections are received).
Pedestrian service time —The elapsed time starting with the first pedestrian's departure from the corner to the last
pedestrian's arrival at the far side of the crosswalk.
Pedestrian space —The average area provided for pedestrians in a moving pedestrian stream or pedestrian queue.
Pedestrian start-up time —The time for a platoon of pedestrians to get under way following the beginning of the walk
interval.
Pedestrian street — A street dedicated to pedestrian use on a full- or part-time basis.
Pedestrian underpass — Agrade-separated pedestrian facility under such barriers as wide or high-speed roadways,
railroad tracks, busways, or topographic features.
Pedestrian walkway — A pedestrian facility similar to a sidewalk in construction but located away from the
well
influence of automobile traffic.
Percentfreeflow speed —The average travel speed divided by the free-flow speed.
Percent time-spentfollowing —The average percent of total travel time that vehicles must travel in platoons behind
slower vehicles because of inability to pass on a two-lane highway.
Performance measure — A quantitative or qualitative characterization of some aspect of the service provided to a
specific road user group.
Permitted plus protected — Compound left-turn protection that displays the permitted phase before the protected phase.
Permitted turn — A left or right turn at a signalized intersection that is made by a vehicle during a time in the cycle in
which the vehicle does not have the right-of-way.
Person capacity —The maximum number of persons who can pass a given point during a specified period under
prevailing conditions.
Phase —The part of the signal cycle allocated to any combination of traffic .movements receiving the right-of-way
simultaneously during one or more intervals. A phase includes the green, yellow change, and red clearance
intervals.
Phase pair —See barrier pair.
Phase pattern —The alternation of right-of-way among various traffic streams at an all-way STOP-controlled
intersection.
Phase recall — A call made by the controller for a specified phase each time the controller is servicing a conflicting
phase.
Phase sequence —
1. The sequence of service provided to each traffic movement.
2. A description of the order in which the left-turn movements are served relative to the through movements.
Platoon — A group of vehicles or pedestrians traveling together as a group, either voluntarily or involuntarily because
of signal control, geometrics, or other factors.
Platoon ratio — A description of the quality of signal progression computed as the demand flow rate during the green
indication divided by the average demand flow rate.
Point — A place along a facility where:
(a) conflicting traffic streams cross, merge, or diverge;
(b) a single traffic stream is regulated by a traffic control device; or
(c) there is a significant change in the segment capacity (e.g., lane drop, lane addition, narrow bridge, significant
upgrade, start or end of a ramp influence area).
Potential capacity —The capacity of a specific movement at aSTOP-controlled .intersection approach, assuming that it
is unimpeded by pedestrian or higher-rank movements and has exclusive use of a separate lane..
Precision —The size of the estimation range for a measured quantity.
Preliminary engineering-level analysis — An HCM application conducted to support planning. decisions related to
roadway design concept and scope, when alternatives analyses are performed, or to assess proposed systemwide
policies. Many of the inputs to the analysis will be defaulted.
Prepositioning — A deliberate driver choice of one lane over another at an intersection in anticipation of a turn at a
downstream intersection.
Pretimed control— A signal control in which the cycle length, phase plan, and phase times are .preset to repeat
continuously.
Prevailing condition —The geometric, traffic, control, and environmental conditions during the analysis period.
Progression —The act of various controllers providing specific green indications in accordance with a time schedule to
permit continuous operation of groups of vehicles along the street at a planned speed.
Protected plus permitted — Compound left-turn protection at a signalized intersection that displays the protected. phase
before the permitted phase.
Protected turn —The left or right turns at a signalized intersection that are made by a vehicle during a time in the cycle
when the vehicle has the right-of-way.

Q
Quality ofservice — A description of how well a transportation facility or service operates from a
traveler's perspective.
Quantity ofservice — A measure of the utilization of a transportation system.
Queue —Aline of vehicles, bicycles, or persons waiting to be served due to traffic control, a bottleneck, or other
causes.
Queue delay —
1. The amount of time that a vehicle spends in a queued state.
2. When computed from vehicle trajectories, it is the accumulated time step delay over all time steps in which the
vehicle is in a queue.
Queue dischargeflow — A traffic flow that has passed through a bottleneck and, in the absence of another downstream
bottleneck, is accelerating to the free-flow speed of the freeway.
Queue jump — A short bus lane section (often shared with aright-turn lane), in combination with an advance green
indication for the lane, that allows buses to move past a queue of cars at a signal.
Queue length —The distance between the upstream and downstream ends of the
queue
Queue spillback — A condition where the back of a queue extends beyond the available storage length, resulting in
potential interference with upstream traffic movements.
Queue storage ratio —The maximum back of queue as a proportion_ of the available storage on the subject lane or link.
Queued state — A condition when a vehicle is within one car length (20 ft) of a stopped vehicle and is itself in a
stopped state (i.e., has slowed to less than 5 mi/h).
R
Ramp — A dedicated roadway providing a connection between two other roadways; at least one of the roadways a ramp
connects is typically ahigh-speed facility such as a freeway, multilane highway, or C-D roadway.
Rampfreeway junction —The point of connection between a ramp and ahigh-speed facility such as a freeway,
multilane highway, or C-D roadway.
Ramp meter — A traffic signal that controls the entry of vehicles from a ramp onto alimited-access facility; the signal
allows one or two vehicles to enter on each green or green flash.
Ramp roadway —See ramp.
Ramp-streetjunction —See interchange ramp terminal.
Rank —The hierarchy of right-of-way among conflicting traffic streams at a two-way STOP-controlled intersection.
Reasonable expectancy —The concept that the stated capacity for a given system element is one that can be achieved
repeatedly during peak periods, rather than being the absolute maximum flow rate that could be observed.
Receiving lanes —Lanes departing an intersection.
Recreational vehicle — A heavy vehicle, generally operated by a private motorist, for transporting recreational
equipment or facilities; examples include campers, motor homes, and vehicles towing boat trailers.
Red clearance interval — A brief period of time following the yellow indication during which the signal heads
associated with the ending phase and all conflicting phases display a red indication.
Red time —The period in the signal cycle during which, for a given phase or lane group, the signal is red.
Reentry delay —Delay experienced by buses leaving a bus stop, when they must wait for a gap in traffic before
reentering the travel lane.
Reference phase —One of the two coordinated phases (i.e., Phase 2 or 6).
Regression model — A model that uses field or simulated data to develop statistically derived relationships between
particular model inputs and performance measures such as capacity and delay.
Residual queue —The unmet demand at the end of an analysis period resulting from operation while demand exceeded
capacity.
Rest-in-walk mode — A signal controller setting in which the phase will dwell in walk as long as there are no
conflicting calls. When a conflicting call is received, the pedestrian clear interval time to its setting value
will
before ending the phase.
Restrictive median — A median (for example, a raised curb) that prevents or discourages vehicles from crossing the
opposing traffic lanes.
Rig/it-turn-on-red —The ability to make a right turn at a signalized intersection when a red indication is displayed,
after stopping and only when no conflicting vehicular or pedestrian traffic is present.
Ring — A set of phases operating in sequence.
Roadside obstruction — An object or barrier along a roadside or median that affects traffic flow, whether continuous
(e.g., a retaining wall) or not continuous (e.g., light supports or bridge abutments).
Roadway —That portion of a highway improved, designed, or ordinarily used for vehicular travel and parking lanes but
exclusive of the sidewalk, berm, or shoulder even though such sidewalk, berm, or shoulder is used by persons

riding bicycles or other human-powered vehicles.
Roadway characteristic — A geometric characteristic of a street or highway, including the type of facility, number and
width of lanes (by direction), shoulder widths and lateral clearances, design speed, and horizontal and vertical
alignments.
Rollzng terrain —Any combination of grades .and horizontal or vertical alignment that causes heavy vehicles to reduce
their speed substantially below that of passenger cars but that does not cause heavy vehicles to operate at crawl
speeds for any significant length of time or at frequent intervals.
Roundabout — An intersection with a generally circular shape, characterized by yield on entry and circulation around a
central island.
Rubbernecking —The slowing of motorists to observe a traffic incident.
Running speed —See average running speed.
Running time —The time that a vehicle traverses a length of roadway excluding any delay related to a control device.
Rural — An area with widely scattered development and a low density of housing and employment.
S
Saturation flow rate —The equivalent hourly rate at which previously queued vehicles can traverse an intersection
approach under prevailing conditions, assuming that the green signal is available at all times and no lost times are
experienced.
Saturation headway —
1. At a signalized intersection, the average headway between vehicles occurring after the fourth vehicle in the
queue and continuing until the last vehicle in the initial queue clears the intersection.
2. At an all-way STOP-controlled intersection, the time between departures of successive vehicles on a given
approach for a particular case, assuming a continuous queue.
Scenario —See model application.
Segment —
1. For interrupted flow facilities, a link and its boundary point(s).
2. For uninterrupted flow facilities, a portion of a facility between two points.
Segment delay —
1. The delay experienced by a vehicle since it left the upstream node (usually another signal), including traffic
delay, incident delay, control delay, and geometric delay.
2. When calculated from vehicle trajectories, the time actually taken to traverse a segment minus the time it would
have taken to traverse the segment at the target speed. The segment delay on any time step is equal to the time
step delay; segment delays accumulated over all time steps in which a vehicle is present on the. segment
represent the segment delay for that vehicle.
Segment initialization —The process of determining the appropriate number of vehicles in each segment. as a precursor
to estimating the number of vehicles on each freeway segment for each time step under oversaturated conditions.
Semiactuated control— A signal control in which some approaches (typically on the minor street) have detectors and
some of the approaches (typically on the major street) have no detectors.
Sensitivity analysis — A technique for exploring how model outputs change in response to changes in model inputs,
implemented by varying one input at a time over its reasonable range while holding all other inputs.constant.
Service flow rate —The maximum directional rate of flow that can be sustained in a given segment under prevailing
roadway, traffic, and control conditions without violating the criteria for LOS i.
Service measure — A performance measure used to define LOS for a transportation system element.
Service time — At an all-way STOP-controlled intersection, the departure headway minus the move-up time.
Service volume —The maximum hourly directional volume that can be sustained in a given segment without violating
the criteria for LOS i during the worst 15 min of the hour (period with the highest density) under prevailing
roadway, traffic, and control conditions.
Shared lane —
1. Alane shared by more than one movement.
2. A bicycle facility where bicycles share a travel lane with motorized vehicular traffic.
Shared-lane capacity —The capacity of a lane at an intersection that is shared by two or three movements.
Shared pedestrian-bicycle path — A path physically separated from highway traffic for the use of pedestrians,
bicyclists, runners, inline skaters, and other nonmotorized users.
Shock wave — A change or discontinuity in traffic conditions. For example, a shock wave is generated when the signal
turns red, and it moves upstream as vehicles arriving at the queue slow down. A shock wave is also generated
when the signal turns green, and it moves downstream as the first set of vehicles discharge from the signal.
Short length —The distance within a weaving segment over which lane changing is not prohibited or dissuaded by
markings.
Shoulder — A portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way for accommodation of stopped vehicles;

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m
emergency use; and lateral support of the subbase, base, and surface courses.
Shoulder bikeway — A bicycle facility where bicyclists use a paved shoulder, separated by striping from motor vehicle
traffic, for travel along a roadway.
Shoulder bypass lane — A portion of the paved shoulder opposite the minor-road leg at a three-leg intersection, marked
as a lane for through traffic to bypass vehicles that are slowing or stopped to make a left turn.
Shy distance —The buffer that pedestrians give themselves to avoid accidentally stepping off the curb, brushing
against a building face, or getting too close to pedestrians standing under awnings or window shopping.
Side street —See minor street.
Sidepath — A shared pedestrian-bicycle path located parallel and in proximity to a roadway.
Sidewalk — A pedestrian facility located parallel and in proximity to a roadway.
Simple weaving segment — A weaving segment formed by a single merge point followed by a single diverge point.
Simultaneous gap out — A controller mode requiring that both phases reach a point of being committed to terminate
(via gap out, max out, or force-ofd at the same time.
Single entry — A mode of operation (in a multiring controller) in which a phase in one ring can be selected and timed
alone if there is no demand for service in a nonconflicting phase on the parallel ring(s).
Singlepoint urban dnterchange — A diamond interchange that combines all the ramp movements into a single
signalized intersection.
Single-stage gap acceptance — A condition where no median refuge area is available for minor-street drivers to store
in, so that minor-street drivers must evaluate gaps in both major-street directions simultaneously.
Sketch planning tools —Tools that produce general order-of-magnitude estimates of travel demand and transportation
system performance under different transportation system improvement alternatives.
Soft converston —The conversion of a value from U.S. customary units to metric units (or vice versa) through the
application of a conversion factor, such as multiplying 12 ft by 0.305 ft/m, resulting in 3.66 m. See also hard
conversion.
Space —See pedestrian space.
Space gap —See gap.
Space mean speed — An average speed based on the average travel time of vehicles to traverse a length of roadway.
Spacing —The distance between two successive vehicles in a traffic lane, measured from the same common feature of
the vehicles (e.g., rear axle, front axle, or front bumper).
Spatial stop rate —The ratio of stop rate to facility length.
Spatial variability — Variability in measured values, such as the percentage of trucks in the traffic stream, from one
location to another within an area or from one area to another.
Specdal events — Sources of high demand that occur at known times relatively infrequently, resulting in traffic flow
patterns that vary substantially from the typical situation.
Specific grade — A single grade of a roadway segment or extended roadway segment expressed as a percentage.
Speed — A rate of motion expressed as distance per unit of time.
Speed harmonization — A technique to reduce the shock waves that typically occur when traffic abruptly slows
upstream of a bottleneck or for an incident, through the use of variable speed limits or advisory speed signs.
Spillback —See queue spillback
Spillover — A condition occurring when pedestrians begin to use more than the provided sidewalk or walkway space
(e.g., by stepping into the street) to travel at their desired speed.
Split —The segment of the cycle length allocated to each phase or interval that may occur. In an actuated controller
unit, split is the time in the cycle allocated to a phase-the sum of the green, yellow change, and red clearance
intervals for a phase.
Split-diamond interchange — Diamond interchanges in which freeway entry and exit ramps are separated at the street
level, creating four intersections.
Stairway — A pedestrian facility that ascends a grade via a series of steps and landings.
Standee — A passenger standing in a transit vehicle.
Start-up lost time —The additional time consumed by the first few vehicles in a queue at a signalized intersection
above and beyond the saturation headway because of the need to react to the initiation of the green phase and to
accelerate.
Staticflow model — A mathematical model in which the traffic flow rate and origin-destination volumes are constant.
Stochastic mode[ — A mathematical model that uses random number generation for the determination of at least one
parameter.
Stop rate —The count of full stops divided by the number of vehicles served.
Stop spacing —See average bus stop spacing.
Stopped delay —The amount of time that a vehicle is stopped. When calculated from vehicle trajectories, it is equal to
the time step delay on any step in which the vehicle is in a stopped state. Time step delays accumulated over all
time steps in which the vehicle was in the stopped state represent the stopped delay for that vehicle.
Stopped state — A condition when a vehicle is traveling at less than 5 mi/h.
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Storage length —The length of turn lane available for storing queued vehicles.
Street —See highway.
Street corner —The area encompassed within the intersection oftwo sidewalks.
Streetcar mode — A transit mode operated by vehicles that receive power from overhead wires and run on tracks.
Compared with light rail, streetcars are generally shorter and narrower, are more likely to have on-board fare
collection, make more frequent stops, and are more likely to operate in mixed traffic.
Study period —See analysis period.
Subject approach —The approach under study at two-way and all-way STOP-controlled intersections.
Suburban street — A street with low-density driveway access on the periphery of an urban area.
Sustained spillback — A result of oversaturation, where a queue does not dissipate at the end of each cycle but remains
present until the downstream capacity is increased or the upstream demand is reduced.
System —All the transportation facilities and modes within a particular region.
System elements — Components of a transportation system, including points, segments, facilities, corridors, and areas.
T
Taper area — An area characterized by a reduction or increase in pavement width to direct traffic.
Target speed — In a simulation tool, the speed at which a driver would prefer to travel; it differs from the free-flow
speed in that most simulation tools apply a "driver aggressiveness" factor to the free-flow speed to determine a
target speed.
Temporal variability — Variability in measured values, such as hourly traffic volumes, that occurs from day to day or
month to-month at a given location.
Terrain —See general terrain.
Three-level diamond interchange — A diamond interchange with two divided levels so that both facilities provide
continuous through movements.
Through vehicles —All vehicles passing directly through a street segment and not turning.
Tight urban diamond interchange — A diamond interchange with a separation of less than 400 ft between the two
intersections.
Time interval —See analysis period.
Time interval scalefactor —The ratio of the total facility entrance counts to total facility exit counts.
Time mean speed —The average speed of vehicles observed passing a point on a highway.
Time gap —See gap.
Time-space domain — A specification of the freeway sections included in the defined facility and an identification of
the time intervals for which the analysis is to be conducted.
Time step delay —The length of a time step minus the time it would have taken a vehicle to cover the distance traveled
in the step at the target speed.
Time-varyingflow model — A simulation. model in which flow changes with time.
Tool —See traffic analysis tool.
Total lateral clearance(TLC) —The sum of the right-side and left-side lateral clearances along a multilane highway.
Total lost time —See lost time.
Total ramp density —The average number of on-ramp, off-ramp, major merge, and major diverge junctions per mile. It
applies to a 6 mi segment of freeway facility, 3 mi upstream and 3 mi downstream of the midpoint of the study
segment.
Traffic analysis tool — A software product used for traffic analysis that includes, at a minimum, a computational
engine and a user interface.
Traffic condition — A characteristic of traffic flow, including distribution of vehicle types in the traffic stream,
directional distribution oftraffic, lane use distribution of traffic, and type of driver population on a given facility.
Traffic control device — A sign, signal, marking, or other device used to regulate, warn, or guide traffic.
Traffic delay —The component of delay that results when the interaction of vehicles causes drivers to reduce speed
below the free-flow speed.
Traffic incidents — Occurrences, such as crashes, stalled cars, and debris in the roadway, that do not occur every day.
These incidents reduce a roadway's capacity and create variation in day-to-day travel times along the roadway.
Traffic pressure —The display of aggressive driving behavior for a large number of drivers during high-demand traffic
conditions. Under such conditions, a large number of drivers accept shorter headways during queue discharge
than they would under different circumstances.
Traffic signal delay —Delay experienced by a bus that arrives at a near-side stop during the green interval, serves its
passengers during portions of the green and red intervals, and then must wait for the traffic signal to turn green
again before proceeding. See also control delay.
Traffic signal optimization tool — A tool primarily designed to develop optimal signal phasing and timing plans for
isolated signalized intersections, arterial streets, or signal networks.
Transitfrequency —The count of scheduled fixed-route transit vehicles that stop on or near an urban street segment

