c
c



c 

Delegation of human control function to technical equipments

to increase production
to reduce cost
to reduce manpower
to improve safety working conditions
to reduce power consumption
to improve quality





c 

Automated machines can be subdivided into two large categoriesͶopen-loop and

closed-loop machines, which can then be subdivided into even smaller categories.
Open-loop machines are devices that, once started, go through a cycle and then
stop. A common example is the automatic dishwashing machine. Once dishes are
loaded into the machine and a button pushed, the machine goes through a
predetermined cycle of operations: pre-rinse, wash, rinse, and dry, for example. A
human operator may have choices as to which sequence the machine should
followͶheavy wash, light wash, warm and cold, and so onͶbut each of these
operations is alike in that the machine simply does the task and then stops. Many
of the most
familiar appliances in homes today operate on this basis. A microwave oven, a
coffee maker, and a CD player are examples.
Larger, more complex industrial operations also use open-cycle operations. For
example, in the production of a car, a single machine may be programmed to
place a side panel in place on the car and then weld it in a dozen or more
locations. Each of the steps involved in this processͶfrom placing the door
properly to each of the different weldsͶtakes place according to instructions
programmed into the machine.
Other category in which automation is divided is:
a. Scientific Automation
(used by scientists)
b. Industrial Automation
(building management system)
c. Office Automation
(used by non technical staff)
u
 

u


c
c 

Since the 1960s, the nature of automation has undergone dramatic changes as a
result of the availability of computers. For many years, automated machines were
limited by the amount of feedback data they could collect and interpret. Thus,
their operation was limited to a relatively small number of alternatives. When an
automated machine is placed under the control of a computer, however, that
disadvantage disappears. The computer can analyze a vast number of sensory
inputs from a system and decide which of many responses it should make.



 
  

  
  !"

1. Replacing human operator in tedious task.
2. Replacing humans in tasks that should be done in dangerous environment.
3. Making tasks that are beyond human capabilities such as handle too heavy
loads, too large objects, too hot or cold substances or the requirement to make
things too fast or too slow.
]. Economy improvement- sometimes some kinds of automation imply improves
in economy of enterprises, society or most of the humankind.

  !"

1. Technology limits- nowadays technology is not able to automatize all desired
task.

2. Initial costs are relative high.

uc#c

c 
$
%scada stands for supervisory control and Data acquisition͟ It
generally refers to an industrial control system: a computer system monitoring and
controlling a process by which an operator can monitor and control the process
parameters. The operator can give commands on scada to control hardware in
the field. SCADA systems have become tools that now help field operators
perform their jobs more efficiently, provide an active interface for monitoring and
controlling plants.

Ê



 


Data acquisition is the process of retrieving control information from the

equipment which is out of order or may lead to some problem or when decisions
are need to be taken according to the situation in the equipment. So this acquisition
is done by continuous monitoring of the equipment to which it is employed. The
data accessed are then forwarded onto a telemetry system ready for transfer to the
different sites. They can be analog and digital information gathered by sensors,
such as flow meter, ammeter, etc. It can also be data to control equipment such as
actuators, relays, valves, motors, etc.

  Today it is necessary to keep monitoring the compete plant so a

supervisor of company can monitor the complete plant on his pc. And also scada
shows the real state of the plant graphically to its user. By scada systems a user can
also control the field hardware from its pc without going in the field. It means
scada presents the complete plant in graphical form to its user for controlling and
monitoring. Thus at present time most of companies are using scada systems
because of its features.






A SCADA System usually consists of the following subsystems:

    or HMI is the apparatus which presents process
data to a human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors and
controls the process. A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data
on the process and sending commands (control) to the process.

      (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the process,

converting sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory
system.

!"# $"  (PLCs) used as field devices because they are

more economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs.

 connecting the supervisory system to the   

   

%  &There are various features of scada that¶s why it is mostly used
in industries present time.
The main features are described below

1. Dynamic Representation 7. Recipe Management

2. Alarms 8. Script
3. Trends 9. Networking
4. Security 10. Logging/Archiving
5. Data connectivity
6. Device connectivity
'() *   - SCADA should have good library of symbols so that
you can develop the mimic as per requirement. Once the operator sees the
screen he should know what is going on in. the plant
It is the most important feature of scada because due to this the complete plant can
be represented graphically on pc screen and it looks like that live plant is running.
So in scada we can create the model of a plant on which operator can continuously
monitor the whole plant. And company mangers, supervisors are able to see that
what is happening in the plant on their pc screen.

