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OPERATIONS & MAINTENANCE PDF

IMPROVING THE OPERABILITY OF PROCESS PLANTS

By Chemical Engineering | September 1, 2015

Turndown and rangeability have a big impact on the �exibility and e�ciency of chemical process operations 

During the design of a chemical process plant, the main focus is on which process units or unit operations must be integrated to convert the feed streams into product
stream(s). Design engineers work to achieve this goal; however, in terms of making sure the plant operates smoothly, which is equally important for operation engineers
and operators, there are less well-know parameters facing the design engineers.

There are �ve primary process parameters in each plant — �ow, (liquid) level, pressure, temperature, and composition. Composition can be considered a collective term
that re�ects all parameters (chemical and physical), and provides an indicator of the quality of the stream. Composition can be used to describe the moisture of a gas
stream or the octane number of a gasoline stream, or even the electric conductivity of a water stream.

During operation, equipment process parameters generally deviate from the design values (normal level) over time. Five levels can be de�ned for each process
parameter: normal level, high level, high-high level, low level and low-low level. In essence, the operational parameters of a plant relate to the behavior of the plant
between the low level and high level of each parameter of the individual equipment components, individual units or the entire plant. In most cases, the operability of a
plant can be de�ned using at least three key parameters: �exibility in operation, resistance against surge (or upset) and the speed of recovery from upset.

MAINTAINING OPERATING FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility of operation in this context means the ability of a plant to operate reliably across a wide range of �owrates without sacri�cing the overall quantity or quality of
product(s).

From a process standpoint, a chemical process plant is a combination of equipment, utility networks and control
systems. To design a plant with su�cient �exibility, each of these three elements needs to allow �exibility. Generally
speaking, the control system (including control valves and sensors) and utility network should o�er the largest
amount of operating �exibility, while the equipment itself could o�er the lowest amount of �exibility (Figure 1). This
requirement for larger �exibility for control items and utility network considerations is important because of the
supporting role of the utility system and the controlling role played by instruments in a plant.

Figure 1. Di�erent elements of a plant need di�erent levels

of operating �exibility. Since the utility network provides Two important concepts are used to quantify �exibility: turndown (TD) ratio and rangeability. These are discussed
support duty to the equipment, it needs a higher turndown below, and illustrated in Figure 2.
ratio. Control valves and other instruments have a duty to
take care of equipment across a wider operating range;
thus they require an even higher rangeability
 

Figure 2. Process plants typically de�ne di�erent threshold values for �owrate levels, and set appropriate alarms and trips when the threshold values of this important parameter are reached. The
concept of turndown ratio and rangeability are shown, in relation to these key threshold �owrate values

TURNDOWN RATIO

The �exibility of equipment or a plant can be de�ned using the TD ratio. The most common de�nition for TD ratio is “ratio of the normal maximum parameter
(numerator) to the normal minimum parameter (denominator).” However, the meaning of “normal maximum parameter” and “normal minimum parameter” is not
always clear and the interpretation may vary in di�erent companies and plants (This is discussed below).

For an individual equipment component, or multi-component equipment systems, low-�ow or low-capacity operation happens frequently over the lifetime of a plant.
The reduced-capacity operation may be intentional or accidental.

For instance, reduced-capacity operation could be planned for the purpose of o�-loading the equipment for inspection, testing, monitoring, or even to support the
shutdown of downstream equipment. But it may also occur accidentally due to, for example, a drop in feed �owrate.

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But process plant operators like to know by how much the �owrate of the equipment (and in the larger sense, the entire plant capacity) can be decreased without
compromising the process goal or generating o�-speci�cation product. Thus, TD ratio can be de�ned as the ratio of high �ow to normal �ow, as shown in Equation 1.

Q High = the �owrate of the system at high level

Q Low = the �owrate at low level

The numerical value of the TD ratio is typically reported as a ratio, such as 2:1.

It is important to note that the denominator term is �owrate in low level, and not low-low level. This is important as it is the di�erentiator between the concept of TD
ratio and rangeability, which is discussed later. Generally, �owrate in low level (as shown in Figure 2) is considered to be the minimum level of �ow at which the process
goals can still be reached.

However, there is another interpretation of TD ratio that is often used by operations sta�. During operation, people expect the TD ratio to answer the question in this
scenario: “My plant is running normally and all parameters are normal. However, occasionally, because of di�erent reasons (including shortage of feed, reduced plant or

unit capacity), the �owrate falls. What is the minimum value I can withstand without compromising the quality of the product?”