during the analysis period. ~
Transit mode — A travel mode in which vehicles (including buses, streetcars, and street-running light rail) stop at
regular intervals along the roadway to pick up and drop off passengers.
Transit reliabiltty — A measure of the time performance and the regularity of head ways between successive transit
vehicles affecting the amount of time passengers must wait at a transit stop as well as the consistency of a
passenger's arrival time at a destination.
Transit signal preemption —The transfer of normal operation of a traffic signal to a special control mode serving a
transit vehicle.
TransBt signal priority — Adjustments to traffic signal timing to provide more usable green time to transit vehicles. See
also active priority and passive priority.
Transitway —See on-street transihvay.
Trave[ demand models — Models that forecast long-term future travel demand on the basis of current conditions and
projections of socioeconomic characteristics and changes in transportation system design.
Travel mode —
1. Atransport category characterized by specific right-of-way,technological, and operational features.
2. A particular form of travel, for example, walking, bicycling, traveling by automobile; or traveling by bus.
Travel speed —See average travel speed.
Travel time —The average time spent by vehicles traversing a highway segment, including control delay.
Travel time rate —The reciprocal of speed, expressed as time per unit distance traveled.
Travel time reliability —
1. The probability of "on-time" arrival (i.e., the probability that a trip is completed below a certain threshold
time).
2. The variability in travel time for a given trip due to unforeseen causes such as variations in demand or an
incident.
Traveler information systems — An integration of technologies that allow the general public to access real-time or near
real-time data on traffic factors such as incident conditions, travel time, and speed.
Traveler perception mode[ — A model that estimates the average response or range of responses that travelers would
give to a given set of conditions (typically operational or design in nature).
Truck — A heavy vehicle engaged primarily in the transport of goods and materials or in the delivery of services other
than public transportation.
Turn lane —See exclusive turn lane.
Turnout — A short segment of a lane— usually a widened, unobstructed shoulder area— added to a two-lane, two-way
highway, allowing slow-moving vehicles to leave the main roadway and stop so that faster vehicles can pass.
Two-lane highway — A roadway with atwo-lane cross section, one lane for each direction of flow, on which passing
maneuvers must be made in the opposing lane.
Twophase pattern — A type of operation at an all-way STOP-controlled intersection where drivers from opposing
approaches enter the intersection at roughly the same time.
Two-sided weaving segment — A weaving segment in which at least one weaving maneuver requires three or more lane
changes to be completed successfully or in which asingle-lane on-ramp is closely followed by a single-lane off-
ramp on the opposite side of the freeway.
Two-stage gap acceptance — A condition where a median refuge area is available for minor-street drivers so that
drivers sequentially evaluate and use gaps in the near-side major-street traffic stream, followed by gaps in the far-
side major-street traffic stream.
Two-way left-turn lane — A lane in the median area that extends continuously along a street or highway and is marked
to provide a deceleration and storage area, out of the through-traffic stream, for vehicles traveling in either
direction to use in making left turns at intersections and driveways.
Two-way STOP-controlled —The type of traffic control at an intersection where drivers on the minor street or drivers
turning left from the major street wait for a gap in the major-street traffic to complete a maneuver.
V
Uncertainty —The range within which a model's estimate of a value is statistically likely to vary from the actual value.
Uncontrolled — Lacking a traffic control device that interrupts traffic flow (e.g., a traffic signal, STOP sign, or YIELD
sign).
Undersaturatedflow — Traffic flow where:
(a) the arrival flow rate is lower than the capacity of a point or segment,
(b) no residual queue remains from a prior breakdown of the facility, and
(c) traffic flow is unaffected by downstream conditions.
Uniform delay —The first term of the equation for lane group control delay, assuming constant arrival and departure
rates during a given time period.
Uninterruptedflow — Traffic flow on facilities that have no fixed causes of delay or interruption external to the traffic

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stream; examples include freeways and unsignalized sections of multilane and two-lane rural highways.
Unit width flow rate —The pedestrian flow rate expressed as pedestrians per minute per unit of walkway or crosswalk
width.
Unmet demand —The number of vehicles on a signalized lane group that have not been served at any point in time as a
result of operation in which demand exceeds capacity in either the current or previous analysis period. This does
not include the normal cyclical queue formation on the red and discharge on the green. phase. See also initial queue
and residual gueue.
UnsignaliZed intersection — An intersection not controlled by traffic Signals.
Upstream —The direction from which traffic is flowing.
Urban — An area typified by high densities of development or concentrations of population, drawing people from
several areas within a region.
Urban street — A street with relatively high density of driveway access located in an urban area and with traffic signals
or interrupting STOP or YIELD signs no farther than 2 mi apart.
Urban streetfacilities — Extended sections of collector or arterial streets that include the impacts of traffic signals or
other traffic control along the street.
Urban street segment — A length of urban street from one boundary intersection to the next, including the upstream
boundary intersection but not the downstream boundary intersection.
User perception variability — Variability in user responses that occurs when different users experiencing identical
conditions are asked to rate the conditions.
Utility — A measure of the value a traveler places on a trip choice.
V
Validation —The process by which the analyst checks the overall model-predicted traffic performance for astreet-road
system against field measurements of traffic performance that were not used in the calibration process.
i~ariability —The day-to-day variation in other dimensions of congestion within a transportation system.
Vehicle capacity —The maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point during a specified period under
prevailing roadway, traffic, and control conditions.
Vehicle trajectory analysis —The development of performance measures from the properties of time-space trajectories
of individual vehicles.
Volume —The total number of vehicles or other roadway users that pass over a given point or section of a lane or
roadway during a given time interval, often 1 h,
Volume-to-capacity (v/c) ratio —The ratio offlow rate to capacity for a system element.
w
Walk interval — A period of time intended to give pedestrians adequate time to perceive the WALK indication and
depart the curb before the pedestrian clear interval begins.
Walkway —See pedestrian walkway.
Wave speed —The speed at which a shock wave travels upstream or downstream through traffic.
Weaving —The crossing of two or more traffic streams traveling in the same direction along a significant length of
highway, without the aid of traffic control devices (except for guide signs).
Weaving configuration —The organization and continuity of lanes in a weaving segment, which determines lane-
changing characteristics.
Weavingflow —The traffic movements in a weaving segment that are engaged in weaving movements.
Weaving length —See base length, maximum weaving length, and short length.
Weaving movement — A traffic flow within a weaving segment (on-ramp to mainline or mainline to off-ramp) that
must cross paths with another traffic flow while traversing the segment.
Weaving segment —Seefreeway weaving segment.,
Weaving segment influence area —The base length of the weaving segment plus 500 ft upstream of the entry point to
the weaving segment and 500 ft downstream of the exit point from the weaving segment; entry and exit points are
defined as the points where the appropriate edges of the merging and diverging lanes meet.
Weaving width —The total number of lanes between the entry and exit gore areas within a weaving segment, including
the auxiliary lane, if present.
Work zone — A segment of highway in which maintenance or construction operations reduce the number of lanes
available to traffic or affect the operational characteristics of traffic flowing through the segment.
Y
Yellow change interval —The period of time that a yellow indication is displayed to alert drivers to the impending
presentation of a red indication.

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Civil Breadth (A.M.)Exam Specifications
Part I- Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M.)- Chapter A: Geometric Design 63

Table of Contents
Transportation Breadth (A.M.) Topics
Chapter A: Geometric Design
A.l Horizontal curves..................................................................... 65
A.2 Vertical curves........................................................................ 87
A.3 Sight distance.......................................................................... 97
A.4 Superelevation......................................................................... 135
A.5 Vertical and/or horizontal clearances.............................................. 145
A.6 Acceleration and deceleration ......................................................155
A.7 Highways functions and design criteria (not included in the NCEES Topics)......165
64 Part I-Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M,)- Chapter A: Geometric Design

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Chapter A: Geometric Design

.1 HORIZONTAL CURVES
A.1.1 Introduction:
Horizontal curves are required for connecting tangents in route surveying. Route surveying is
the type of surveying to establish horizontal and vertical alignment for transportation facilities
(highways, streets, railroads, etc.). Horizontal curves may be simile, compound, reverse, or
spiral. Compound and reverse curves are treated as a combination of two or more simple curves,
whereas the spiral curve is based on a varying radius.
,/ ~~ ~ R I I I ~\ ~ \ R`~Rt
~ / ~~~. ~
~i
a) Simple Circular (b) Compound (c) Reverse (d) Spiral
Figure A-1 Types of Horizontal Curves
The sharpness of the curve is determined by the choice of the radius (R); lame radius curves are
relatively flat, whereas small radius curves are relativel, s~rp.
The following table explains the differences between types of horizontal curves.
Table A-1 Types of Horizontal Curves
Circular Curves
Spiral Curves
Sim le Com ound Reverse
The simple curve is Frequently the A reverse curve consists The spiral is a curve
an arc of a circle. The terrain will oftwo simple curves which has a varying
radius of the circle necessitate the use of joined together, but radius. It is used on
determines the a compound curve. curving in opposite railroads and some
sharpness or flatness This curve normally directions. For safety modern highways. Its
of the curve. The consists oftwo reasons, this curve is purpose is to provide a
larger the radius, the simple curves joined seldom used in highway transition from the
flatter the curve. This together, but curving construction as it would tangent to a simple
type of curve is the in the same tend to send an curve or between
most often used. direction. automobile off the road. simple curves in a
compound curve.
Part I- Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M.)- Chapter A. Geometric Design 65

A.1.2 Horizontal Circular .Curves:

Circular curves are common in highways and streets design. The route of a highway or a street is
chosen to satisfy all design requirements (speed, sight distance, superelevation, ...) with minimal
social, environmental, and financial impact. The horizontal alignment of a transportation facility
consists of series of straight lines(tangy)and circular curves as shown below.
Horizontal tio~s
curves es
Y 4
~ ~ ►~ G ~~/
►t ►1 ►1
Roadway centerline
1"anget \~/
o~ ~ o.~ ~~
•'
• D• Swamp .'~~~-b~o..
•
°
e 'BL .. ,.
o •'p•'• ,O '• ~ ~ 1 .pp
p p •• ~De ~;!b .
Ortpinsl Ground f0. G.1
C ~'~ cur '~~.

~ ~~r t on9eM
~~\
-f—
~ jo~Qe"t Ver+lcol Curva
r
~ y Vertical Cury /
°~Da_ r.
w ~ fill ~~~ rofile (Grade Line >, P.
~r~~—~~_
Stations
Figure A-2 Horizontal (top) and Vertical (bottom) Alignments
A.1.3 Degree of Curve for Horizontal.Circular Curves:

The degree of curve (for horizontal circular curves only)(D)defines the "sharpness" or "flatness"
of the curve. There are two definitions for degree of curve, as follows:
66 Part I- Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M.)- Chapter A; Geometric Design

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Table A-2 Chord and Arc Definitions for Horizontal Circular Curves
Chord Definition D~ Arc Definition D
The chord definition states that the degree The arc definition states that the degree of
of curve is the angle formed by two radii curve is the angle formed by two radii
drawn from the center of the circle to the drawn from the center of the circle to the
ends of a chord of 100 units long (100 ft ends of an arc of 100 units long (100 ft or
or 100 m chord). The chord definition is 100 m arc). This definition is used
used primarily for civilian railroad primarily for highways and streets. Notice
construction and is used by the military that the larger the degree of curve, the
for both roads and railroads. "sharper" the curve and the shorter the
radius.
D 50ft (360°)(100ft) _ 5729.578° ~ ~

Sin ~ = R (A-1) — R A-2
Da — 2~cR
100 ft
50 ~ 50
R D R
R iD R
-~-. D 100
~ 360° 2~rR
~ 50
~ R sin(D/2) R _ 5729.58
~ D
Arc definition
Since one meter equals 3.28084 ft, degrees of curve in the two systems (SI and English) differ
by the same proportion. Therefore, a 1° curve in the foot system is the same curve as a
3.28084° curve in the metric system. And a 1° curve in the metric system is the same curve as
a 0.3048° curve in the foot system. The following equation gives the relationship between the
two systems.
D„~etr;~ =Dfoo~ X 3.28 (A-3)

The following table shows the comparable values in both systems.
Table A-3 Degree-of-Curve Conversions
Foot Definition (D oot) Metric Definition (Dmerrl~)

1.0 3.28
1.5 4.92
2.0 6.56
2.5 8.20
3.0 9.84
oint of Intersection
P ~'~ Deflection Angle Q
Externa I D i stance.--rte ~~
so=Z ~ .~ 2
~
: ~~ ~
`~: i ~~°~
~; i ~9~
~c~ `.~~
~~CAi ~e~ th of Cure ~~ ~ ~~ ~~
~ A ~~ ~
i i ~
i ~ Mid-Ordinate
;urve Deflection Angle / T—(M) ~~
i
Beginning of Curve ~ ~ ~ End of Curve
B~
TC= PC= BC ---- ------------------ ---------- ---- EC= PT= CT
gp°`~ Long! Chord (C l ,~~
`~ i ,' ,~
~~ I i~ O,~
0C~ ~~` Q ~~ ~~~ ~O
~ ~ i ~ Qj ~9
- - - -- -- - 0__= Center _.= Radius Point °9
Figure A-3 Circular Horizontal Curve Terminology
• Point of Intersection (PI): the point at which the two tangents to the curve intersect
• Delta Angle(e):the angle between the tangents is also equal to the angle at the center of
the curve
• Back Tangent:.for a survey progressing to the right, it is the straight line that connects the
PC(BC)to the PI
• Forward Tangent: for a survey progressing to the right, it is the straight line that connects
the PI to the PT(EC)
• Point of Curvature(PC)= Beginning of Curve(BC): the beginning point ofthe curve
• Point of Tangency(PT)=End of Curve(EC): the end point ofthe curve
• Tangent Distance (T): the distance from the PC(BC)to PI or from the PI to PT(EC)
• External Distance (E): the distance from the PI to the middle point of the curve
• Middle Ordinate(M): the distance from the middle point of the curve to the middle ofthe
chord (long chord) joining the PC(BC)and PT(EC)
• Long Chord(C or LC): the distance along the line joining the PC(BC)and the PT(EC)
• Length of Curve (L): the difference in stationing along the curve (arc length) between the
PC(BC)and the PT(EC)
68 Part I- Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M.)- Chapter A: Geometric Design

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A.1.4 Geometry of Horizontal Circular Curves(Arc Definition):
T = R tan ~~ (A-4)
z$,6~~
. o° H~o = ~ C~ - ~°S R ~
LC= C= 2 R sin 2= 2 T cos(0°~2) (A-5)
L° — 2~ R R D(radians) _(100ft) ~o (A-6

360° — a
5729.58
R(feet)= (A-7)
DQ
0 0 0
M = R (1— cos ~)= Ctan~ = E cos~ (A-8)
2 2 4 2
0 0 0 0
E=R 10 —1 = R(sec~—1)= T tan~ = R tan ~tan ~ (A-9)
cos(0 ~2) 2 4 2 4
Notes:
1- Cos ~ = R i.e O=2 Cos-'( R )(from the geometry shown in the previous page)
R+ E R+E
2- versed sine (vers) --~ vers (0/2)= 1 —Cos(0/2)
3- external secant(exsec)~ exsec (0/"L) =Sec(D/2) — 1
4- A common mistake is to determine the station of the "EC" by adding the "T" distance to
the "PI". Although the "EC" is physically a distance of"T"from the "PI", the stationing
(chainage) must reflect the fact that the centerline no longer goes through the "PI".
Sta. PT = Sta. PC + L
Sta. PC = Sta. PI — T
Table A-4 Arc and Chord Definitions Equations
Arc Definition Chord Definition
T = R tan 2~ (A-4) Same
LC = C = 2 R sin ~~ = 2 T cos(0°~2) (A-5) Same
L = 2~t R ~~ t DQ
= R 0~radians)= ~100f) ~~ ~A-6) L~ = ~100 m) ~~
a 360° D~
5729.58 5729.65
R(feet)= Da ~A_~~ R(meter)=
a Dc
M = R (1 —cos ~o)= C tan ~o = E cos~ (A-8) Same