È
 have a very important role in automation. Generally you have alarm
states for each inputs/outputs like your temperature should not cross 80 deg or
lever should be less than 60. So if the parameters go in alarm state the operator
should be intimated with alarm. Most of the SCADA software support four types
of alarms like LOLO,LO,HI and HIHI. Deadband the value of deadband defines the
range after which a high low alarm condition returns to normal.
Alarms are the most important part of the plant control applications because the
operator must know instantly when something goes wrong. It is often equally
important to have a record of alarms and whether an alarm was acknowledged.
An alarm occurs when something goes wrong. It can signal that a device or
process has ceased operating within acceptable, predefined limits or it can
indicate breakdown, wear or process malfunction

ß(  Trends means graphical representation of data or a parameter .There

are two types of trends available in scada.

+
,(Real Time Trend

+-,(Historical Trend

+
,(     This trend is used for real time monitoring of varying
parameters in the field (like Temperature) in graph form on the screen of pc. So the
user can notice the value changes and status of the parameter in real time. So it is
useful for monitoring varying quantities by graph representation .These are
dynamic and updated continuously during run time. It allows user to chart up to 4
data values.

+-,(    By historical trend feature it is

possible to record the data values up to 10 years so operator can check the data of
last ten years when needed .These are not dynamic and provide a snapshot only of
particular time. It allows user to chart up to 8 data values at a time.

]
"&  is on facility people generally look for. You can allocate certain
facilities or features to the operator, process people, engineering dept and
maintenance dept. for example operators should only operate the system, he
should not be able change the application. The engineers should have access to
changing the application. The engineers should have access to changing the
application developed.

Êhen a new app is created the default user name is ³Administrator´ with an access
level of 9999(which allows access to all security commands).
´( .) It means that the data values in scada can be shared or
monitored on an other application like excel etc. and the data can be stored as a log
file for future use and can access later when needed.
There are 2 options by which data can communicate with other software.

+
,()/" +,- If it is required to communicate data

between two softwares in same pc then this option is selected. Or we can say DDE
is the facility developed by Microsoft for communication of data between two
applications or programs.

/*  Data exchange between Scada and Excel.

+-,(  0& This option is selected when the communication of data is

between two devices via Modem or a cable. Also by this option the scada on
different computers can be exchanged. So we can say it is used when hardware
communication is required.

/* & Data exchange between two different computers.

v
" &"
&"&    you will find there are hundreds of automation

hardware manufacturer like Modicon, Siemens, Allen Bradly, ABB. Everybody has
there own way of communication or we can say they have there own
communication protocol. SCADA software should have connectivity to the
different hardware used in automation. It should not happen that for Modicon I
am buying one software and for Siemens another one. The software like Aspic or
Wonderware has connectivity to almost all hardware used in automation.

o
"&'"
!"" is an additional feature. Some SCADA software support

it, some do not. Most of the plants are manufacturing multi products. When you
have different products to manufacture, you just have to load the recipe of the
particular product.
/*  In wonder ware scada maximum 12 recipes can be prepared at a time
and maximum numbers of items that can be used are 63. So we can say that 12
recipes can be prepared by different combinations of these items.

Also these recipe files can be stored and can be transferred to other scada system or
other computer. So if a company has different plants at different locations then
same recipe can be used in each plant there is no need to create new recipe file for
each plant.
†(*&script is a way of writing logic in scada software. Each scada has its
own instruction set and according to then program is written and system follows
this program and works accordingly it.
So whenever a script is written the system follows the instructions written in script
and works.
There are various types of scripts.

1. Application ± It is linked to entire application means it is common for complete

application.

2. Êindow ± It is linked to a specific Êindow.

3. Key ± It is linked to a specific key or key combination on the keyboard

4. Condition ± It is linked to a discrete Tag name or expressions.

5. Data change ± It is linked to a tag name.

1( 20"&Networking feature enables operator to link scada with different

devices like plc or with other computers and also various scada systems on
different computers can be linked together via network by which they can
communicate with each other.