They basically interpret the TD ratio so that the numerator is the “normal level parameter” (and not the “high level parameter”). However, the di�erence in the
interpretation does not generate a big di�erence in numerical value of TD ratio, as the normal and high level of parameters are often not very far from each other. Due to
this potential confusion, the TD ratio should be considered an approximate parameter and not a precise number. In general, the academic de�nition of TD ratio generally
uses a high-to-low values set up, while in the �eld, operators often de�ne TD ratio using normal-to-low values.

The TD ratio can be de�ned for parameters other than �owrate, but it generally refers to �owrate. One reason for this is because �owrate can be the most important
parameter of a plant, helping to de�ne the economy of the system. The other reason is because the �owrate might be in�uenced by constraints outside of the plant (for
instance, a lack of stored feed), which the control system cannot necessarily adjust (thus making a reduction in �owrate unavoidable).

While the TD ratio is not always a requested parameter, and is often not mentioned in project documents for design purposes, operators are usually looking for a TD ratio
of least 2:1 for a plant. The required TD ratio could be as high as 3:1 or 4:1 for a plant.

EQUIPMENT FLEXIBILITY

The TD ratio can also be determined for a given piece of equipment, using other values that are stated for the component. For example, even when a TD ratio is not
explicitly stated for a centrifugal pump, when the pump is said to have a capacity of 100 m 3/h and a minimum �ow of 30 m 3/h, this means that the centrifugal pump has
a TD ratio of 3:1.

The TD ratio of a reciprocating pump could theoretically be de�ned as in�nite because it can work over a very wide range of �ows. However, in practice, such a pump
cannot handle any �owrate that fails to �ll the cylinder of the pump in one stroke. Partial �lling of the cylinder may cause some damage to mechanical components of
the pump over the long term. Thus the minimum required �ow is a function of cylinder volume and stroke speed of a speci�c pump.

The TD ratio for pipelines presents a more complicated situation. With piping systems, there are several di�erent ways to de�ne the minimum �ow. For instance, it
could be de�ned as the minimum �ow that does not fall into the laminar �ow regime. Or, it could be considered as the minimum �ow that keeps a check valve open (if a
check valve is used).

For liquid �ows in pipes, the minimum �ow is more commonly interpreted as the minimum �ow that makes the pipe full, or the sealing �owrate (that is, no partial
�ow), or a �ow threshold below which the �uid will freeze in an outdoor pipe. If the �ow bears suspended solids, the minimum �owrate could be de�ned as that at which
sedimentation of suspended solids may occur.

Table 1 provides examples of typical values and rules of thumb regarding the TD ratio for various types of process equipment. Note that in Table 1, the TD ratio of storage
containers is relatively large. This high TD helps to explain why large containers are used for surge dampening as part of a typical plant-wide control system.

In some cases deciding on a required TD ratio needs good judgment. One example is chemical-injection packages. The TD ratio is important for chemical-injection
packages to protect against chemical overdosing or underdosing.

Chemical-injection packages typically provide a TD ratio of about 100:1 or lower. In some cases, 10:1 can be provided by stroke adjustment, and another 10:1 through the
use of a variable frequency drive (VFD) to control the motor. But the question that arises is why such a large TD ratio is necessary if the host �ow experiences, for
example, only a 2:1 TD ratio. This high TD ratio is generally desired because of uncertainty in the required chemical dosage and the variety of available chemicals. The
required dosage of a chemical depends on the type of chemical and the host stream properties.

Thus, during the design phase of a project, the designer doesn’t exactly know what the optimum dosage would be, even though a chemical provider recommends a
speci�c dosage. Often, he or she prefers to conservatively have a chemical-injection system with a high TD ratio.

There is generally less uncertainty when using chemicals of known composition, rather than proprietary mixtures. If the dosage is fairly �rm and the chemical used is a
non-proprietary type, the TD ratio could be decreased, to reduce the overall cost of the chemical-injection system.

UTILITY NETWORK
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UTILITY NETWORK
FLEXIBILITY

The �exibility of a utility network is also

de�ned by the TD ratio. As mentioned
above, when a plant requires a TD ratio of,
say, 2:1, the TD ratio of the utility network
should be higher.

To accommodate a larger TD ratio, the

utility network generally requires
containers to absorb �uctuations that may
be caused by utility usage changes in
process areas. Table 2 provides additional
details to support this concept.

Di�erent segments of a utility network

experience di�erent levels of turndown,
and consequently each segment may need a
di�erent TD ratio. For instance, as shown
in Figure 3, the main header could need the
minimum TD ratio, while sub-headers may
need a higher TD ratio.