2 2 4 2
E= R —1 = R(sec~—1) = T tan4~ = R tan ~~ tan 4(A-9) Same
cos( °~2)
he followin information is to be used for roblems A-1 to A-4
A horizontal circular curve for a new conventional highway has the following data:
O =16°38', R = 1000 ft, and PI Station at 6 + 26.57
Sample PNOblem A-1: Horizontal Circular Curve Calculations
Find: BC and EC stations are most nearly:

(A) 4 +80.39,7 +72.75
(B) 4 + 80.39 ,7 + 70.70
(C) 7 + 70.70 ,4 + 80.39
(D) 7 +72.75,4 +80.39
I Solution:
T = R tan2 = 1000 tan 8.3167° = 146.18 ft
L = 2~c R ~~ = R D(radians) _ (100ft) ~

360° D
16.6333
L= 2~ x 1000 x 290.31 ft
360 —
L = 2 + 90.31 Sta.
PI at 6 + 26.57
—T 1 + 46.18
BC = 4 + 80.39 ~
+L 2 + 90.31
EC = 7 + 70.70 ~
Note: Answer(A)is = PI Sta. + T, which is wrong(common mistake).
Answer:(B)t
Sample Problem A-2: Long Chordfor Horizontal Circular Curve
Find: The length of the long chord is most nearly:

(A) 150.49 ft
(B) 189.30 ft
(C) 289.29 ft
D 572.49 ft
Solution:
C = 2RSin~ = 2T Cos (D/2) = 2 x 1000 x Sin 8.3167° = 289.29ft ~
Answer:(C)t
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Sample Problem A-3: External Distancefor a Horizontal Circular Curve
Find: The external distance(E)for the given curve is most nearly:

(A) 10.23 ft
(B) 10.43 ft
(C) 10.52 ft
(D) 10.63 ft
Solution:
E— —1)= 1000 —1)=10.63ft G
R~Cos(~~2) Cos ~16.63°~)
2
Answer:(D)t
Sample Problem A-4: Middle Ordinate for a Horizontal Circular Curve
Find: The middle ordinate for the horizontal circular curve is most nearly:
(A) 10.23 ft
(B) 10.43 ft
(C) 10.52 ft
(D) 10.63 ft
Solution:
Refer to Figure A-3 for the definition of"M"
Middle Ordinate (A to B)= M = R (1 —Cos ~)= C Tan~ = E Cos~ G which relationship?
2 2 4 2
M = R(1 —Cos2)= 1000 (1 —Cos 8.3167°)= 10.52ft G

Answer:(C)t

A.1.5 Deflection Angles, Central Angle, and Chord Calculations for Horizontal
Circular Curves:
The deflection angle is defined as the angle between the tangent and a chord. The
following two rules apply for the deflection angles for circular curves:
Rule 1: The deflection angle between a tangent and a chord is half the central angle
subtended by the arc, i.e., the angle between the tangent "BC-PI" and the chord "PC-
A" is '/z the central angle "BC-O-A," i.e., a & 2a.
Rule 2: The angle between two chords is '/z the central angle subtended by the arc
between the two chords, i.e., the angle "A-BC-B" is %2 the central angle "A-O-B,"
i.e., (3 & 2(3.
«i
Abbreviations:
BC = Beginning of curve
PC =Point of curvature
TC = Tangent to curve
EC =End of curve
PT =Point of tangency
CT =Curve to tangent
TC= BC= = EC = CT
(Radius point)
Figure A-4 Deflection, Central Angles and Chord Calculations
arc length 0
deflection angle = — (A-10)
L 2
Chord Length (length from BC to A)= 2R Sin a (A-11)
arc length (length from BC to A)x 180°

a= (A-12)
2~z R
2a arc length (length from BC to A)

(A-13)
0 L

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The followin information is to be used for roblems A-5 to A-7

A horizontal circular curve for a new urban highway has a radius of 2500 ft and a degree of curve
(arc definition) of 2.29°. The beginning of the curve is at station 150 + 75 and the central angle is
30°. A drainage inlet(DI)is required to be staked out at station 154 + 60.
0 !radius point)
Sample Problem A-S: Deflection Angle Calculationsfor Circular Curve
Find: The deflection angle between the back tangent and the chord to the drainage inlet
station is most nearly:
(A) 4.41°
(B) 12.20°
(C) 16.25°
(D) 32.50°
Solution:
The deflection angle a is given by the following equation:
arc length(BC to A)x 180°

a=
2rc R
Arc length =(DI Station — BC Station) _(154 + 60) — (150 + 75)= 3.85 Sta. = 385ft
a _arc length(BC to A)x 180° _ 385ftx 180° _

4.41°
2~ R 2x x2500ft
Answer:(A)1

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Sample Problem A-6: Chord Calculationsfor Circular Curve
Find: The length of the chord connecting the BC and the drainage inlet is most nearly:
(A) 175.30ft
(B) 254.52ft
(C) 325.15ft
,,(D) 384.47ft
~ Solution:
`Chord Length (BC to DI, i.e. BC to A)= 2R Sin a =2 x 2500 ft x Sin 4.41° = 384.47ft
Answer:(D)t
Sample Problem A-7: Deflection Angle &Central Angle Relationship
Find: The design calls for another- DI at

station 156 + 25. The central angle ""a
~ ~ep~
that should be turned to the right
from the first DI is most nearly: t .' ~ ~ ,~
(A) 1.90° ,r ,
1 ~
(B) 2.90°
(C) 3.78°
(D) 5.50°
Solution:
The following relationship could be established (by proportion):
2y arc length fi°om A to B
O L
And the curve length is given by:
L = 2~c R R0(radians) _ (100ft)

360° —
0
=(100ft) ~290 = 1310.00ft
arc length A to B _ 30oX ~156.25 —.154.60~ Sta.x 100ft/

Sta. _3 780
~ 2Y —0 X
L 1310ft
Answer:(C)t

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A.1.6 Tangent Offset Calculations:

For short curves, when a total station instrument is not available, and for checking purposes, one
of four offset-type methods can be used for laying out circular curves. These methods are:
(1) tangent offset-TO,
(2) chord offset-CO,
(3) middle ordinates-MO, and
(4) ordinates from the long chord.
The four tangent offset method equations are given as follows:
Y =R— R2 —XZ (A-14)

Y= R —RCos B =R(1 —cos B) (A-15)
8 = aresin R (A-16)
X= R sin B ~ X ~ (A-17)
r
Tangent
Figure A-5 Tangent Offset
Sample Problem A-8: Tangent Offset Method
Given: For the diagram shown in Fig. A-5, if the radius R= 800 feet and the distance x = 300 ft.
Find: The distance "Y"from tangent to curve Solution:

is most nearly:
(A) 40.38 ft Y= R— RZ— X2 (A-14)
(B) 58.38 ft
(C) 64.14 ft
Y = 800 — 800z — 3002 = 58.38 ft
(D) 68,96 ft
Answer: B)t
Part I-Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M.)- Chapter A: Geometric Design 75
A.1.7 Compound Circular Curves:

Often two curves of different radii are joined together, as shown. The point connecting the two
curves together is called point of compound curve or curvature (PCC): Line "AB" is a common
tangent for the two curves. Normally, the subscript 1 refers to the curve of smaller radius.
Compound curves should be used only for low-speed traffic routes, and in terrain where simple
curves cannot be fitted to the ground without excessive construction cost.
4.
'~o
..
a
X
07
~~
~x
EC
.` `%
R2~ - j ``~y~6= P 12
QZ I /Radius Point
%~ P1= V
-- PCC ;
Rod i us Point ~~ ~';~~ .'
Common tongen ~~L
~~,:.Q v. ti
;~
A= PIS
BC
Figure A-6 Compound Circular Curve
The following equations are used to solve the unknown parameters for a compound curve:
01 =0-02 OR 02 =0-0, (A-18)
T = Rl tan ~' & T2 = RZ tan ~2 (A-19)

Length ofcommom tan gent= disatnce AB = T, + T2 (A-20)
Length from A to V =(sin OZ) `~B --from the law of sines (A-21)
sin D
Length from V to B =(sin 0,) AB from the law of sines (A-22)

sin D
Lengthfrom BC to V = T + AV (A-23)
Lengthfrom V to EC = VB + T2 (A-24)

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A compound curve with the following data:
Rl = 500 ft, R2 = 800 ft, D = 96°42'40", O1 = 62°22'20"& PI station = 16 + 30.12
Sample Problem A-9: Compound Curve

Find: The beginning of the curve(BC/PC)station is most nearly:
(A) 10 + 15.19
(B) 10 + 30.12
(C) 11 + 30.12
(D)12 + 30.12
Solution:
OZ = O - 0, = 96°42'40"- 62°22'20"= 34.3389°
T, = R, tan~' ~ 500 tan (31.1861°)= 302.65 ft
Ti = RZ tan 22 ~ 800 tan (17.1695°)= 247.17 ft
AB=T, +T2 = 302.65 + 247.17 = 549.82 ft

AB = ~549.82~ _
AV =(sin 02) (0.5641) 312.31 ft
sin O 0.9931
BCto V = T + AV = 302.65 +312.28 = 614.93 ft
BC/PC Station = PI Sta.-(BC to V)
_ (16 + 30.12)-(6 + 14.93)= 10 + 1.5.19 Answer:(A)t

Find: The beginning of the curve(EC/PT)station is most nearly:
(A) 16 + 30.12
(B) 18 + 30.12
(C)20 + 38.95
(Dl 23 + 67.78
Solution:
L' 2~ R'60 R, ~~(radians)= 500(1.0886)= 544.30 ft
LZ = 2~ RZ 60 = Rz O2(radians)= 800(0.5993)= 479.46 ft

PT Station = PC Sta. + L1 + L2 =(10 + 15.19)+(5 + 44.30)+(4 + 79.46)= 20 + 38.95
Note: PT Station = PI Sta.+VB +T2 =(16+30.12)+(4+90.49)+(2+47.17)= 23 + 67.78 N.G
VB =(sin 0,) AB =(0.8859)~549.82~= 490.49 ft Answer:(C)t

sin 0 0.9931
Part I- Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M,)- Chapter A: Geometric Design 77


Find: The point of compound curve(PCC)station is most nearly:
(A) 16 +30.12
(B) 15 + 59.49
(C) 14 +30.12
(D) 12 + 30.49
Solution:
PCC Station = PC Sta.+ L1=(10 + 15.19)+(5 + 44.30)= 15 + 59.49 t
Answer:(B)t
AASHTO Recommendations for Use of Compound Circular Curves:

AASHTO recommends that for compound curves for open highways, it is generally accepted that
the ratio of the flatter radius to the sharper radius should not exceed 1.5:1. For compound curves
at intersections and on turning roadways where drivers accept more rapid changes in direction
and speed; the radius of the flatter arc can be as much as 100 percent greater than the radius of
the sharper are, a ratio of 2:1. The ratio of 2:1 for the sharper curves used at intersections results
in approximately the same difference (about 10 km/h [6 mph]) in average running speeds for the
two curves.
Highway agency experience indicates that ramps having differences in radii with a ratio of 2:1
provide satisfactory operation and appearance for intersections. They are based on a deceleration
of 5 km/h/s [3 mph/s], and a desirable minimum deceleration of 3 km/h/s [2 mph/s]. The latter
deceleration rate indicates very light braking, because deceleration- in gear alone generally results
in deceleration rates between 1.5 and 2.5 km/h/s [1 and 1.5 mph/s].
Finally, per GDSH 6th ed., AASHTO indicated that where practical, a smaller difference in radii
should be used. A desirable maximum ratio is 1.75.
Table A-5 Length of Circular Arc for a Compound Intersection Curve When Followed.by a
Curve of One-Half Radius or Preceded by a Curve of Double Radius
(Source: Table 3-25, Page 3-84, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6~h edition, Reprinted with permission)
ay Metric U.S. Customary

~~ Len h of Circular Arc m Len th of Circular Arc ft
~
L ~
Radius(m)
30
Minimum
12
Desirable
20
Radius (ft)
100
Minimum
40
Desirable
60
= 50 15 20 150 50 70
o fl, 60 20 30 200 60 90
0 75 25 35 250 80 120
= t~ 100 30 45 300 100 140
j~ 125 35 55 400 120 180
150 or more 45 60 500 or more 140 200
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A.1.8 Reverse Circular Curves:

Reverse curves are seldom used in highway or railway alignment. The instantaneous change
in direction occurring at the point of reversed curvature (PRC) would cause discomfort and
safety problems. Additionally, since the change in curvature is instantaneous, there is no
room to provide superelevation transition from cross-slope right to cross-slope .left. If
reverse circular curves have to be used, the superelevation rate of change per station should
be within the acceptable standards.
Reverse curves may have parallel or non-parallel tangents as shown below. As with compound
curves, reverse curves have six independent parameters (Rl, 01, T,, R2 , 02, TZ); the solution
technique depends on which parameters are unknown, and the techniques noted for compound
curves will also provide the solution to reverse curve problems.
Center
Back tongent p~,

-~~,Qil' Radius Point Ki
1~ R9-,~~~ ~0
R, ~ 'PRC `. F~
,_ ~'~, EC
Center. P
Rotlius Point
Figure A-7 Reverse Curves: Parallel Tangents (Right) and Non-Parallel Tangent(Left)
A.1.9 Spiral Curves:

Spiral - curves (also known as transition curves) are used in highway and railroad horizontal
alignment to overcome the abrupt change in direction that occurs when the alignment changes
from tangent to circular curve, and vice versa. A spiral curve with a length of "LS" is inserted
between tangent and circular curve alignment as shown.
c.
Figure A-8 Spiral Curve

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The radius of the spiral at the beginning of the spiral is the radius of the tangent line
~infinitel~rge~, and then the radius of the spiral curve decreases at a uniform rate until the
point where the circular curve begins (S.C. = spiral to curve), where the radius of the spiral
equals the radius of the circular curve. In case of a spiral-curve that connects two circular
curves having different radii, there is an initial radius rather than an infinite value.
Advantages of transition curves (spiral curves) in horizontal alignment:
1- Provide a natural; easy-to-follow path for drivers, such that the lateral force increases and
decreases gradually as a vehicle enters and leaves a circular curve.
2- A spiral transition curve simulates the natural turning path of a vehicle.
3- The transition curve _length provides a suitable location for the superelevation runoff.
4- A spiral transition curve also facilitates the transition in width where the traveled way.is
widened on a circular curve.
5- The appearance ofthe highway or street is enhanced by applying spiral transition curves. The
use of spiral transitions avoids noticeable breaks in the alignment as perceived by drivers at the
beginning and end of circular curves.
Figure A-9 illustrates such breaks, which are more prominent with the presence of superelevation
runoff.
~:~ 4~1{P. ~ ~,IflN~li~i
\ :~~d~i
Figure A-9 Curve with (right) and without (left) spiral transition. The sharp "corners" at the
juncture of curve and straight line in the left view are quite obvious from the driver's seat.
(Figure 3-15, page 3-69, AASHTO Geometric Design,2011 edition, 6~'' edition, Reproduced with permission)
Table A-6 AASHTO Parameters for Spiral Transition Curves

(Pages 3-69 to 3-73, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011 edition, 6th edition)
Parameter Equation/Table(AASxTO) Reasons)/Criteria

Equations 3-25, 1- Driver comfort
1- Minimum length of spiral
3-26 & 3-27 2- Lateral position of vehicles
1- Safety
2- Maximum radius of spiral Table 3-20 2- Operational
(min. lateral acceleration rate of 1.3 m/s2 [4.25 ftls2]
Mislead about the sharpness ofthe approaching
3- Maximum length of spiral Equation 3-28 circular curve
1- Steering maneuver
2- Lateral velocities
4- Desirable length of spiral Table 3-21 3- Lateral shift
Length corresponding to 2.0 s oftravel time at the
design speed of the roadway
80 Part I-.Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M.)- Chapter A: Geometric Design

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Figure A-10 Spiral Curve
Spiral Curves Notation:

• T.S.: change from tangent to spiral
• S.C.: change from spiral to circle
• C.S.: change from circle to spiral
• S.T.: point of change from spiral to tangent
• ~S :spiral arc length from T.S. to any point on the spiral
•LS :total length of spiral from T.S. to S.C.
• L~ :length of circular curve
•LT :long tangent(Spiral)
• ST :short tangent(Spiral)
•0 :total central angle ofthe circular curve
•O ~ :central angle of circular arc of L~ extending from the SC to the CS
•Y :right Angle Distance from Tangent to S.C.
•X :distance along tangent from T.S. to point at right angle to S.C.
• TS :total tangent distance = distance from PI to T.S. or S.T.
•O :central angle of spiral arc L
• 9S :the spiral angle = central angle of spiral arc LS
Selected Formulas for Spiral Curves:

Because the degree of curvature for a spiral increases from 0 at the tangent to spiral T.S. to
D (Da) at the S.C., the rate of change of curvature of a spiral in degrees per station (K)is:
K = 1~D (A-25)
s
The degree "Dp" and the radius "r"of the spiral curve at any point P along the curve are
given as follows:
(A-26)
Dp = l~~
~, _ 5729.58 _(5729.58)(100)
~A_2~~
Dp is x K
The radius at the S.C. is:
R _ 5729.58 _(5729.58)(100)
(A-28)
— D LS x K
The ratio of the two radii is:
r LS
(A-29)
R is
The length of the spiral is:
L = (200)~OS)
(A-30)
s D
The deflection angle is:
z
as =2
l X ~S (A-31)
LS 3
The following equation, developed in 1909 by Shortt, is the basic expression used by some
highway agencies for computing minimum length of a spiral transition curve:
L_ 3.15V3
(AASHTO Eq. 3-25, page 3-70) (A-32)
RC
where
V = design speed, mph
R = radius of circular curve, ft
C =rate of increase in lateral acceleration, 1 to 3 ft/s3 [0.3 to 0.9 m/s3] is recommended by
AASHTO for highways and 1 ft/s3 [0.3 m/s3] is generally accepted for railroad operation.
It should be noted that the factor C in the above equation is an empirical value representing
comfort and safety levels provided by the spiral curve. This equation is sometimes modified to
take into account the effect of superelevation. Additionally, it worth mentioning that. generally
the Euler spiral, which is also known as the clothoid, is used in the design of spiral transition
curves. By definition, the radius of curvature at any point on an Euler spiral varies inversely with
the distance measured along the spiral.
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Table A-7 Shortt's Equation for Length of Spiral Transition Curves

(Source: Page 3-70, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011 ,6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)
,~ Metric US Customary
,o = L _ 0.0214 V3 L _ 3.15 V3
=v 3-25
o RC RC ~ ~
~
= ,i
a where: where:
W H L = minimum length of spiral, m; L = minimum length of spiral, ft;
~s V = design speed, km/h; V = design speed, mph;
o ~ R =curve radius, m; R =curve radius, ft;
y ~ C =rate of increase of lateral C =rate of increase of lateral
.~ acceleration, m/s3 acceleration, ft/s3
Sample Problem A-12: Spiral Curve
Given: Using 3 ft/s3 for the rate of increase of lateral acceleration. The minimum spiral
curve length transition for a new highway facility has a radius of 1200 ft and design
speed of 50 mph is most nearly:
(A) 100 ft
(B) 110 ft
(C) 140 ft
(D)150 ft
Solution:
L _ 3.15 V3 _ 3.15 x 503 =
109.38ft (3-25)
RC 1200 x 3
where:
L = minimum length of spiral, ft;
V = design speed, mph;
R =curve radius, ft;
C =rate of increase of lateral acceleration, ft/s3
Answer:(B)t
Maximum Radius for Spiral Curves:

Table A-8 (Table 3-20 of AASHTO 2011 Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, GDHS-6~'
ed.) gives the maximum radius for use of a spiral curve transition. These limiting values are based
on a minimum lateral acceleration rate of 1.3 m/s2 [4.25 ft/s2]. Studies showed that only radii
below these maximum values are likely to obtain safet, aY nd operational benefits from the use of
spiral transition curves.

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Table A-8 Maximum Radius for Use of a Spiral Curve Transition

(Source: Table 3-20, Page 3-71, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011, 6`h ed., Reprinted with permission)
Metric. U.S. Customar

Desi n s eed (km/h Maximum radius m) Desi n s eed m h) Maximum radius (ft)
20 24 15 114
30 54 20 203
40 95 25 317
50 148 30 456
60 213 35 620
70 290 40 810
80 379 45 1025
90 480 50 1265
100 592 55 1531
110 716 60 1822
120 852 65 2138
130 1000 70 2479
75 2846
80 3238
Note: The effect of spiral curve transitions on lateral acceleration is likely to be negligible for larger radii.
Sample Problem A-13: Maximum Radius ofa Spiral Curve
Given: The maximum radius of a spiral curve for a new highway that has a design speed of
50 mph is most nearly:
(A) 148 ft
(B) 1025 ft
(C) 1265 ft
(D) 1531 ft
Solution:
Per Table A-8 (Table 3-20 of AASHTO 2011 Geometric Design ofHighways and Streets,
GDHS-6th ed.), the maximum radius for use of a spiral curve transition is 1265 ft.
Answer:(C)1
84 Part I-Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M.)- Chapter A: Geometric Design

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Minimum Length for Spiral Curves:

The minimum length.of spiral curves is based on two considerations:
a) driver comfort: to allow for a comfortable increase in lateral acceleration as a vehicle enters a
curve; and
b) shifts in the lateral position of vehicles: intended to provide a spiral curve that is sufficiently
long to result in a shift in a vehicle's lateral position within its lane that is consistent with that
produced by the vehicle's natural spiral path.
It is recommended that these two criteria be used together to determine the minimum length of spiral.
The minimum spiral length can be computed as based on the following equation per AASHTO:
Table A-9 Minimum Length of Spiral Transition Curves
(Source: Page 3-71, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011 edition, 6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)
Metric U.S. Customary

~ Ls~min should be the lar eg r of: Ls~min should be the lar eg r of:
~ Ls,min — 24~Pmin~ R Ls,min — 24~Pmin~ R (3-26)

V
R OR OR
L V3 V3
N L = 0.0214 RC L =3.15 RC (3-27)
0
= where: where:
Ls,m;,, = minimum length of spiral, m LS,,,~;,, = minimum length of spiral, ft
j pm;,, = minimum lateral offset pm;,, = minimum lateral offset
~ between the tangent and between the tangent and
~ circular curve (0.20 m) circular curve (0.66 ft)
R = radius of circular curve, m R = radius of circular curve, ft
,~ V = design speed, km/h; V = design speed, mph
C = maximum rate of change in C = maximum rate of change in lateral
lateral acceleration (1.2 m/s3) acceleration(4 ftJs3)
Maximum Length for Spiral Curves:
Spirals should not be so long (relative to the length of the circular curve)that drivers are misled about the
sharpness ofthe approaching curve. A conservative maximum length of spiral that should minimize the
likelihood of such concerns can be computed using Equation (3-28) of AASHTO.
Table A-10 Maximum Length of Spiral Transition Curves
,~ Metric U.S. Customary
0
d LS maX = 24(l~m~~ R LS m~ = 24~Pmax~ R ~3-2g~
c
~ v where: where:
E Ls,maX = maximum length of spiral, m Ls,max = maximum length of spiral, ft
' L Amax = maximum lateral offset Pmax = maximum lateral offset
~ H
'~ a between the tangent and between the tangent and
~ circular curve (1.0 m) circular curve (3.33 ft)
R = radius of circular curve, m R = radius of circular curve, ft

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Desirable Length for spiral curves:

Based on recent operational studies, AASHTO Table 3-21 (page 3-73) lists the desirable lengths
of spiral transition curves. These lengths correspond to 2.0 s of travel time at the design speed of
the roadway. The travel time has. been found to be representative of the natural spiral path for
most drivers.
Table A-11 Desirable Length of Spiral Curve Transition
(Source: Table 3-21, page 3-73, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011 ,6`" edition, Reprinted with permission)
Metric U.S. Customar

Design speed (km/h) Spiral Length(m) Design speed(mph) Spiral Length (ft)
20 11 15 44
30 17 20 59
40 22 25 74
50 28 30 88
60 33 35 103
70 39 40 117
80 44 45 132
90 50 50 147
100 56 55 161
110 61 60 176
120 67 65 191
130 72 70 205
75 220
80 235
Sample Problem A-14: Desirable length ofa Spiral Curve
Given: Using 3 ft/s3 for the rate of increase of lateral acceleration. The desirable spiral curve
length transition for a new highway facility has a radius of 1200 ft and design speed
of 50 mph is most nearly:
(A) 100 ft
(B) 110 ft
(C) 147 ft
(D) 161 ft
Solution:
Using Table 3-21, page 3-73, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011 edition, 6~'
edition, the desirable length is 147 ft.
Answer:(C)t

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.2 VERTICAL CURVES
A.2.1 Why Vertical Curves are Used?
Roads made up of a series of straight lines (or tangents) are not practical. To prevent abrupt
changes in the vertical direction of moving vehicles, adjacent segments of differing grade are
connected by a curve. This curve in the vertical plane is called a vertical curve.
The geometric curve used in vertical alignment design is the parabola curve. The parabola has
these two desirable characteristics of:
(1) a constant rate of change of rg ade (r = gz L g' ), which contributes to smooth
alignment transition, and
(2) ease of computation of vertical offsets, which permits easilycomputed curve eleva-
tions.
As a general rule, the higher the speed the road is designed for, the smaller the percent of grade
that is allowed. For example, a road designed for a maximum speed of 30 miles per hour (mph)
may have a vertical curve with the tangents to the curve arc having a grade as high as 6 to 8
percent. A road that is designed for 70 mph can have a vertical curve whose tangents have a
grade of only 3 to 5 percent.
A.2.2 Vertical Curves Terminology:
B~
(VP
Figure A-11 Vertical Curve Terminology

Vertical curves are used in highway and street vertical alignment to provide a gradual change
between two adjacent grade lines. Some highway and municipal agencies introduce vertical
curves at every change in grade-line slope, whereas other agencies introduce vertical curves into
the alignment only when the net change in slope direction exceeds a specific value (e.g., 1.5% or
2%).
In Figure A-11, vertical curve terminology is introduced: gl is the slope (percent) of the
enterin~~~rade line, g2 is the slope of the exitin~L~rade line, BVC is the beginning of the
vertical curve, EVC is the end of the vertical curve, and VPI is the point of intersection of
the two adjacent grade lines. The length of vertical curve (L) is the projection of the curve
onto a horizontal surface and as such corresponds to plan distance.
A.2.3 Types of Vertical Curves:

Vertical curves may be classified based on the location of the vertex with respect to
the BVC and EVC as symmetrical and asymmetrical.
Table A-12 Types of Vertical Curves
Symmetrical Vertical Curves Asymmetrical Vertical Curves
➢ The vertex is located at the half distance ➢The vertex is not located at the half distance
between the BVC & EVC, between the BVC & EVC.
➢ The equations used to solve the unknowns ➢The equations used to solve the unknowns
are based on parabolic formula. are based on parabolic formula(two vertical
➢ They are used mostly in every project curves).
where no minimum vertical clearance or ➢They used when a specific elevation at a
cover is needed. certain station (point) is required and the
➢ They are also called equal-tangent grades ofthe grade lines are fixed.
parabolic vertical curves. ➢They are also called unequal-tangent
parabolic vertical curves.
Another classification is crest and s~ vertical curves.
Table A-13 Types of Vertical Curves
Sag Vertical Curves (g2 > gl) Crest Vertical Curves (g2 < gl)
➢ They can be symmetrical or ➢They can be symmetrical or asymmetrical.

asymmetrical.
➢ The equation used to solve the unknowns ➢The equation used to solve the unknowns
is a parabolic formula. is a parabolic formula.
➢ They connect downgrade(—) tangent to ➢They connect an upgrade(+)tangent to a
an upgrade(+)tangent(type III). downgrade(—)tangent (type I).
➢ The rate of grade change per station ➢The rate of grade change per station
r = g2 L g' is a positive quantity. r = g2 L g' is a negative quantity.

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Crest Curve Sag Curve

PVI ~
+9~~~'~'~'~
i ~~92
X
~ ~ x
High Point ., EVC ______ A
BVC x BVC - -1----- Low Point
- -------- --
_9~~\\ B ~~.}.92 EVC
o~
~ PV I `.\
~~IH
''2 `- D
Figure A-12 Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
TYPE II
TYPE
CREST VERTICAL CURVES
.~
41
x
~ / ~
~ ~
~ ~
~\ //
~ ~
~~
TYPE 111
SAG VERTICAL CURVES TYPE iv ~_
Grand CZ= Ton9ent grades in percent

A = Algebraic difference in grode
l = Lenflth of vertical curve
E = Vertical offset at the VPI
Figure A-13 Types of Vertical Curves

(Source: Figure 3-41, page 3-150, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011 edition, 6`h edition, Reproduced with permission)

A.ASHTO lists FOUR requirements for vertical curves as follows:

1- safe(ample sight distances),
2- comfortable in operation (gravitational force versus vertical centripetal force)
3- pleasing in appearance (long versus short vertical curves), and
4- adequate for drainage (0.50% and 0.30% are minimum grades in snow country and
other locations respectively)
A.2.4 Geometric Properties of the Parabola:

1. The difference in elevation between the BVC and a point on the $1 grade line at a
distance x units (feet or meters) is g~ x (gl is expressed.as a decimal).
Y '~~
L ~~. ~
X- ~~
/\NPR)
2 X2
9,~
g2
g~X ~(Curve elevation

at point P) ~C
avc NPR
(VPC)
yBVC
1 Datum
Figure A-11 (repeated) Geometric of a Parabola
2. The tangent offset between the grade line and .the curve is given by axe, where x is the
horizontal distance from the BVC(PVC); that is, tangent offsets are proportional to the squares
of the horizontal distances.
3. The elevation of the curve at distance x from the BVC is given by:
y = ax2 + bx + c (general equation for a parabola)
rx 2
where: x =the distance from BVC to a point on the curve

r =rate of grade change per station
Note: The rate of vertical curvature —> K =1 = L ~ A = L will be used in subsequent
r ga — gl
sections related to sag and crest vertical curves. K =(Rate of Vertical Curvature) distance
required to achieve a 1% change in grade.
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4. The grade lines(g 1 and g2) intersect midway between the BVC and the EVC;that is,
BVC to VPI = % L = VPI to EVC. This is only true for symmetrical vertical curves.
5. The cuzve lies midway between the VPI and the midpoint of the chord; that is,
A—B = B — VPI = do which can be calculated as follows:
either:
do = 1/2 (difference in elevation ofPVI and mid-chord elevation)
= 1/z (elevation ofBVC +elevation of EVC)
Or:
do I g2 — g1I L _ AL(sta.) _ AL(feet)
(A-35)
8 8 800
6. The slope S, in percentage, of the tangent to the curve at any point on the curve is given by the
following formula:
)
S = gl — x~gi — gz (A-36)
L
Crest Curve Sag Curve