These are the various features of scada that makes it very useful in industries at
Present time.
And today almost in all large industries scada systems are used.

K
 ((()u*(

The terms logging and archiving are often used to
describe the same facility. However, logging can be thought of as medium-term
storage of data on disk, whereas archiving is long-term storage of data either on
disk or on another permanent storage medium. Logging is typically performed on
a cyclic basis, i.e., once a certain file size, time period or number of points is

reached the data is overwritten. Logging of data can be performed at a set
frequency, or only initiated if the value changes or when a specific predefined
event occurs. Logged data can be transferred to an archive once the log is full. The
logged data is time-stamped and can be filtered when viewed by a user. The
logging of user actions is in general performed together with either a user ID or
station ID. There is often also a VCR facility to play back archived data.
!""
"!



c

c
c( a tag is a logical name for a variable in a device or local memory
(RAM). Tags that receive data from some external devices such as programmable
logic controllers or servers are refereed to as I/O tags. Tags that receive data
internally from software are called memory tags.

c (
c( store a range of values. EX temp, flow, density etc

u
c( to store values such as 0 or 1. EX on/off status of a pump, valves,
switches etc.


c( store information generated while the software is running including
alarm info and system time and date.
(
c( are used to store ASCII strings a series of characters or whole word.
The max string length is 131 characters.
 used to control visibility of an object based on the value of discrete tag
name or expression.
+, used to make an object blink based on the value of the discrete tagname or
expression.
c  used to make an object rotate based on the value of a tagname
/expression.
c used to disable the touch functionality of objects based on the value of a
tagname of expression. Often used as a part of a security strategy.
c
#c
, provides the ability to use text object to display the value of a
discrete, analog or string tagname.
'u

, used to provide ability to vary the fill level of a filled shape
according to the value of an analog tagname or an expression that computes to
an analog value.
uc 
u to an application is optional. It provides the application
developer with the ability to control whether or not specific operators are
allowed to perform specific functions within an application Security is based on
the concept of operator logging on to the application and entering his user name
and password and access level. For each operator access to any protected
function is granted upon verification of his password and access level.

Ê

 
Wonderware InTouch provides a single integrated view of all your controls and
information resources. Intouch enables engineers, supervisors, operators and
managers to view to view and interact with the working of entire operation
through graphical representations of their production processes.



-"
 1(´+2 2 ,

'(Ê2)* & There are 3 types of windows displayed during work with
Intouch 9.5.

+
,(
** " & In this window user has asked to input the location of
saving the project, project name. The user enters these things to proceed.

+-,(Ê20 & In this window the project is developed or created by the

user.
It is of three types and user has to select which type of window he wants to use.

+,( *  )* & If this type is selected to create a new project then it
automatically closes the opened window at that time.

+#,(
.  )22& If this type of window is selected then it will appear on the
top of current window and is larger than that window. Êhen overlay window is
closed any window that is hidden behind it will reappear. And if we click any
window behind overlay window it will bring that window to foreground as active
window.

+,(!**22& It is similar to overlay window except that it always stays on

the top of all other open windows even if another window is clicked. Usually
popup window requires a response from the user in order to be removed.

+,(Ê2. 2 & It is the RUN time window where we can see our project in
running condition and we can mot modify the project in this window and we have
to go again in window maker to modify the project.

To switch between Êindows maker and windows viewer a button is provided in

the upper right corner in the window.
Êhen we are in window maker a button named RUN TIME will display and
clicking on that will take project in run mode and in run mode window clicking on
DEVELOPMENT will take it back again in window maker.
È(" Tag defines a process variable. It is the name given to a process variable.
Three types of tags are used while working with scada,

+
,(
 ""& The tag names given to analog variables such as temperature,
distance etc are known as analog tags.
They are divided in two parts ±

+,(   ""& In this category the actual value is taken or displayed. Ex-
2.3, 5.6 etc.

+#,( "  ""& In this category the approx value is taken or displayed.
Ex- 2, 6,100 etc.

Examples ± filling of tank, temperature etc.