The good news is that achieving a high TD

ratio for the utility network and related
instruments is not di�cult. The overall
utility network is mainly a series of pipe
circuits that inherently show a large TD
ratio. If instruments are included in the
utility network, this poses no
problem.Many instruments (including
control valves and sensors) have an
intrinsically large TD ratio — generally
greater than 20:1.

INSTRUMENT RANGEABILITY

Instruments typically need to operate over a wider range of process conditions than other equipment or utilities. This is because their duty is not limited to normal
operation, or a band de�ned by low and high values. Rather, they have to be operational across the entire, wider band from low-low to high-high threshold values.
Therefore, rangeability, R, can be de�ned as:

Figure 3. Shown here is a map of turndown ratio for a typical utility network.The pipes closer to the utility generation system (main header) need less turndown ratio compared to sub-headers and
branches

Where:

Q High-high = the �owrate of the instrument or control valve at the high-high level threshold value

Q Low-low = the �owrate at the low-low level threshold value

For control valves, the formula is a bit di�erent because a control valve is a device that passes �ow and also drops the pressure of the �ow. Thus, the rangeability cannot
be de�ned only as a function of �owrate — pressure drop also needs to be incorporated. The rangeability of control valves is a function of the control-valve �ow
coe�cient ( C v).

Rangeability can also be de�ned for other parameters, such as temperature, but generally de�ning rangeability with regard to �owrate is the most important parameter.
Table 3 shows some typical rangeability values for commonly used instruments.

It should be stressed that TD ratio and rangeability are two separate parameters, for two separate systems. They cannot be used interchangeably and attempts to relate

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or convert them to each other do not have much meaning.

PROVIDING REQUIRED FLEXIBILITY

There are three main ways that one can provide a speci�c TD ratio for process equipment, and each is discussed below:

Using equipment with an inherently high TD ratio

Replacing equipment with multiple similar, smaller-capacity equipment in a parallel arrangement

Providing a recirculation route

Using equipment with an inherently higher TD ratio. Some process elements have an inherently higher TD ratio. Two of them, tanks and pipes, were mentioned above.

It is not always easy to recognize if a piece of equipment has an inherently high or low TD ratio. However, the following rules of thumb can be used as guidelines:

Smaller-volume equipment tends to have a smaller TD ratio than larger-volume equipment

Equipment with internal ba�es tends to have a lower TD ratio (a good example is some gravity separators, such as ba�ed skim tanks)

Equipment in gas service may show a higher TD ratio than equipment used in liquid service

Equipment with an internal weir (especially �xed ones) may have a very low TD ratio

Equipment that uses some properties of the inlet stream for their functioning, may have a lower TD ratio. For example, in cyclones or hydrocyclones, the energy of
the inlet stream (“energy” as a property of the inlet stream) is used to generate centrifugal force, so any reduced �ow will reduce the centrifugal force, which may
reduce the e�ectiveness of the system

Equipment containing loose, porous media may show a lower TD ratio in liquid service, and the TD ratio may be lower when the porous media is comprised of
larger solid particle sizes. Examples include sand �ltration systems, catalyst contactors and related systems

Despite a common misconception, perforated-pipe �ow distributors do not necessarily have limited TD ratios [ 3 ]

As noted, the utility network should have a relatively large TD ratio. Fortunately, utility networks consist mainly of pipes in di�erent sizes, which have inherently large
TD ratios. If control valves are needed on the network, their lower TD ratios may generate bottlenecks. In such situations, it may be necessary to install parallel control
valves with split control, because of the required large TD ratio.

Using parallel equipment.Instead of using a component with a capacity of 100 m 3/h, this technique is essential to use an arrangement that employs two parallel
components, each with the capacity of 50 m 3/h. By doing so, a TD ratio of at least 2:1 can often be provided. It should be noted that the equipment by itself may have
some inherent TD-ratio capability, which may have to be added to the provided 2:1 TD ratio.

For example, instead of using one shell-and-tube heat exchanger with the capacity of 100 m 3/h, three heat exchangers — each with the capacity of 33 m 3/h —can be
used to achieve a TD ratio of at least 3:1. The TD ratio may actually be higher because each shell-and-tube heat exchanger has an inherent TD ratio too, even though it is
very small. This technique has additional bene�ts. The parallel arrangement provides higher availability for the system, because the failure of two or three parallel
equipment components is less likely than the potential for failure when the system relies on a single equipment component.

Using two control valves in parallel in a single control loop (through a “split range” control) is also another example of this technique in the area of instrumentation.

However, there are some disadvantages associated with this technique. In particular, capital cost and operating cost considerations may rule against it.