PVI L
X
x
Gvr ' A Low Point
8V C ~-------~---- -1-~-- ~ -----~------ EVC
-9i~~ ~B ~~*g2
P `~~~ ~
PV I `~\ ~
''2 `- D
~~~H
Figure A-12 (repeated) Crest and Sag Vertical Curves Terminology
7. The distance D in feet from Vertex to P~ is given as:

100(YH —YP,)
D= (A-37)
~S'i — gz)
8. The distance between the curve and the grade line (tangent)"d" is given as"
~xZ _ x2 ~gz — gi)

d =o set = ~L curve length in feet) (A-38)
ff 2 200 L

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A.2.5 High and Low Points on Vertical Curves:

The locations of curve high and low points are important for drainage considerations; for example,
on curbed streets catch basins or drainage inlets(DI) must be installed precisely at thedrainage low
point. Also, the location of low and high points are required for the vertical clearance
calculations between a bridge and a roadway. The minimum cover over a utility pipe would
require the determination of low points along the profile ofthe road.
Clerance
~' Pvr
PVC ~ 'o,~,
- rx/2~
Offset - Y- 2 ~ ~ pR••..,, ;.. '~~
9~ ~ Vertex=V=PVI
b _
L/2 I L/2
Figure A-14 Sag Vertical Curve in Relation to Minimum Clearance and Cover
d
From equation(A-33), equate the slope (dx) to zero and solving for X.•
X = gl = — g1L = giL (A-40)

~" ga — gi gi — g2
Where Xis the distance from BVC to the low or high points.
It should be noted that the distance X(upper case ~ in equation(A-40)is different from distance
x (lower case x)in all other equations i.e. it is a unique point(high or low)on vertical curves.

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L= 300 ft
A sag vertical curve has a length (L) of

300 ft. The entering and exiting grades ~~Z ~_ Aso ft
are gl = —3.2% and g2 = +1.8%
respectively. The PVI is located at evc a
station 30 + 30 and has an elevation of EVC
485.92 ft. 9 `~~3'~x
Sta. 30+30.00 PVI
Elev. 485.92
Sample Problem A-1S: Low Point on a Vertical Curve
Find: The station ofthe low point is most nearly:

(A) 30 + 72.00
(B) 30 + 30.00
(C) 29 + 00.00
(D) 28 + 72.00
Solution:
X _ — g, _ — g,L _ g,L _ —(-3.2)(3) _ 1.92 Sta.=192.00ft
This means that the low point is located at a distance of 192.00 ft from BVC i.e., at
Station =[(30 + 30.00) — (1+ 50.00)]+(1 + 92.00)= 30 + 72.00
Notes:
1) All distances used to locate a low or a high point or used to calculate an elevation of
any point on a vertical curve are measured, rom BVC.
2) The point on the curve at the VPI station is not necessarily to be the low or high
points. Answer:(A)t
Sample Problem A-16: Elevation ofthe Low Point on a Vertical Curve
Find: The elevation of the low point is most nearly:

(A)480.65 ft
(B)487.65 ft
(C)493.55 ft
(D)498.24 ft
continued on next
Solution:
rx 2
Yx = Yavc + glx + 2
(1.8 —(-3.2)~~1.922 =
= 485.92+ ~•)~)~
1 5 3 2 + ~ —~
3 2 (1.92)+ 487.65ft@Sta 30+ 72.00
3.00 2
Answer: B t
Sample Problem A-17: Elevation ofthe Mid-Chord on a Vertical Curve
Find: Which of the following is NOT true for symmetrical vertical curves:
(A) The elevation of the mid-chord point is the average of the elevations of the
BVC and EVC
(B) The vertical curve lies midway between the PVI and the midpoint of the
chord
(C) The low point on a sag vertical curve is always at the PVI station
(D) All of the above
Solution: L= 300 ft
(A) is true
(B) is true '~z ~_ ,so ft
(C) is NOT true. This
evc ______ ----________ A _ _ _
statement is true only if
g~ = g2 and the vertical 9,,. e -- E"c
curve is symmetrical ''~ ~x d ,k1.a
i.e., PVI at L/2 ~ 9Z
Sta. 30+30.00 PVI
Elev. 485.92
Answer:(C) t
Sample Problem A-18: Elevation ofthe Mid-Chord on a Vertical Curve
Find: The elevation of point A(mid-chord point) is most nearly:

(A)490.72 ft
(B)488.62 ft
(C)489.00 ft
(D)489.67 ft
Solution:
mid-chord elevation (point A) _ %2(Elevation of BVC +Elevation ofEVC)
/z {(485.92 + 1.5 X3.2)+(485.92 +1.5 X 1.8)}= 489.67ft

='
Answer:(D)t
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Sample Problem A-19: Middle Ordinate Distancefor a Vertical Curve
Find: The middle ordinate distance for the given vertical curve is most nearly:
(A) 1.275 ft
(B) 1.375 ft
(C) 1.675 ft
(D) 1.875 ft
Solution:
The curve lies midway between the PVI and the midpoint ofthe chord; that is,
A to B = B to VPI = do which can be calculated as follows:
a) mid-chord elevation (point A) =1/z (Elevation ofBVC +Elevation of EVC)

='/2 {(485.92 + 1.5 x3.2)+(485.92 +1.5 X 1.8)}= 489.67ft
do = '/z (difference in elevation ofPVI and mid-chord elevation)

='/z (489.67 — 485.92)= 1.875ft ~-
~gl —g2IL _I-3.2—(+1.8)I x3 =1.875ft~
b) do (middle ordinate distance) _ —
8 8
(L =curve length in stations & ~gl — g2 ~ = absolute value in percent)
Answer:(D)t
Igi — gz L
Note: the middle ordinate(m = do) may be written as: $O~ (Lin feet)
A.2.7 Asymmetrical(Unsymmetrical) Vertical Curves:

Asymmetrical vertical curves; also called unequal tangent vertical curves, are encountered in
practice where certain limitations are exist as fixed tangent. grades, vertical clearance or
minimum cover. The vertex for unequal tangent curve is not in the middle between the BVC and
EVC. An unequal tangent vertical curve is simply a pair of equal tangent curves, where the EVC
of the first is the BVC of the second. This point is called CVC, point of compound vertical
curvature. The same basic equation for the symmetrical curves will be used for the unsymmetrical
curves.
Stations
g$ g g g g g 8
svc ------ - p52.aa►

(751.24)
a 8
CVC (748.04)
(747.24)
(!47.56)
?~
y k~
'0
V(743.24)
Figure A-15 Unsymmetrical Vertical Curve

~ Sample Problem A-20: Unsymmetrical Vertical Curve ~
Given: Unsymmetrical vertical curve has an entering grade g1= - 2 %, and exiting grade g2=
+1.6 %. The BCV, V and EVC stations are 83 + 00, 87 + 00, and 93 + 00 respectively. The
elevation at the vertex point "V" is 743.24 ft.
Find: The rate of grade change for the two symmetrical vertical curves are most nearly:
(A)+ 0.54% & + 0.24%
(B)-0.54% &-0.24%
(C)+ 0.50% & + 0.20%
(D)+0.45%&+0.18%
Solution:
Let AB to be the common tangent to the vertical curve at the CVC.
The following steps will be followed:
Step 1: = 743.24 + 4(2.00) = 751.24 ft
YB~~
YA = 743.24 + 2(2.00) = 747.24 ft
= 743.24 + 6(1.60) = 752.84 ft
Z'EVC
YB = 743.24 + 3(1.60) = 748.04 ft
748.04- 747.24
(Grade)AB = 5 = + 0.16
Z'cvc = 747.24 + 2(0.16)= 747.56 ft

Step 2:
~ _ 0.16-(-2.00) _
+0.54%lsta y. _ 1.60-0.16 = +0.24%lsta
1 4 & 2 6
Answer:(A)t
Additional Calculations:
Station x (sta.) glx rx2/2 yX 1S` Difference 2"~ Difference

83 + 00 BVC 0 0.00 0.00 751.24
84 + 00 1 - 2.00 0.27 749.51 - 1.73 0.54
85 + 00 2 - 4.00 1.08 748.32 - 1.19 0.54
86 + 00 3 - 6.00 2.43 747.67 - 0.65 0.54
g7 + 00 CVC 4 - 8.00 4.32 747.56 - 0.11
88 + 00 1 0.16 0.12 747.84 0.28 0.24
89 + 00 2 0.32 0.48 748.36 0.52 0.24
90 + 00 3 0.48 1.08 749.12 0.76 0.24
91 + 00 4 0.64 1.92 750.12 1,00 0.24
92 + 00 5 0.80 3.00 751.36 1.24 0.24
93 + 00 EVC 6 0.96 4.32 752.84 1.48

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.3 SIGHT DISTANCES
Sight distance, in the context of road design, is how far a driver can see before the line of sight is
blocked by a hill crest, or an obstacle on the inside of a horizontal curve or intersection i.e. sight
distance is the continuous length of highway ahead visible to the driver. Insufficient sight
distance can have implications for the safety or operations of a roadway or intersection.
Table A-14 Four Types of Sight Distances
(For Any Given Speed (say 50 mph)—~ PSD > DSD > SSD -~ 900 ft > 465 ft A-1030 ft E > 425 ft)
1- Stopping Sight 2-Passing Sight 3- Decision 4- Intersection (Corner)
Distance Distance Sight Distance Sight Distance
(SSD) (PSD) (DSD) (CSD)
•Used on multilane ~ Used where an •Used at •Used at intersections
highways and on opposing lane major
L 2-lane roads when can provide decision
3 passing sight distance

is not economically
passing
opportunities
points e.g.
off-ramp
obtainable i.e. ALL (two-lane roads) noses, branch
HIGHWAYS connections,
3~5 2,
0 0
Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance(ALL Highways)

ODDOa~nq vehicle apDeor6
when Daaslnq vehicle
~lOChB6 PO(nt A.~
Paas~nq vehicle FIRST PHASE
_~p B
— — — — — ~ PE -Exam
d, 1/3 0~
SECOND PHASE
Passing Sight Oistonce

0
2/7 a
d, d d~ tl,
Passing Sight Distance(TWO-LANE Highways)

Figure A-16 Stopping and Passing Sight Distances
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A.3.1 Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance:

Definition: Sight distance is the distance along a roadway throughout which an object of
specified height is continuously visible to the driver. This distance is dependent on:
a) the height of the driver's eve above the road surface,
b) the specified object height above the road surface, and
c) the height and lateral position of sight obstructions within the driver's line of sight
a) Height ofDriver's Eye:
Table A-15 Height of Driver's Eye Sight Distances

(Source: Page 3-14 to 3-15, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6`h ed.)
1-Stopping Sight 2-Passing Sight 3-Decision Sight 4- Intersection (Corner)
Distance(SSD) Distance(PSD) Distance(DSD) Sight Distance(CSD/ISD)
d Passenger Vehicles
~ W driver's eye is considered to be 1.08 m [3.50 ft] above the road surface
~~ Large Trucks*
,i the driver eye height ranges from 1.80 to 2.40 m [3.50 to 7.90 ft]. The recommended
O value oftruck driver eye height for design is 2.33 m [7.60 ft] above the road surface
* For Sight Distance at Undercrossings, AASHTO recommends 2.4 m [8.0 ft] for a truck driver(page 3-163)
b)Height ofObject:
Table A-16 Height of Object and Sight Distances
(Source: Page 3-14 to 3-15, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011 edition, 6`h edition)
1-Stopping Sight 2-Passing Sight 4- Intersection (Corner)
3-Decision
Distance Distance Sight Distance
Sight Distance(DSD)
(SSD) (PSD) (CSD)
the height of the height of object the 0.60m [2.00 ft] As in the case of passing sight
~ object is is considered to be object-height distance, the object to be seen
~-+ considered to be 1.08 m (3.50 ft] criterion adopted by the driver in an intersection
O 0.60 m [2.00 ft] above the road for stopping sight sight distance situation is
another vehicle. Therefore,
o
~, above the road surface distance is also
design for intersection sight
~ surface used for decision distance is based on the same
sight distance object height used in design
for passing sight distance,
1.08 m [3.50 ft).
c)Sight Obstructions:
Per AASHTO :"on a tangent roadway, the obstruction that limits the driver's sight distance is the
road surface at some point on a crest vertical curve. On horizontal curves, the obstruction that
limits the driver's sight distance may be the road surface at some point on a crest vertical curve or
it may be some physical feature outside of the traveled way, such as a longitudinal barrier, a
bridge-approach fill slope, a tree, foliage, or the backslope of a cut section. Accordingly, all
highway construction plans should be checked in both the vertical and horizontal plane for sight
distance obstructions."
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A.3.2 Stopping Sight Distance:

Stopping sight distance is the distance traveled while the vehicle driver perceives a situation
requiring a stop, realizes that stopping is necessary, applies the brake, and comes to a stop.
Actual stopping distances are also affected by road conditions, the mass of the car, the incline of
the road, and numerous other factors. For design, a conservative distance is needed to allow a
vehicle traveling at design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. Typically
the design sight distance allows abelow-average driver to stop in time to avoid a collision. In the
United States (AASHTO Green Book-GDHS 2011, 6~' ed), the driver's eye is assumed to be 42
inches (3.5feet) above the pavement, and the object height is 24 incl:es (2feet which is about
the height ofvehicle taillights).
Stopping sight distance is the sum oftwo distances:
(1)the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a
stop to the instant the brakes are applied, and
(2)the distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. These are
referred to as brake reaction distance and braking distance, respectively.
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) _
distance traversed during the brake reaction time +distance to brake the vehicle to a stop
He i qht of
Object
~Ob ject
Line of s i qht
Height
3.5' 2,
0 0
Stopping Sight Distance
Figure A-17 Stopping Sight Distance (Driver's Eye Height = 3.5' and Object Height = 2.0')
The perception-reaction time for a driver is often broken down into the four components that are
assumed to make up the perception reaction time. These are referred to as the PIEV time or
process.
PIEV Process:
i) Perception the time to see or discern an object or event,
ii) Intellection the time to understand the implications ofthe object's presence or event,
iii) Emotion the time to decide how to react, and
iv) Volition the time to initiate the action, for example, the time to engage the brakes.
Human factors research defined the required perception-reaction times as follows:
• design 2.5 sec
• operations/control 1.0 sec
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These perception reaction times were based on observed behavior for the 85~' percentile driver;
that is, 85% of drivers could react in that time or less. More recent research has shown these
times to be conservative for design.
A.3.2.1 Braking Distance:
The approximate braking distance of a vehicle on a level roadway traveling at the design speed of
the roadway may be determined from the following equation:
Table A-17 Braking Sight Distance Equations on Flat Grades

(Source: Page 3-3, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6th ed., Reprinted with permission)
m Metric U.S. Customary

_ ~ V2 VZ
w ~ dB = 0.039 — dB = 1.075— (3-1)
y ~ a a
~
as ~ where: where:
_ ~ dB = braking distance, m dB = braking distance, ft
~, V = design speed, km/h V = design speed, mph
m o a = deceleration rate, m/s2 a = deceleration rate, ft/s2
A deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2[11.2 ft/s2](a comfortable deceleration for most drivers) is
recommended by AASHTO as the deceleration threshold for determining stopping sight distance.
A.3.2.2 Stopping Sight Distance On A Flat Grade:
The following equations will be used to calculate the stopping distance on a Level Roadways
facilities:
Table A-18 Stopping Sight Distance Equations on Level Roadways
(Source: Page 3-4, AASHTO Geometric Design,2011 ,6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)
Metric US Customary
so V2 V2
a, t~ SSD= 0.278 Vt+0.039 — SSD =1.47 Vt+1.075— (3-2)
vs v a a
_ ~ where: where: ~`I,,,
~a ~ SSD = stopping sight distance, m SSD = stopping sight distance, ft
,~ y V = design speed, lcin/h V = design speed, mph
N ~ t =brake reaction time, 2.5 s t = brake reaction time, 2.5 s
a = deceleration rate, m/s2 a = deceleration rate, ft/s2
The above equations are used to generate the following table for wetpavement conditions.

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Table A-19 Stopping Sight Distance on Level Roadways

(Source: Table 3-1, Page 3-4, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)

Brake Braking Stopping sight Brake Braking Stopping sight
Design reaction distance distance Design reaction distance distance
speed distance on level speed distance on level
Calculated Design Calculated Design
(km/h)
gym) gym) (m) (m) ~mph~ eft) eft) (ft) (ft)
20 13.9 4.6 18.5 20 15 55.1 21.6 76.7 80
30 20.9 10.3 31.2 35 20 73.5 38.4 111.9 115
40 27.8 18.4 46.2 50 25 91.9 60.0 151.9 155
50 34.8 28.7 63.5 65 30 110.3 86.4 196.7 200
60 41.7 41.3 83.0 85 35 128.6 117.6 246.2 250
70 48.7 56.2 104.9 105 40 147.0 153.6 300.6 305
SO 55.6 73.4 129.0 130 45 165.4 194.4 359.8 360
90 62.6 92.9 155.5 160 50 183.8 240.0 423.8 425
100 69.5 114.7 184.2 185 55 202.1 290.3 492.4 495
110 76.5 138.8 215.3 220 60 220.5 345.5 566.0 570
120 83.4 165.2 248.6 250 65 238.9 405.5 644.4 645
130 90.4 193.8 284.2 285 70 257.3 470.3 727.6 730
75 275.6 539.9 815.5 820
80 294.0 614.3 908.3 910
Note: Brake reaction distance predicated on a time of 2.5 s; deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 [11.2 ft/s2] used to
determine calculated sight distance.
Sample Problem A-21: Break Reaction Timefor SSD

Given: The assumed object height in calculating the stopping sight distance (SSD)is:
(A) 1.5 ft
(B) 2.0 ft
(C) 2.5 ft
(D 3.0 ft
Solution:
Per AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book, 2011 edition, 6`h edition, Page 3-15, the
assumed object height is 2.0 ft (height of vehicle tail lights). Answer:(B)t
Sample Problem A-22: Stopping Sight Distance on Level Roadways (Flat Grade)
Given: Verify the stopping sight distance for a speed of 60 mph and a level road.
Solaction
z
SSD = 1.47 Vt+ 1.075 V AASHTO (3-2)
a
z
SSD =1.47 (60)(2.5)+ 1.075 60 =220.50+345.54 = 566.04ft
11.2
versus 566.0ft tabulated in AASHTO-Table (3-1)
A.3.1.2 Stopping Sight Distance On a Grade:

When a highway is on a grade, the equation for braking distance should be modified as follows:
Table A-20 Braking Sight Distance Equations on a Grade
(Source: Page 3-5, AASHTO Geometric Design,2011 edition, 6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)

V2 VZ
dB = dB = (3-3)
2.54 a ±G 30 a ±G
9.81 32.2
Where: Where:
dB = braking distance on grade, m dB = braking distance on grade, ft
V = design speed, km/h V = design speed, mph;
a = deceleration rate, m/s2 a = deceleration rate, ft/sZ
G = grade, rise/run, m/m G = grade, rise/run, ft/ft
G is the rise in elevation divided by the distance of the run and the percent of grade divided by 100
Side Slope and Grade:

Using U.S. Customary, a side slope is expressed as the ratio of a horizontal distance (H) to a
corresponding unit of vertical distance(V)for the cut or fill slope as shown in Figure A-18. This
ratio depends largely on the type of soil and on the natural angle of repose at which it remains
stable.
Grade "G" in AASHTO Equation (3-3) is defined as the ratio of rise/ run (2:1, 4:1, ...etc.). The
horizontal distance (run = H)is always greater than the vertical distance (rise = V). Grade also
could be expressed as a percentage.
~ 'L:'~ > c~:1
1= H 1~~p = H 2= H S= H
Figure A-18 Side Slope in Relation to Horizontal and Vertical Distances

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The slope of a segment of a two lane highway expressed as a vertical angle is given to be
+ 3° 30'. The design speed is for 50 miles per hour(mph).
Sample Problem A-23: Grad c~ Slope Relationship

Find: The equivalent percent grade is most nearly:
(A) + 6.34%
(B) — 6.34%
(C) — 6.12%
(D) + 6.12%
Solution:
Rise
Grade =
Run
0
The vertical distance (rise per 100 ft horizontal distance)= 100 X tan (3.5 )= 6.12
Answer:(D)t
Sample Problem A-24: Braking Sight Distance on a Grade
Find: The braking distance is most nearly:

(A) 290 ft
(B) 274 ft
(C) 204 ft
(D) 198 ft
Solution:
dB _ V2 _ 50z -203.74ft (3-3)

11.2
30 a ±G 30 +6.12%
32.2 32.2
de = braking distance on grade, ft

V = design speed, mph;
a = deceleration rate, ft/s2
G = grade, rise/run, ft/ft
Answer:(C)1

Stopping Sight Distance SSD =

distance traversed during brake reaction time +distance to brake the vehicle to a stop
Table A-21 Stopping Sight Distance Equations on a Grade

VZ Vz
SSD 0.278 Vt SSD =1.47 Vt
=
+
+
2.54 a ±G 30 a ±G
9.81 32.2
where: where:
SSD = stopping sight distance, m SSD =stopping sight distance, ft
t =brake reaction time, 2.5 s; t =brake reaction time, 2.5 s;
V = design speed, km/h; V = design speed, mph;
G = grade, rise/run, m/m G = grade, rise/run, ft/ft
As can be seen from the above equations that, the stopping distances needed on upgrades are
shorter than the one on level roadways; and those on down grades are longer
Table A-22 Stopping Sight Distance on Grades

(Source: Table 3-2, Page 3-5, AASHTO Geometric Design,2011, 6`h edition Reprinted with permission)

Sto in si ht distance m Stopping sight distance (ft)
Design Design Down ades
Down rades U rades U rades
sPeed seed
P
(km/h) 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9% (mPh) 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%
20 20 20 20 19 18 18 15 80 82 85 75 74 73
30 32 35 35 31 30 29 20 116 120 126 109 107 104
40 50 50 53 45 44 43 25 158 165 173 147 143 140
50 66 70 74 61 59 58 30 205 215 227 200 184 79
60 87 2 97 80 7 75 35 257 71 287 237 229 222
70 110 11 124 100 97 .93 40 315 3 354 289 2 269
80 136 144 154 123 118 114 45 378 400 427 344 331 320
90 164 174 187 148 141 136 50 446 474 507 405 388 375
100 194 207 223 174 167 160 55 520 553 593 469 450 433
110 227 243 262 203 194 186 60 598 638 686 538 515 495
120 263 281 304 234 223 214 65 682 728 785 612 '584' 561
130 302 323 350 267 254 243 70 771 825 891 690 658 631
75 866 927 1003 772 736 704
80 965 1035 1121 859 817 782

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Sample Problem A-25: Stopping Sight Distance on a Grade

Given: The stopping sight distance for a speed of 60 mph and a down grade of 6% is most
nearly:
(A)515 ft
(B)598 ft
(C)638 ft
(D)686 ft
Solution:
VZ
SSD =1.47 Vt +
30 a ±G
32.2
z
SSD =1.47(60)(2.5)+ 60 = 637.42ft t
11.2
30
32.2 — ~00
versus 638 ft(Table A-22, AASHTO Table 3-2, page 3-5)
Answer:(C)t
A.3.1.3 Stopping Sight Distance for Trucks:

The recommended stopping sight distances given in the previous tables and the equations are
based on passenger car operation and do not explicitly consider design for truck operation.
Trucks as a whole, especially the larger and heavier units, need longer stopping distances for a
given speed than passenger vehicles. However, there is one factor that tends to balance the
additional barking lengths for trucks with those for passenger cars. The truck driver is able to see
substantially farther beyond vertical sight obstructions because of the higher position of the
seat in the vehicle.
There is one situation in which the goal should be to provide stopping sight distances greater than
the design values in Table 3-1. Where horizontal sight restrictions occur on downgrades,
particularly at the ends of long downgrades where truck speeds closely approach or exceed those
of passenger cars, the greater height of eye of the truck driver is of little value. Although the
average truck driver tends to be more .experienced than the average passenger car driver and
quicker to recognize potential risks, it is desirable under such conditions to provide stopping sight
distance that exceeds the values in AASHTO Tables 3-1 or 3-2.

A.3.2 Decision Sight Distance:
Decision sight distance is used when drivers must make decisions more complex than stop or
don't stop. It is longer than stopping sight distance to allow for the distance traveled while
making a more complex decision. The decision sight distance is "distance required for a driver to
detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or hazard in a roadwaX
environment that may be visually cluttered, recognize the hazard or its threat potential, select an
appropriate speed and path, and initiate and complete the required maneuver safely and
efficiently."
In the United States(AASHTO Green Book-Page 3-14 to 3-15), the driver's eye is assumed to be
42 inches (3.5 feet) above the pavement, and the object height is 24 inches (2 feet-about the
height ofvehicle taillights). There are five maneuvers as follows:
1- Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road – t = 3.0 s
2- Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road – t = 9.1 s
3- Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed/path direction change on rural road – t varies between
10.2 andll.Zs
4- Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction change on suburban road – t varies
between 12.1 and 12.9 s
5- Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/path/direction change on urban road – t varies between
I4.Oandl4.Ss
Table A-23 Decision Sight Distance Equations for Avoidance Maneuvers A and B

V2 VZ
a DSD = 0.278 Vt+0.039 — DSD =1.47 Vt+1.075 — (3-4)
m a a
Where: Where:
~ ~ °~ DSD = decision sight distance, m DSD = decision sight distance, ft
N C
D ~ a t =pre-maneuver time, s (see notes t =pre-maneuver time, s (see notes
in Table 3-3) m Table 3-3)
V = design speed, km/h V = design speed, mph
Table A-24 Decision Sight Distance Equations for Avoidance Maneuvers C,D, and E

y d = 0.278 Vt d =1.47 Vt (3-5)
i ~ W
~ = o~ Where: Where:
D ~ p DSD = decision sight distance, m DSD = decision sight distance, ft
p~ v t =pre-maneuver time, s (see notes t =pre-maneuver time, s (see notes
~ in Table 3-3) in Table 3-3)

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Table A-25 Decision Sight Distance
(Source: Table 3-3, Page 3-7, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011 ,6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)
Metric U.S .Customa

~ Design Decision si ht distance m Design Decision si ht distance ft
v speed Avoidance maneuver speed Avoidance maneuver
~ (gym) A B C D E (mPh) A B C D E
N 50 70 155 145 170 195 30 220 490 450 535 620
p 60 95 195 170 205 235 35 275 590 525 625 720
_ ~ 70 115 235 200 235 275 40 330 690 600 715 825
~ N 80 140 280 230 270 315 45 395 800 675 800 930
N ~ 90 170 325 270 315 360 50 465 910 750 890 1030
= 100 200 370 315 355 400 55 535 1030 865 980 1135
~N 110 235 420 330 380 430 60 610 1150 990 1125 1280
'~ 120 265 470 360 415 470 65 695 1275 1050 1220 1365
~ 130 305 525 390 450 510 70 780 1410 1105 1275 1445
D
~ 75 875 1545 1180 1365 1545
80 970 1685 1260 1455 1650
Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road — t = 3.0 s

Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road — t = 9.1 s
Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed/path direction change on rural road — t varies between I0.2 aitd 11.2 s
Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction change on suburban road — t varies between 12.1 acid 12.9 s
Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/path direction change on urban road — t varies between I4.0 and 14.5 s
Sample Problem A-26: Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
Given: The decision sight distance for a speed of 50 mph and a maneuver B is most nearly:
(A) 435 ft
(B) 690 ft
(C) 800 ft
(D) 910 ft
Solution:
Using AASHTO equation (3-4):

z
d = 1.47 Vt+1.075V (3-4)
a
For maneuver B: t is 9.1 s
a
d = 1.47 (50)(9.1)+ 1.075 50 = 908.81ft
11.2
Using Table: 910 ft (from the above table)
Answer:(D)t

A.3.2 Passing Sight Distance:

Passing sight distance is the minimum sight distance required for the driver of one vehicle to pass
another vehicle. safely and comfortably. Passing must be accomplished assuming an oncoming
vehicle comes into view and maintains the design speed, without reduction, after the overtaking
maneuver is started.
Per AASHTO Standards, the minimum passing sight distances for use in design for two—lane
highways are presented in the MUTCD as warrants for no-passing zones on two-lane highways.
PE-Exam
Possinq Sight Distonce
Opposing vehicle oppears

when passing vehicle
reaches Point A.
Passing veh i c I e FIRST PHASE
A B
~~tl
d, 1 /3 d2
SECOND PHASE
b a
2/3 d2
d~ d2 d~ d,
Figure A-19 Elements of Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highways

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Table A-26 Passing Sight Distance for Design of Two-Lane Highways

(Source: Tables 3-4, Page 3-9, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011, 6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)
Metric U.S. Customa
Assumed speeds Passing Passing
Design ~~ Design Assumed speeds(mph)
Sight Sight
speed Speed
passed Passing Distance passed Passing Distance
~~~~ vehicle vehicle (m) ~mph~ vehicle vehicle (ft)
30 11 30 120 20 8 20 400
40 21 40 140 25 13 25 450
50 31 50 160 30 18 30 500
60 41 60 180 35 23 35 550
70 51 70 210 40 28 40 600
80 61 80 245 45 33 45 700
90 71 90 280 50 38 50 800
100 81 100 320 55 43 55 900
110 91 110 355 60 48 60 1000
120 101 120 395 65 53 65 1100
130 111 130 440 70 58 70 1200
75 63 75 1300
80 68 80 1400
Important Notes related to the above table(AASHTO Table 3-4):