+-,(  "& The tag names given to discrete variables or the items whose
value can only be discrete such as switches, lights etc. It has only two values either
one or zero.
Examples ± Light, Switches etc.

+,(""& These Tags are used to display some message like reset, high
voltage zone etc.

+ß,(# "& In wonderware scada minimum no of tags is 64 and

maximum are 64000.and the user can use the according to its need.

+3,(!0" & The scada is available in there packages and user can select any one
according to need.

+
,()* & In this package the user gets the feature of both development and
run Time means user can develop, modify and can see the project in run time.

+-,()* & In this package the user gets three features Development, Run
Time, Networking. This package is most costly.

+,()* & This type of package is known as factory focus and user can¶t
develop and modify projects. It is used only to see the plant status. The companies
that provide scada also create the plant project of the company for first time and
install it. And the company members can only see the status of the plant and they
are not able to change it.

$  & The companies that make scada also provide license for certain
period as user¶s need. The license is provided in two ways-

+',( 0)* & In this type they installs scada on the system and locate the
product key or license on local
Hard disk. So this scada can not be used on other computer.

+È,(" )* & In this type of license the user can use the scada on different
system also because the license is provided in an usb device so the user inserts the
license via usb in the system when he wants to use scada.

* 0 

There are various companies in world that makes scada software. The main
companies are listed below-

Company Name Scada Name

Siemens(Germany) Êincc(window control center)
Êonderware Intouch
Allen breadlly(Usa) R-s View(Rockwell solutions)
KPIT(Indian) Ashtra
Ge-Fanuc Cimplicity

 & KPIT is only Indian company that makes scada. KPIT stands for Krishna
Palli Institute of Technology.

4

5
%



1. A SCADA system is "normally" significantly cheaper than a DCS.

2. SCADA can continue operating even when telecommunication are temporarily
lost.
3. SCADA systems allow a smaller number of operators to control a large number
of individual assets.
 ]. SCADA systems were designed to be used on large scale systems with
remote assets over a very large geographical area.
5. SCADA system improves operation, maintenance and customer service and
provides rapid response to emergencies.
6. It provides a high level of system reliability and availability.

&&

SCADA is a control system with

U More interfaces and efficient storage

U More record or device oriented configuration
U But system wide configuration tools are needed
U Are less expensive than DCS, but offer different functionality than DCS
U And finally various applications
 #u 

'&

KK

 


' (c

c
 (u
&  
-'&.

*rogrammable logic controllers, also called `
 



 or , are solid-state members of the computer family,
using integrated circuits instead of electromechanical devices to
implement control functions. They are capable of storing instructions,
such as sequencing, timing, counting, arithmetic, data manipulation,
and communication, to control industrial machines and processes.
In an automated system, the *LC is commonly regarded as the
heart of the control system. With a control application program (stored
within the *LC memory) in execution, the *LC constantly monitors the
state of the system through the field input devices' feedback signal. It
will then depend on the program logic to determine the course of
action to be carried out at the field output devices.

The PLC may be used to control a simple and repetitive task, or a

few of them may be interconnected together with other host controllers
or host computers through a sort of communication network, in order
to integrate the control of a complex process.
Programmable controllers have many definitions. However, PLCs
can be thought of in simple terms as industrial computers with
specially designed architecture in both their central units (the PLC
itself) and their interfacing circuitry to field devices (input/output
connections to the real world).
a) Ä
 

Intelligence of an automated system is greatly depending on the
ability of a PLC to read in the signal from various types of automatic
sensing and manual input field devices.
Push-buttons, keypad and toggle switches, which form the basic
man-machine interface, are types of manual input device. On the other
hand, for detection of work-piece, monitoring of moving mechanism,
checking on pressure and or liquid level and many others, the PLC will
have to tap the signal from the specific automatic sensing devices like
proximity switch, limit switch, photoelectric sensor, level sensor and so
on. Types of input signal to the PLC would be of ON/OFF logic or
analogue. These input signals are interfaced to PLC through various
types of PLC input module.