Providing recirculation pipe. Implementing a recirculation pipe from the equipment outlet to its inlet is a widely used method to increase the TD ratio of the system. In
many cases, a pump and de�nitely a control system, are needed to implement this technique. As long as you can a�ord an extra pump and control system on the
recirculation pipe, this technique can be used. The recirculation pipe needs a control system, otherwise all �ow goes through the recirculation pipe back to the inlet of
the unit of interest (Figure 4).

One example of this technique is using a minimum-�ow line for a centrifugal pump. A centrifugal pump with a capacity of 100 m 3/h and a minimum-�ow line of 30 m
3
/h (thus, with a TD ratio of 1:3) can be equipped with a minimum-�ow line with an appropriate control system to increase its TD ratio. If the minimum-�ow line and the
control system are designed to handle a maximum �owrate of 30 m 3/h, it means the TD ratio of the pump can theoretically be increased to in�nite, by zeroing the
minimum �ow.

Another example is a vertical falling-�lm evaporator. This type of evaporator has a vertical tube bundle that is similar to the ones found in a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger. The tube-side �ow is two-phase �ow. The liquid �ows down by gravity, and the vapor (of the same liquid) is pushed down by liquid drag. The �ow inside the
tubes is an “annular regime,” meaning the liquid covers the internal perimeter of tubes and the vapor is in the center of the tubes.

In the case of low �ow, there is a chance of “dry patches” forming on the tube’s internal surface. Because of this, vertical, falling-�lm evaporators are typically equipped
with recirculation pipes to provide a minimum practical TD ratio (Figure 5).

However, this method cannot be applied for all equipment.

For example it is not a good technique to increase the TD ratio
of a furnace or �red heater, because recirculation of �uid
around a furnace may increase the furnace coil temperature
and cause burning out if the �ring system doesn’t have
su�cient TD ratio. Table 4 provides some rules of thumb to
gauge the �exibiliy of di�erent elements of a process plant.

RESISTANCE AGAINST SURGE

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While TD ratio refers to the static behavior of a plant, there
are two additional parameters (resistance against surge, and
speed of recovery from upset) that refer to its dynamic
Figure 4. By providing a recirculation pipe, the turndown ratio of a piece of equipment can be increased. If the �uid pressure is
behavior. However, there is less emphasis on dynamic
not enough, a pump (or compressor) may be needed, and a control system is de�nitely needed
theories, and only practical aspects of dynamic behavior.

Figure 5. Shown here is a system for brine recirculation in a vertical falling-�lm evaporator. The brine-recirculation line in the vaporizer plays an important control role. Without the recirculation
line, the
vaporizer has a very narrow turndown ratio, which is not generally acceptable for optimal operation

process upset could result from a surge. Surge can arbitrarily be de�ned as the deviation of a parameter (such as �owrate) beyond its normal level. The �nal value of the
parameter may or may not be in a band between high level and low level and the change often occurs quickly. When a parameter moves quickly, an upset could happen.
The surge/upset could be de�ned for each parameter including �owrate, temperature, pressure and even composition. A surge in the composition is often called a slug.
Level surge is generally a consequence of other surges and it can be dampened in surge-equalization tanks or drums.

Surge can also be de�ned by its shape (in a diagram of parameter change versus time), and by its magnitude. The magnitude of surge can be stated as a relative number
or an absolute number. For example, a �ow surge of 2% per minute is a relative number and means if a surge occurs in every minute, the �owrate is increased or
decreased by 2%. In another example, a system can be said to be resistant to temperature surge (thus no upset conditions will be generated) as long as any potential
surge remains less than 2°C per minute (an absolute value).

A 2%-per-minute surge means that the �owrate could start at 100 m 3/h and then increase to 102 m 3/h, then to 104 m 3/h and so on. Or the surge may start at 100 m 3/h
and then decrease to 98 m 3/h, then 96 m 3/h and so on.

Some systems show di�erent behavior against surge, when it is a positive surge (an increase in the parameter value), or a negative surge (a decrease in the parameter
value). Therefore, it is good idea to clarify it. For example, an API separator could be more resistant to the impact of decreasing inlet stream compared to the impact of
increasing the inlet stream.

The �rst line of defense against a surge is provided by the control system or control valves. However, control valves alone cannot totally eliminate a surge, but will only
stop a surge from impacting a downstream system. Ultimately, the surge needs to be handled, but by other methods.

There are basically two surge-management methods that can be implemented for each piece of equipment or group of equipment in a plant:

Boxing-in a surge in a speci�c equipment component or series of equipmen

Transferring the surge to an external or auxiliary system

Understanding the applicability of each of these techniques requires some knowledge about the inherent dynamic characteristics of the systems from a process control
viewpoint. The three dynamic features of each equipment or unit are resistance, capacitance and inertia (dead time) [ 4 ]. A brief qualitative explanation of these three
features is presented next.