i. The passed vehicle travels at uniform speed and speed differential between the passing and
passed vehicles is 19 km/h [12 mph].
ii. The speeds ofthe passing and opposing vehicles are equal and represent the design speed of
the highway.
Sample Problem A-27: Passing Sight Distance on a Grade
Given: The passing sight distance (PSD) for a design speed of 55 mph assumed the passed
vehicle is at 43 mph is most nearly:
(A) 800 ft
(B) 900 ft
(C) 1000 ft
(D) 1100 ft
Solution:
Using AASHTO 2011, Table 3-4(Page 3-9), the passing sight distance is 900 ft.
Answer:(B)t
Part I-Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M,)- Chapter A: Geometric Design 109

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Research has verified that the passing sight distance values in AASHTO Table 3-4(shown above)
are consistent with field observation of passim maneuvers.. This- research used two theoretical
models(Glennon &Hassan) for the sight distance needs of passing drivers; both models were
based on the following assumptions:
a) A passing driver will abort the passing maneuver and return to his or her normal lane
behind the passed vehicle if a potentially conflicting vehicle comes into view before
reaching a critical position in the passing maneuver beyond which the passing driver is
committed to complete the maneuver.
b) The Glennon model assumes that the critical position occurs where the passing sight
distance to complete the maneuver is equal to the sight distance needed to abort the
maneuver.
c) The Hassan et al. model assumes that the critical position occurs where the passing sight
distances to complete or abort the maneuver are equal or where the passing and passed
vehicles are abreast, whichever occurs first.
Minimum passing sight distances for design of two-lane highways incorporate certain
assumptions about driver behavior are stated in the 2011 AASHTO as follows:
1. The speeds of the passing and opposing vehicles are equal and represent the design speed
of the highway
2. The passed vehicle travels at uniform speed and speed differential between the passing
and passed vehicles is 19 km/h [12 mph]
3. The passing vehicle has sufficient acceleration capability to reach the specified speed
differential relative to the passed vehicle by the time it reaches the critical position, which
generally occurs about 40 percent of the way through the passing maneuver
4. The lengths of the passing and passed vehicles are 5.8 m [19 ft], as shown for the PC
design vehicle in AASHTO Section 2.1.1
5: The passing driver's perception-reaction time in deciding to abort passing a vehicle is ls.
6. If a passing maneuver is aborted, the passing vehicle will use a deceleration rate of 3.4
m/s2[11.2 ft/sz], the same deceleration rate used in stopping sight distance criteria.
7. For a completed or aborted pass, the space headway between the passing and passed
vehicles is 1 s.
8. The minimum clearance between the passing and opposed vehicles at the point at which
the passing vehicle returns to its normal lane is 1 s.

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Sample Problem A-28: Passing Sight Distance
Given: Which of the following facilities are eligible for the passing sight distance to be
used?
i) A two-lane, two—way highway in a rural area
ii) A two-lane, two—way highway in an urban area
iii) A two-lane, two—way highway with atwo-way-left turn in the middle
iv) A four-lane, two-way undivided highway
(A) i
(B) i, ii
(C) iii, iv
(D) i, ii, iii
Solution:
Per AASHTO Standards, the minimum passing sight distance is limited for two—lane, two-way
highways in either urban or rural areas as long as other restriction imposed.
Answer:(B)t

METRIC
500
450 -- ----- ----- -P ~-

N 400
U
C 350
D
-F- -------------- -----~_~~
300 ---------- — - ---------------- --------------t----•-------- ---------- -
D 250
-F- 200
L
150
'I 00
50
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Design Speed (km/h)
U.S.. CUSTOMARY
1600
1400 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ___P__~_D

-F-
`~"' 1 200
U
C 1000 -----------+----------- F-----------~-----------~-----------i---------- ~-----------~-----------I------------
0
+- SSD
o SOO -----------+-----------F-----------i----------- ~-----------`-----------+-----------~--~---------- -1I
L
•— 600 ----------- ---------- ------------------ ----~----i-----------
400
200
O~
O 70 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Design Speed (mph)
Figure A-20 Comparison of Design Values for Passing Sight Distance and Stopping Sight
Distance
(Source: Figure 3-1, Page 3-11, AASHTO Geometric Design,2011,6`h edition, Reproduced with permission)
It is apparent from the comparison in Figure A-20(AASHTO Figure 3-1, page 3-11) that more
sight distance is needed to accommodate passing maneuvers on a two-lane highway than for
stopping sight distance that is provided continuously along the highway.
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~ Sample Problem A-29: Object Height for Passing Sight Distance (PSD) ~
Given: The assumed vehicle length used in determining the passing sight distance(PSD)is:
(A) 19.0 ft
(B) 30.0 ft
(C) 39.5 ft
(D) 40.5 ft
Solution:
Per A.ASHTO 2011- 6th edition (page 3-15), the assumed length of the passing and passed
✓ehicles in determining the passing sight distance is 5.8 m [19 ft]- Passenger Car (P).
Answer:(A)t
1.52 m 3.35 m 0.91

(5 ft) (11 ftJ 3'
5. T9 m
~ [19 fits
p 5ft 10 ft
0 t m 2.5 m
scale
Poth of fr
overhonq
Path of 18ft ✓
front wheel ~~ ~ ~~~' \ ~~``
i ~~ ~
i~ i~ ~♦~
~i /~, ~\\
i ~
i/ / coq x \~
i % ~S ~ '~
~ ~ 9p ~ a.
i / ~i ~ vi
1.83/m m 4.39 m min.