b) ë
 

?n automatic system is incomplete and the PLC system is virtually
paralyzed without means of interface to the field output devices. Some
of the most commonly controlled devices are motors, solenoids, relays
indicators, buzzers and etc.
However, other output devices such as the buzzers and
alarms are merely meant for notifying purpose. Like input signal
interfacing, signal from output devices are interfaced to the PLC
through the wide range of PLC output module.
1-2. =


  
 
=
? programmable controller is currently defined by the National
Electrical Manufacturers ?ssociation (NEM?) as a digital electronic
device that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to
implement specific functions such as logic, sequence, timing,
v
counting, and arithmetic to control machines and processes. However,
this definition is so broad as to encompass nearly every solid-state
device used in manufacturing, from a simple timer to a mainframe
computer. Instead of this definition it is more useful to examine  






 





 
=




 


 
  

1) Ä
 


 
. This characteristic allows
the user to write and change programs in the field without rewriting
or sending the unit back to the manufacturer for this purpose.
2) Ä  



  
. PLCs contain at least logic,
timing, counting, and memory functions that the user can access
through some type of control-oriented programming language.
3) Ä








Äë 

 
 
. This critical feature allows the control
engineer to determine precisely how the machine or process will
respond to the program.
4) Ä

   

 

. ? PLC will
periodically run internal tests of its memory, processor, and I/O
systems to ensure that what it is doing to the machine or process is
what it was programmed to do.
5) Ä
 . ? PLC will provide some form of monitoring
capability, either through indicating lights that show the status of
inputs and outputs, or by external device that can display program
execution status.
6) Ä








. PLCs are designed to withstand the
temperature, humidity, vibration, and noise found in most factory
environments.
7) Ä

 





. Generally a PLC is not
designed for a specific application, but it can handle a wide variety
of control tasks effectively.
o
1-3. =



? PLC consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU) containing
processor, executive memory and application memory, Input and
Output Interfacing modules, which are directly connected to the field
I/O devices. The program controls the PLC so that when an input
signal from an input device is turned on, the appropriate response is
made. The response normally involves turning on or off an output
signal to some sort of output devices.
? simplified model of a PLC is shown in Figure 1-4. The input
modules convert the high-level signals that come from the field
devices to logic-level signals that the PLC's processor can read
directly. The logic solver reads these inputs and decides what the
output states should be, based on the user's program logic. The output
modules convert the logic-level output signals from the logic solver
into the high-level signals that are needed by the various field devices.
The program loader is used to enter the user's program into the
memory or change it and to monitor the execution of the program.
The previous PLC Block Diagram, illustrating its basic functionality.
The control engineer (user) enters the control program on the program
loader. The program loader writes this program into the memory. The
logic solver reads the states of the sensors through the input modules,
then uses this information to solve the logic stored in the user memory
(program) and also writes the resulting output states to the output
devices through the output modules.
1-4. =
   
=
Some PLCs are integrated into a single unit, whereas others are
modular. Ä 
=
are sometimes called
or  
=
because of their small size. If an integrated PLC is available
with the capabilities that a user needs, it is usually the most
economical option. 
=
consist of optional components
required for a more complex control application, as selected and
assembled by the user.
The 
=
include the following components, as
demonstrated in Figure 1-5:
1- The CPU module, containing the CPU and its memory.
2- Input and output modules (I/O modules), to allow the PLC to
read sensors and control actuators.
3- ? power supply module, to provide power to the CPU and often
to provide power to drive sensors and low-power actuators
connected to I/O modules.
4- ? rack or bus, so that the CPU module can exchange data with
I/O modules. In some PLCs, this component isn't required
because each module plugs directly into its neighboring module.
? PLC system with these components is all that is needed to
control an automated system. Since a PLC must be programmed
before it can be used, another component is required:
m ?

  is necessary to create the user-program
and send it to a PLC CPU module's memory.
_
?dditional optional PLC components are often available, including:
m = 





 Äë, so that a central
controller can be connected to remote sensors and actuators.
m  

to allow interconnecting of PLCs and/or
other controllers into distributed control systems.
m ë

 
devices to allow data entry and/or data
monitoring by operators.



   = 

2-1. ë

 




 


The CPU module of a PLC comes with a very different operating
system program than those used in most other computers, and comes
complete with application programs programmed into the CPU's
memory. ! 