If a system is more dominantly a “resistance” type, this system will be able to prevent the surge from transferring to downstream equipment. A piece of pipe is one
example of a resistance-type element. A pipe could inherently stop the surge if it is narrow enough. However, because a pipe’s main function is to transfer �uid, the
designer generally sizes the pipe based on its duty (transferring �uid) and then, if needed, a control valve is placed on the pipe to stop a potential surge.

The capability of a system to dampen the surge depends on the “capacitance characteristics” of the system. The higher the capacitance characteristic, the more it is able
to dampen a surge.

Here, a capacitance-type element refers to whatever element that can be used to temporarily store excess mass (such as liquid volume or gas pressure) or energy (such
as thermal or chemical energy).

For instance, large-volume equipment generally have a higher capacitance feature. Implementing a surge tank, equalization tank, surge drum (or even pond) is one
means of providing a system with su�cient capacity to dampen the surge.

Another example of using a high-capacitance system is when transferring a surge to heat-exchange media. Utility heat exchangers use streams such as cooling water,
steam, and other media, to transfer the heat to or from process streams. These utility streams are also able to absorb a temperature surge in the system. The capacitance
feature of a utility network can be provided in part by pipes in the network (the pipes function mainly as resistance elements but they have some capacitance too), and
also their surge tank, as discussed above.

A system is called robust against upset when it can tolerate a large surge (as de�ned for each process parameter) and no upset occurs, thereby allowing the process to
proceed smoothly.

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If an upset cannot be tolerated, one solution is to implement a rate-of-change control loop in the system. The following llist provides some general rules of thumb on
the capability of a system to handle surges:

1. Generally speaking, equipment with larger volume and fewer internals is better able to dampen upsets.

2. Containers with plug-�ow regime are more susceptible to upset from surge compared to mixed-�ow-regime containers.

3. The equipment that exerts centrifugal e�ect on the process �uid is more sensitive toward the upset (Examples include centrifuges and centrifugal pumps).

4. Containers that hold loose media are less robust against upsets.

5. Non-�ooded containers can handle and dampen a surge better than �ooded containers.

SPEED OF RECOVERY FROM UPSET

The speed of recovery from an upset situation primarily depends on the dynamic characteristics of the system, and more speci�cally, the “process dead time” and
“process time constant” of a system. The dead time is a result of inertia characteristics of the system, while the process time constant is a function of capacitance and
resistance features of the system. A larger dead time or time constant means the system requires a longer time to recover from an upset.

However, in addition to this inherent characteristic of a system, other features can also impact (and decrease) the speed of recovery from an upset. Sometimes these
features (rather than the dynamic behavior of the system) govern the behavior of the system. For example, a hot lime softener within a water-treatment system has an
established sludge blanket. It takes time to “heal” a broken sludge blanket if an upset creates “breaks” in it.

Another example is “vessel- media” systems. These are systems that are used in operations such as ion exchangers, loose-media �ltration systems, packing-type
absorption towers, catalyst beds and so on. A big surge in �ow may displace the media in a way that leads to �ow channeling. Putting the displaced media back into a
homogenous form takes time.

Similarly, a surge to a biological system will generally require a long recovery system, because a surge in temperature or slug of a toxic chemical may kill a large portion
of the biomaterial growing there. n

Edited by Suzanne Shelley

REFERENCES

1. Mullinger, P., and Jenkins, B., “Industrial and Process Furnaces,” 1st Ed., Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008, p. 171.

2. Upp, E., and LaNasa, P., Fluid �ow measurement,” 2nd Ed., Gulf Professional Publishing, Boston, 2002, pp. 157–158.

3. Perry, R., Green, D. and Maloney, J., “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 7th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1997, pp. 6–32.

4. Liptak, B., “Instrument Engineers Handbook — Vol 2. Process Measurements and Analysis,” 4th Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003. Chapter 2.

AUTHOR

Mohammad Toghraei, is an instructor and consultant with Engrowth Training (Email: mohtogh@gmail.com; Phone: 403-808-8264; Website:
engedu.ca), based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He has more than 20 years of experience in the chemical process industries. Toghraei has published
articles on di�erent aspects of chemical process operations. His main expertise is in the treatment of produced water and wastewater from petroleum
industries. He holds a B.S.Ch.E. in from Isfahan University of Technology (Iran), and an M.Sc. in environmental engineering from Tehran University
(Iran). He is a professional engineer (PEng) in the province of Alberta, Canada.

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