~6 t~ t
~~4.4 ft~
~ ~ 0 Sft 10 ft
~ p 1 m .5 m
stole
Path of right
reor overhonq
~0 • Assumed steering onple is 31.6•

•CTR = Centerline turnfnp
ratlius of firont Oxle
2.13 m
~7 ft)
Figure A-21 Minimum Turning Path for Passenger Car (P)Design Vehicle
(Source: Figure 2-1, Page 2-10, AASHTO Geometric Design,2011, 6`h edition, Reproduced with permission)
Frequency and Length of Passing Sections:

The frequency and length of passing sections for highways principally depend on:
i. the topography,
ii. the design speed of highway, and
iii. the cost
The importance of frequent passing sections is illustrated by their effect on the level of service of
a two-lane, two-way highway. The procedures in the Highway Capacity Manual(HCM-2010-
Chapter 15) to analyze two-lane, two-way highways base the level-of-service criteria on two
measures of effectiveness as follows:
1- percent time spent following (PTSF), and
2- average travel speed(ATS)
Both of these criteria are affected by the lack of passing opportunities. The HCM procedures
show, for example, up to a 19 percent increase in the percent time spent following when the
directional split is 50/50 and no-passing zones comprise 40 percent of the analysis length
compared to a highway with similar traffic volumes and no sight restrictions. The effect of
restricted passing sight distance is even more severe for unbalanced flow and where the no-
passing zones comprise more than 40 percent of the length.
Table A-27 Minimum Passing Zone Lengths to Be Included in Traffic Operational Analyses
(Source: Tables 3-5, Page 3-14, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011, 6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)
85th Percentile Speed 85~n percentile Speed

Minimum Passing Minimum Passing
or Posted or Statutory or Posted or Statutory
Zone Length(m) Zone Length (ft)
Speed Limit(km/h) Speed Limit(mph)
40 140 20 400
50 180 30 550
60 210 35 650
70 240 40 750
80 240 45 800
90 240 50 800
100 240 55 800
110 240 60 800
120 240 65 800
70 800
114 Part I- Civil Breadth (Transportation A,M.)- Chapter A: Geometric Design

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A.3.3 Length of Crest Vertical Curves and Sight Distances:

Minimum lengths of crest vertical curves based on sight distance criteria generally are
satisfactory from the standpoint of safety, comfort, and appearance.
Table A-28 Crest Vertical Curve Length and Sight Distances
rD Where S is less than L,(S < L)

2
Where S is less than L,(S < L)
AS2
,~ 0 100 ~ 2h1 + 2h2~ 100 ~ 2h, + 2h2
~ ~ Where S is greater than L,(S > L) Where S is greater than L,(S > L)
3
v 200(~ +~) 2 200( h1 +~)Z
= L = 2S— A L = 2S— A (3-42)
,_ c~
~ y where: where:
~ ~ L = length of vertical curve, m L = length of vertical curve, ft
y t A = algebraic difference in grades, percent A = algebraic difference in grades, percent
yS
=sight distance, m S =sight distance, ft
h1= height of eye above roadway surface, m h~ = height of eye above roadway surface, ft
h2 = height of object above roadway surface, m h2 = height of object above roadway surface, ft
When the height of eye and the height of object are 3.5' 2,
0 O
1.08 and 0.6 m [3.5 ft and 2.0 ft] respectively, are
used for stopping sight distance, the equations become: Stopping Sight D i sconce
Table A-29 Crest Vertical Curve Length and Stopping Sight Distance for Heights of
3.5 ft(eye) and 2.0 ft(object)

N
~ ~ Where S is less than L,(S < L), Where S is less than L(S < L),
AS2
L = ASZ L= (3-43)
V ,_
a 658 2158
~~
0 Where S is greater than L,(S < L), Where S is greater than L ~S < L~~
658 2158
~ N L = 2S— L = 2S— (3-44)
~ ~ A A
''"' s where: where:
w i,
~? p~ L = length of vertical curve, m; L = length of vertical curve, ft;
v J S =sight distance, m; S =sight distance, ft;
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent A = algebraic difference in grades, percent
Stopp~np sight aisroncs
VPI
_~~-'c _~_______________...c
~'~_
h,
~VPT
BVC ~VPC
langih Of Crsat vertieol curve tL>
Pa661f1Q 81ght tllBfpnC•
VPI
G~ ~ `~ Ct
BVC ~VPC EVC~VPT
L ~ngfh of crest vsrficoi c~ry tLl
Figure A-22 Parameters Considered in Determining the Length of a Crest Vertical Curve to
Provide Sight Distance
(Source: Figure 3-42, Page 3-152, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011,6`h ed., Reproduced with permission)
When the height of eyes ofthe two drivers is 3.5 ft is used for passing sight distance, the
equations become:
Table A-30 Crest Vertical Curve Length and Passing Sight Distance for Height of
3.5 ft(eye)for Both Drivers
s Metric U.S. Customary

a+
~
= Where S is less than L, Where S is less than L,
~ 864 2800
V y Where S is greater than L, Where S is greater than L,

a 864 2800
v ~tf L = 2S — L = 2S — (3-46)
,~ A A
d
~ where: where:
y L = length of vertical curve, m L = length of vertical curve, ft
L S =sight distance, m S =sight distance, ft
v A = algebraic difference in grades, percent A = algebraic difference.in grades, percent
--
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Table A-31 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance
(Source: Table 3-34, Page 3-155, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book, 2011,6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)

,~, Stopping Rate of vertical Stopping Rate of vertical
~ N Design curvature, Ka Design curvature, Ka
sight sight
y ~ Speed Speed
distance distance
~ _ ~~h) ~m~ Calculated Design mph) ~ft~ Calculated Design
c v
'fl.
N 20 20 0.6 1 15 80 3.0 3
p L 30 35 1.9 2 20 115 6.1 7
y V 40 50 3.8 4 25 155 11.1 12
0 50 65 6.4 7 30 200 18.5 19 ~
.. 60 85 11.0 11 35 250 29.0 29
o y 70 105 16.8 17 40 305 43.1 44
80 130 25.7 26 45 360 60.1 61
p ~ 90 160 38.9 39 50 425 83.7 84
v = 100 185 52.0 52 55 495 113.5 114
~+ 110 220 73.6 74 60 570 150.6 151
~~ ~ 120 250 95.0 95 65 645 192.8 193
p 130 285 123.4 124 70 730 246.9 247
75 820 311.6 312
80 910 383.7 384
a Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difFerence in interesting grades(A).
K = L/A= 1/r
Table A-32 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Passing Sight Distance
(Source: Table 3-35, Page 3-157, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book, 2011, 6`h ed., Reprinted with permission)
++ Rate of Rate of
s y Design Design
Passing sight vertical Passing sight vertical
~ ~ Seed Seed
N ~ p distance(m) curvature K* p distance (ft) curvature K*
_ ~j ~~~h~ desi n ~mph~ design
'N N 30 120 17 20 400 57
~ ~ 40 140 23 25 450 72
~' v 50 160 30 30 500 89
p 60 180 38 35 550 108
vs ~ 70 210 51 40 600 129
a 80 245 69 45 700 175
z .. 90 280 91 50 800 229
tj ~ 100 320 119 55 900 289
_ ~ 110 355 146 60 1000 357
.~ N 120 395 181 65 1100 432
p 130 440 224 70 1200 514
75 1300 604
80 1400 700
a Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in interesting grades(A).
K=L/A =1/r

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METKIG
1E
V =30~V= 40 V= 50 V= 60 V= 70 V= 80
K= 7 K= 11 K= ~~ K= 26
VK20 IK- 4 V= 90
14 K=~
K= 39
Q
~ 12
0
..v =goo
C 10 K= 52
~~ ~,
U $ V= 110
C ~~ K= 74
V= 120
~
4- 6 K= 95
L
V=130 km/hr
U 4
~~ K = 1 24
.~
-,
L 2
-••-••-•• Oro i Wage Maximum K= 51

-~~
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Length of crest vertical curve. L (m)
U5 GUSTOMA~Y
16
v=~ v~2s v = 3o V = 35 ~ = 4~ V = 45 ~ = 50 v = 55
K =3 K =t2 K = 19 K = 29 K = 44 K = 61 K = 84 K = 114
`" 14
a v=20 ~
K -7 ~i
V = 60
~ 12 ~ K = 151
0 ~
.•,' ',.
~ ~o ~ .• ',.
~ V = 5
K = 193
U 8
C ~ ,~••'~ V = 70
L
,.•' K = 247
~ ~.
4- 6 \\ ~~ V= 75
4- ~••'~ K= 312
C,~ ..••~ V=80 mp
~~ ,~• K =384
U 4
~K`
/~
L /,.~ •/•• ~
~ 2 -----5= L
~ '~ ••-••-••Dro i Wage Mox i mum K =167
a i
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Lenght of crest vertical curve. L (ft)
Figure A-23 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves-Open Road Conditions
(Source: Figure 3-43, Page 3-1.54, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011, 6`h ed., Reproduced with permission)

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The following key points should be considered in relation to AASHTO Figure 3-43:
1- The vertical lines represent the minimum vertical curve length;
2- The minimum vertical curve length L (meters)= 0.6V, where V is in kilometers per
hour (Lmin — O.6V); and
3- The minimum vertical curve length L (feet) = 3V, where V is in miles per hour
~Lmin— 3V~.
Sample Problem A-30: Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)on a Grade
Given: What is the length of the vertical curve to provide stopping sight distance(SSD)of 650
feet? The grades ofthe curve are + 4% ascending grade, and —2%descending grade.
(A) 940 ft
(B)1180 ft
(C)1710 ft
(D) 1910 ft
Solution:
From the given grades, the vertical curve is a crest
➢ Assume that S < L and using equation(3-43)
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent
L _ AS2 _ 6 x 6502
=1174ft > SSD = 650ft OK (3-43)
2158 2158
where:
L = length of vertical curve,ft;
S =sight distance,ft;
Note: If S > L is assumed and equation(3-44) is used, the following result will be
obtained:
L = 2S — 21~g = 2 x 650 — 26$ = 940.33ft > 650ft = S Not Good (3-44)
Answer:(B)t
uestion: Can we use Figure A-23(AASHTO Figure 3-43)to solve the problem? YES
~ Hint:For SSD = 650 ft -~ V ~ 65 mph[AASHTO Table 3-1, pg. 3-4 (Table A-19,textbook)]
Part I- Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M,)- Chapter A: Geometric Design 119

A.3.4 Length of Sag Vertical Curves and Sight Distances:
There arefour different criteria for establishing lengths of sag vertical curves as follows:
1- headlight sight distance,
2- passenger comfort,
3- drainage control, and
4- general appearance
Figure A-24 Stopping Sight Distance(SSD).for Sag. Vertical Curves
The following equation show the relationships between S, L, and A, using S as the distance
between the vehicle and point where the 1-degree (1°) upward angle ofthe light beam intersects
the surface of the roadway.
Table A-33 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves for 1-Degree Upward Angle
When S is less than L(S < L), When S is less than L(S < L),
N
~ AS2 ASZ
3 (3-47)
L 200 0.6+S tanl° L 200 2.O+S tanl°
V
~ or, or,
,~ AS2 AS2
~ L 120+ 3.5S (3-48)
L 400+ 3.5S
~ When S is greater than L(S > L), When S is greater than L(S > L),
,~ 200[0.6+S(tan 1°)] 200[2.0+S(tan 1°)]

y L= 2S— A L= 2S— A (3-49)
,~, or, or,
v~
=
2S —
120 +3.5S
A
~2S _ 400 + 3.5S
A
~3-50)
~ where: where:
~~ L = length of sag vertical curve, m L = length of sag vertical curve, ft
~ A = algebraic difference in grades, A = algebraic difference in grades,
percent percent
S = light beam distance, m S = light beam distance, ft

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The effect on passenger comfort ofthe change in vertical curve direction is greater on sag than on
crest vertical curves because gravitational and centripetalforces are in opposite directions, rather
than in the same direction.
The following table gives the sag vertical curve length taken into consideration the comfort ofthe
driver of sag curves.
Table A-34 Length of Sag Vertical Curves Considering Comfort*
(Source:: Page 3-160, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011 edition, 6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)

z 2
395 46.5
y = w
o v E where:
_ p where:
p~ ,v v L = length of sag vertical curve, m L = length of sag vertical curve, ft
j~ ~
~ A = algebraic difference in grades,
Percent
A = algebraic difference in grades,
Percent
* The length of sag vertical curves are based on centripetal acceleration does not exceed 1 ft/sZ [0.3 m/sZ]
Table A-35 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves

(Source: Table 3-36,Page 3-161, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011,6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)

Stopping Rate of vertical Stopping Rate of vertical
Desi n Desi n
sight curvature, Ka sight curvature, Ka
~ Seed S ed
p distance p distance
~ ~~~) ~m Calculated Design ~mph~ ft Calculated Design
~ 20 20 2.1 3 15 80 9.4 10
R~ 30 35 5.1 6 20 115 16.5 17
N 40 50 8.5 9 25 155 25.5 26
50 65 12.2 13 30 200 36.4 37
~ 60 85 17.3 18 35 250 49.0 49
O 70 105 22.6 23 40 305 63.4 64
80 130 29.4 30 45 360 78.1 79
O 90 160 37.6 38 50 425 95.7 96
V 100 185 44.6 45 55 495 114.9 115
= 110 220 54.4 55 60 570 135:7 136
't~ 120 250 62.8 63 65 645 156.5 157
D~ 130 285 72.7 73 70 730 180.3 181
75 820 205.6 206
80 910 231.0 231
a Rate of vertical curvature, K,is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in interesting grades(A).
K = L/A = 1/r

16
MET~IG
V =20 V=30 V =40 V =50 V =60 V =70 V=80 V =90
K =3 K =6 K =9 K =13 K =18 K =23 K =30 K =38
Q 14
a~ v=t 00
'D K =45
D 12
.~•''~
.,.•
-' v=110
10 ~,. K =55
.~•'~ v=t 20
U K =63
C 8
•~'~~ v=130 km/n
~ / ~.•~ K =73
/ .•.
~ 6
.••'
U q
0 ..
/~ ~''~
~ 2
i '~~ —••—••—•• Dro i Wage Maximum K =51
1
u
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Length of sag vertical curve.L (m)
U5 CUSTOMARY
16
14 I ,,,
' ..
a
~'
.'~
.'' ,
''~~~
i ~~~'
/'
~ ~~i'I
~~~/'
~~/
/~~'
~~ ~ ..:
0 ~~ I~ _~ _ ~
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Lenght of sag vertical curve. L (ft)
Figure A-25 Design Controls for Sag Tlertical Curves-Open Road Conditions
(Source: Figure 3-44, Page 3-159, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011, 6`~' ed., Reproduced with permission)

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The following key points should be considered in relation to AASHTO Figure 3-44:
1- The vertical lines represent the minimum vertical curve length;
2- The minimum vertical curve length L (meters)= 0.6V, where V is in kilometers per hour
(Lorin = 0.6V); and
3- The minimum vertical curve length L (feet) = 3V, where V is in miles per hour
~Lmin— 3V~.
Sample Problem A-31: Vertical Curve Length and SSD

Given: The length of the vertical curve to provide stopping sight distance.(SSD)of650 feet is
most nearly if the grades of the curve are —4% descending grade, and + 2%ascending
grade.
(A) 950 ft
(B) 1180 ft
(C) 1710 ft
(D) 1910 ft
Solution:
From the given grades, the vertical curve is sag
➢ Assume that S < L and using equation(3-48)
A,= algebraic difference in grades, percent
L_ AS2 _ 6x 6502 =947.66ft > 650ft —~ OK (3-48)

400+3.SS 400+3.5x650
where:
L = length of vertical curve,ft;
', S =sight distance,ft;
Notes:
1- If S > L is assumed and equation(3-50) is used, the following result will be obtained:
400 +3.SS = 400+3.5x650 _

~2s— 2X650— 854.42ft
A 6 (3-50)
But 854.42ft > SSD=650ft ~ N.G.
AVZ 6x 652
2- Check the curve length for comfort: L= _ =545.2ft <854.42ft (3-51)
46.5 46.5
Answer:(A)t
estion: Can we use Fig. A-25(AASHTO Fig. 3-44, page 3-159)to solve the problem? YES
Hint:For SSD = 650 ft --~ V ~ 65 mph[AASHTO Table 3-1, pg. 3-4 (Table A-19, textbook)]
Part I-Civil Breadth (Transportation A.M.)- Chapter A: Geometric Design ~~ 123

A.3.4 Intersection Sight Distance:

Intersection sight distance is the decision needed to safely proceed through an intersection. The
distance needed depends on the type of traffic control at the intersection (signalized, stop sign,
all-way stop control-AWSC,two-way stop control- TWSC), and the maneuver (left turn, right
turn, or proceeding straight).
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more hi h~ways loin or cross, includ-
in~ the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movements within the area.
Table A-36 Types of Highway Crossings
Grade separations without Grade separations with ramps
At-grade intersections
rams known as "Interchan es"
Chapter 9-GDHS,6th ed. 2011 Chapter 10-GDHS,6t" ed., 2011 Chapter 10-GDHS,6~' ed. 2011
1-Three-leg intersections-
T-intersection
2-Four-leg intersection-
Cross intersections
3- Multi-le intersections
Intersection Design Elements

The followings are the physical elements of intersection design:
i. Alignment(horizontal alignment) and profile (vertical alignment)
ii. Intersection sight distance,) t1
iii. Turning roadways and channelization,
Auxiliary lanes
Median openings At-Grade Intersections
Indirect left turns and U-turns Primary Concerns
Roundabouts, a) conflict between different
Other intersection design elements, and streams oftraffic flow,. and
Railroad-highway grade crossings.
b)the delay experienced by
At-Grade Intersections Primary Aspects motorists
There are two primary concerns for the at-grade intersections:
a)the potential conflict between different streams of traffic flow, and
b)the delay experienced by motorists using the intersections
The number of conflict points between traffic streams at any at grade intersection depends
on the intersection configuration and the turning movements. For example, the number of
conflict points among traffic streams for an unsignalized four-way intersection (cross-
intersection) is 32 as shown in Figure A-26.
For a typical unsignalized three-way Intersection (T-intersection), the number of conflict
points between traffic streams is only 9. Elimination of one leg (25%} of an at-grade
intersection reduces the number of conflicts by about 72%.

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1,\
,~
Conflict Points
016 Crossing
0 8 Diverge
❑ S Merge
32 Totol
Figure A-26 Conflict Points Between Traffic Streams at Unsignalized Four-Leg Intersection
Points
Crossing
Diverge
❑ 3 Merge
9 Total
Figure A-27 Conflict Points Between Traffic Streams at a Typical Three-Way Intersection
The delay at each movement (s/vehicle) at an intersection will determine the level of service
(LOS)as explained in Chaptersl9(TWSC)and Chapter 20(AWSC)of HCM 2010.
Table A-37 Level of Service(LOS)Criteria(Automobile Mode)for Two-Way
Stop-Controlled(TWSC)
(Source: Exhibit 19-1,Page 19-2,HCM 2010, Volume 3, Reprinted with permission)
LOS b Volume-to-Ca aci Ratio

Control Delay (s/veh)
v/c < 1.0 v/c > 1.0
0-10 A F
>10-15 B F
>15-25 C F
>25-35 D F
>35-50 E F
>50 F F
Note: The LOS criteria apply to each lane on a given approach and to each approach on the minor street. LOS
is not calculated for major-street approaches or for the intersection as a whole.

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Table A-38 Level of Service(LOS)Criteria (Pedestrian Mode)for Two-Way Stop-

Controlled(TWSC)
(Source: Exhibit 19-2, Page 19-2, HCM 2010, Volume 3, Reprinted with permission)
Control Delay
LOS Comments
s/ edestrian
A 0-5 Usually no conflicting traffic
B 5-10 Occasionall some dela due to conflictin traffic
C 10-20 Delay noticeable to pedestrians, but not inconveniencing
D 20-30 Delay noticeable and irritating, increased likelihood of risk taking
E 30-45 Delay approaches tolerance level, risk-taking behavior likely
F >45 Delay exceeds tolerance level, high likelihood of pedestrian risk taking
Tote: Control delay may be interpreted as s/pedestrian ~roun if groans were counted as nnnnsed to inrlivir~nal
pedestrians.
Pedestrian LOS at TWSC intersections is defined for pedestrians crossing a traffic stream not
controlled by a STOP sign.
Table A-39 Level of Service(LOS)Criteria for All-Way Stop Controlled(AWSC)

(Source: Exhibit 20-2,Page 20-3, HCM 2010, Volume 3, Reprinted with permission)
LOS b Volume-to-Ca aci Ratio

Control Delay (s/veh)
v/c < 1.0 v/c > 1.0
0-10 A F
>10-15 B F
>15-25 C F
>25-35 D F
>35-50 E F
>50 F F
Note: "For approaches and intersection wide assessment, LOS is defined solely by control delay.
Sight Triangles
Vehicles are assigned the right-of-way at intersections by traffic-control devices or, where no
traffic control devices are present, by the rules of the road. A basic rule of the road, at an
intersection where no traffic-control devices are present, requires the vehicle on the left to yield to
the vehicle on the rig-,ht if they arrive at a~proximately the same time.
Specified areas along intersection approach legs and across their included corners should be clear
of obstructions that might block a driver's view of potentially conflicting vehicles. These
specified areas are known as clear si htg triangles.
The dimensions ofthe legs of the sight triangles depend on:
i. the design speeds of the intersecting roadways, and
ii. the type of traffic control used at the intersection
Per AASHTO,there are two types of clear si ht~ triangles are considered in intersection design:
a) approach sight triangles, and
b) departure sight triangles
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Figure A-28 shows a clear sight triangle for an intersection.

d A- b ~ b
,' i B
dB a
.~c~~
v
.4~`,~'
U
~~~
A
/_-------~A---
~'
A~--
E
L dA ,I,
Sight Triangle
Figure A-28 Minimum Sight Triangle at No-Control or Yield-Control Intersection:Cases A & C
Approach Sight Triangles

Each quadrant of an intersection should contain a triangular area free of obstructions that might
block an approaching driver's view of potentially conflicting vehicles. The length of the legs of
this triangular area, along both intersecting roadways, should be such that the drivers can see any
potentially conflicting vehicles in sufficient time to slow or stop before colliding within the
intersection.
Figure A-29(AASHTO Figure 9-15 "A" p. 9-30)shows typical clear sight triangles to the left
and to the right for a vehicle approaching an uncontrolled or yield controlled intersection.
Departure Sight Triangles

The departure sight triangle provides sight distance sufficient for a stopped driver on a minor-road
approach to depart from the intersection and enter or cross the major road. Figure A-29
(AASHTO Figure 9-15 "B", p. 9-30) shows typical departure sight triangles to the left and to the
right of the location of a stopped vehicle on the minor road. Departure sight triangles should be
provided in each quadrant of each intersection approach controlled by stop or yield signs.
Figure A-29(AASHTO Figure 9-15 "B" p. 9-30)shows typical departure sight triangles to the
left and to the right of the location of a stopped vehicle on the minor road.
D
8 g J ~
~ I b--~
c ~ I ~
~ ~
Mo or Rood ~o~or Rood
d2
Clear Sight Triangle

— --- —
Decision Point Decision Point

Approaching Sight Triangle for Viewing TroffiC
Approaching Sight Triongle for Viewing Traffic
Approochinq the Minor Road from the left
Approochinq the Minor Road from the Right
Approach Sight Triangles (Uncontrolled or Yield-Controlled)

-A-
i i 8 g
(~—b ~ ~ ~ b ~
- ~
~ ~ ~
Major Road ~ ~
Mojor Rood ~
--
—a~
------
— ~~— —~—
Cleor Sight Trion9le Clear Sight Triangle
Decision Poin+
Decision Point
Deporture Sight Triangle for Viewing Traffic Deporture Signt Triongle for Viewing Traffic
Approaching the Minor Rood from the left ApprooChinq the Minor Road from the Right
Departure Sight Triongles (Stop-Controlled)

-g-
Figure A-29 Intersection Sight Triangles
(Source: Figure 9-15, Page 9-30, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011, 6th edition, Reprinted with permission)
The recommended dimensions of the sight triangles vary with the type of traffic control used at an
intersection because different types of control impose different legal constraints on drivers and,
therefore, result in different driver behavior. Procedures to determine sight distances at
intersections are presented below according to different types oftraffic control, as follows:

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Table A-40 Intersection Sight Triangles and Types of Traffic Control

1-Case A Intersections with no control
2-Case B: Intersections with stop control on the minor road
Case B1 Case B2 Case B3
Left turn from the minor road Ri ht turn from the minor road Crossin maneuver from the minor
3-Case C: Intersections with yield control on the minor road
Case C1 Case C2
Crossin maneuver from the minor road Left or ri ht turn from the minor road
4-Case D Intersections with traffic si nal control
S-Case E Intersections with all-wa sto control
6- Case F Left turns from the ma'or road
Table A-41 Types of Traffic Control At the At-Grade Intersections

Yield Control on Sto Control
No-Control Signalized Control
the Minor Road on Minor Road All-Way
(Case A) (Case D)
(Case C) (Case B) (Case E)
AASHTO stated C1: crossing a Bl: left turns on stop- ONE Requirement: TWO Requirements:
stopped
that adriver may yielded controlled control intersection on first vehicle at the i- first vehicle
take up to 2.Ss to intersection from a at the stop line of each
minor roads stop line of each
detect & minor road B2: right turns on stop approach should be approach should be
the driver of
recognize a C2: turning R or L controlled visible to the driver visible to
vehicle at of the first vehicle the first vehicle
from a minor road intersections on minor
at the other
intersection at a yield roads stopped on all other stopped
approaches" approaches
controlled B3: crossing major
ii-adequate sight
intersection roads from stop
distance for left turning
controlled intersection
vehicles to enable
on minor roads
drives of these vehicle
to select ade uate a s
1- Case A: No Control I~terse~tions
Sufficient sight distance is provided for the operator of a vehicle approaching the intersection to
see a crossing vehicle and if necessary to adjust the vehicle's speed so as to avoid a collision. This
distance must include the distance traveled by the vehicle both during the driver's perception
reaction time and during brake actuation or the acceleration to regulate speed. AASHTO has
suggested that a driver may take up to 2.5 seconds to detect and recognize a vehicle at
intersections that is near the limits of his/her peripheral vision. Also, A.ASHTO has noted that
field observations have indicated drivers tend to decrease their speeds to about 50 percent of their
mid-block speed as they approach intersections that have no control. Based on this information,
AASHTO has suggested the distances shown in Table A-42(AASHTO Table 9-3, p. 9-33) for
different approach speeds.

Where the grade along an intersection approach exceeds 3 ep rcent, the leg of the clear sight
triangle along that approach should be adjusted by multiplying the appropriate sight distance from
Table A-42(AASHTO Table 9-3, p. 9-33) by the appropriate adjustment factor from Table A-43
(AASHTO Table 9-4, p. 9-35).
From the similar triangles ABC & ADE the
following could be obtained:
DE AE
BC AC
a=dA —b (A-41)
dB dA
dA _ bxdB
(A-42)
Ada —Q)
and
dB _ axdA
(A-43)
~dA —b)
Sight TriGnple
If any three of the variables a, b, dA, and dB are Figure A-30 Minimum Sight Triangle at
known, the fourth parameter can be determined a No-Control or Yield-Control Intersection.
using the above equations. (Case A & C)
G ~ 3~~ Table A-42 Length of Sight Triangle Leg-Case A,No Traffic Control
(Source: Table 9-3, Page 9-33, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011, G`h edition, Reprinted with permission)

Design Speed Length of Leg Design Speed Length of Leg
a (km/h) (m) (mph) (ft)
~ 20 20 15 70
v 0 30 25 20 90
40 35 25 115
~ ~ 50 45 30 140
~ V 60 55 35 165
70 65 40 195
~ i 80 75 45 220
~~ I— 90 90 50 245
N O 100 105 55 285
= Z 110 120 60 325
,~ 120 135 65 365
y 130 150 70 405
75 445
80 485
Note: For approach grades greater than 3%,multiply the sight distance values in this table by the
appropriate adjustment factor from AAHTO Table 9-4, p. 9-35(Table A-43)

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Table A-43 Adjustment Factors for Sight Triangle Distance Based on Approach Grade
(Source: Table 9-4, Page 9-35, AASHTO Geometric Design-Green Book,2011,6`h edition, Reprinted with permission)
~ Metric
v a~
Approach Design Speed (Km/h)
~ ~
y ~ ~ Grade(%) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
~ ~o ~ -6 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 - -
~ o~ -5 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 - -
ca ~ t9 ~ 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 - -
~ y v -3 to +3 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 - -
s ~ +4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 - -
N Q +5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 - -
+6 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 - -
~ ~ U.S. Customar
Approach Design Speed (mph)
~ ~
y ~ ,.~ Grade(%) 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
0 0 ~ -6 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
~ ~ -5 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
~ ai ~ -4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
F N ~ -3 to +3 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
.«. ~ +4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
~a +5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
y +6 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9'~
Note: Based on ratio of stopping sight distance on specified approach grade to stopping sight distance on level terrain
If the sight distances given in Table A-42(AASHTO Table 9-3, p. 9-33), as adjusted for
grades, cannot be provided, consideration should be given to installing regulatory speed
signing to reduce speeds or installing stop signs on one or more approaches.

1 30-
METR I C
'
A
120
Case iA ~~
~~
~ 110
~;~
E
~ t oo~ %~ SS~
;.
;:'
-p 90-
N
~~
~
Q 80-
N .r ~
C 70- i~
i
y
•— 60-
v ♦~
N
p 50-
i~
i
40- /~/
~Z
/~ ~ ,~°.1 ~l ~1r~1' 9 llU 0 ~1 ~ ~ U ~1 ~ ~ V~ ;lS ~~
2~
i i ~
0 50 100 150 200 250
Length of S i ght Tr i ang i e L eg t m)
U.S. CUSTOMARY
80- ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ,
L --;•-
a ..~a'S8 A ~~,~
E z o- I,'
i~ v i i i i ~ i ~~ i ~~ ~ i i i i
i
i i i i i i i i i ~~ i
--~-•~-F--r•• - ~--~•i•-i-- •-i--i--~--'-- --F--f••' -'r-- - ~•• ~-•~• ~•• ••~••i--~-.{.. ..1•-1r~-F-• 5~~
i~
~ 60- ;~, ~ ~~ „
,;
., ,~, ,
a
~'
C 50- ~;
„ ~ , ~~, r
.~ ••~ -• --~--•r .~. ..._ __ .._ ..
~/
/I
N 40-
V
i;
Y~
30- —, ~~~ ~ ,
r~~, ~~~
i
i
20-
~~ ~ ~~ ,
10
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Length of Sight Triangle Leg (ft)
Figure A-31 Length of Sight Triangle Leg-Case A, No Traffic Control

(Source: Figure 9-16,Page 9-34, AASHTO Geometric Design, 2011, 6`h edition, Reproduced with permission)

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A multi-story building is located at the north-west corner ofthe unsignalized intersection as
shown. The maximum speed limit on Smith Road is 35 mi/h. The approach grades for both
roads are 2.5% i d.— b ihaOF f+~
t
N
l0
Sample Problem A-32: Intersection Sight Distance (ISD)
Given: The corner sight distance(CSD/ISD) per AASHTO 2011 should be corrected for grades
of the intersecting roads. For the given problem, the grades correction should be:
(A)considered because grades have a direct relationship to the intersection sight
distance
(B) ignored because the speed limit is below 40 mi/h
(C) ignored because the grades are below 3%for both roads
(D)both answers(B)&(C)
Solution
Per footnote of AASHTO Table 9-3 (page 9-33), the corner sight distance should be adjusted
for grades > ~3%
~° Note: For approach grades greater than 3%,multiply the sight distance values in
this table by the appropriate adjustment factor from Table 9-4."
Answer:(C)1
Sample Problem A-33: Intersection Sight Distance (ISD) &Speed Relationship
Given: The speed limit on California Avenue such that the minimum intersection sight distance
is provided is most nearly:
(A) 15 mph
(B) 20 mph
(C) 25 mph
(D)30 mph
(continued on next page)
Part I- Civil Breadth (Transportation A,M.)- Chapter A: Geometric Design 133

Solution
From Table A-42(Table 9-3 ,AASHTO page 9-33), the distance on the Smith road
corresponding to speed of 35 mph = dA = 165 ft
Using Equation A-41 and knowing the three parameters a, b, and dA
a _ dA — b ~ 65 _165 — 45 ~
dB = 89.40ft (A — 41)
dB dA dB 165
Using the calculated distance dB and from Table A-42(Table 9-3, AASHTO page 9-33), the
maximum allowable speed on California Ave. is 20 mph.
Note: No correction is required due to the approach grade because both grades < 3%per
AASHTO 2011 "Note: For approach grades greater than 3%,multiply the sight distance values in
this table(Table 9-3) by the appropriate adjustment factor from Table 9-4."
Answer:(B}t

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Well Organized, Based on the Latest California Board Test

Dr. Shahin A. Mansour,PE

O 2013 Professional Engineering Services(PES)

Current printing ofthis edition 1

Printed in the United States of America

How to Use This Book

MASTER TABLE OF CONTENTS

20. Engineering properties of soils and materials (e.g. index properties,

Breadth A.M. To ics De th P.M. To ics

Total Number of Topics = 31

Master Table of Contents vii

This page. is left intentionally blank

viii Master Table of Contents

TRANSPORTAION A.M. LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter A — 2 Vertical Curves

Chapter A — 3 Sight Distances

Figure A-16 Passing Sight Distance(TWO-LANE-HIGHWAYS)................................... 97

Figure A-29 Intersection Sight Triangles

Figure A-32 Force Diagram for. Superelevation.........................................................:.. 135

Chapter A -5 Vertical and/or Horizontal Clearances

Figure A-35 Vertical Curve Length Under or Over Obstruction.......................................... 145

Chapter A -6 Acceleration and Deceleration

Figure A-41 Acceleration of Passenger Cars, Level Conditions

x Transportaion AM List of Figures

Chapter A — 7 Highways functions and design criteria (not included in the

Figure A-46 Hierarchy of Movement

Transportaion AM List of Figures xi

TRANSPORTAION A.M. LIST OF TABLES

Table A-1 Types of Horizontal Curves................................................. .. ......... 65

Chapter A-2 Vertical Curves

Table A-12 Types of Vertical Curves..................................................................... 88

Chapter A-3 Sight Distances

Table A-14 Four Types of Sight Distances...............................................................97

xii Transportaion AM List of Tables

~ Chapter A-4 Superelevation ~

Transportaion AM List of Tables xiii

Chapter A-5 Vertical and/or Horizontal Clearances

Chapter A-6 Acceleration and Deceleration

Chapter A-7 Highways functions and design criteria.(not included in the

Table A-57 Classification of Design Vehicles

xiv Transportaion AM List of Tables

Civil PE - Transportation Module

Codes &Design Standards:

2 - AASHTO Guidefor Design ofPavement Structures(GDPS-4-M)1993„ and 1998 supplement,

6- Highway Capacity Manual(HCM 2010), Transportation Research Board—National Research Council,

Codes, Design Standards, and Refernces xv

The National Council of Examiners,for Engineering and Surveying

1- AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design ofHighways and Streets, 2011 edition

xviii NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications

NCEES Principles and Practice of Engineering

II. GEOTECHNICAL 20%

III. STRUCTURAL 20%

xx NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications

IV. TRANSPORTATION 20%

NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications xxi

National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying

IV. Traffic Safety 15%

xxii NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications

V. Other Topics 25%

NCEES Transportation References and Exam Specifications xxiii

A Policy on Geometric design of Highways and Streets(GDHS-6)

Pa e To is/Exhibit/Fi ure/E uation

Tables, Figures, and Exhibits of AASHTO 2011, Green Book, G