 






 =


  

    


   =


   


  
 


   








 


The application
programs allow the user to enter programs and data into the PLC's
memory. Some Parts of the user accessible memory are retained
even when the PLC's power is disconnected.
? PLC retains its operating system, application programs, user
programs, and some data in retentive memory (sometimes called
nonvolatile memory) while the PLC is tuned off and even when
disconnected from the power supply. ? PLC can therefore resume
running a user program as soon as power is restored, although PLCs
are often programmed to require some operator action before
restarting (for safety reasons).
The PLC operating system makes the PLC run user-programs very
differently from the way other computers run user-programs. ? PLC
operating system executes an initialization step once each time it is
put into run mode, and then repeatedly makes the PLC executes a
scan cycle sequence as long as the PLC remains in run mode. This
basic scan cycle inherent in all PLCs is shown in Figure 2-1.
Every time the PLC finishes one scan cycle and starts another, the
operating system also restarts a 
 . The watchdog timer
runs while the scan cycle executes. If the watchdog timer reaches its
pre-set value before being restarted (if a scan cycle takes unusually
long to complete), the PLC will immediately fault, and stop running.
?fter faulting, the PLC usually needs operator intervention before it
can resume running.
=  
?s mentioned previously, some PLCs are integrated into a single
unit and some are modular. ? modular PLC consists of several
components that can be connected by being plugged into a common
bus or rack. Every PLC needs:
m ? CPU module
m ? power supply module
m ?t least one I/O module
?n Integrated PLC contains all of those components in a single
case, so the I/O capabilities of an integrated PLC are decided by the
manufacturer, not by the user. Some integrated PLCs can be
expanded by having additional I/O modules plugged into expansion
sockets, making them somewhat modular.
Modular PLCs must contain a CPU module, a power supply, and
I/O modules in components purchased separately and plugging them
into the same rack. Some manufacturers offer CPU modules with few
built-in high speed I/O capabilities as CPUs for modular systems,
making them somewhat integrated.
3-1. ! =!
?s explained in Figure 3-1, the CPU module contains the central
processing unit and its memory. The memory includes PROM
(programmable read-only memory) containing the PLC¶s operating
system, driver programs, and application programs, and R?M where
the user-written programs and working data are stored. PLC
manufacturers offer various types of retentive memory to save userprograms
and data while power is removed, so that the PLC can
resume execution of the user-written control program as soon as
power is restored. If the PLC has one of the following retentive
memory options, it doesn¶t have to be reprogrammed each time it is
K
turned on, so a keyboard and monitor don¶t need to be included as a
part of every Plc

3-2. !
"=ë"!
During every scan cycle, a CPU module reads and writes I/O
modules that are part of the modular PLC. The CPU module is
connected to each of those I/O modules via a set of parallel
conductors called a bus. In some modular systems, the bus is in a
backplane circuit card in a rack, and all PLC modules are plugged into
slots in the rack. In other modular systems, I/O modules are plugged
into the side of the CPU module or into the side of an I/O module that
is already plugged into the CPU, so bus conductors are connected
through the I/O modules.
Bus conductors are used for data that the CPU can send to or
receive from the I/O modules, several bits at a time. The CPU must
specify which of the I/O modules the CPU wants to read from or write
to. I/O module addresses are assigned automatically according to how
far the module is located away from the CPU module along the bus.
Some bus conductors are used for miscellaneous control signals
passed between the CPU module and I/O modules and to provide
power to run the circuitry inside I/O modules. The bus does not
provide power to operate the sensors or actuators attached to I/O
modules.
3-3. !
ë
"!#
?s shown in Figure 3-2, a power supply module converts available
power to dc power at the level(s) required by the CPU and I/O module
internal circuitry. Usually, the available power is typically 60 Hz/120 V
ac or 50 Hz/220 V ac, although power supply modules are available
for other input power characteristics. Output power must drive the
computer circuitry at 5 V dc. Power supply modules may be connected
to the bus or may have to be wired to the CPU module in modular PLC
systems.

3-4. Äëë!

Input and output modules (I/O modules) allow the PLC to be
connected to sensors and actuators. The I/O modules isolate the lowvoltage,
low-current signals that the PLC uses internally from the
higher-power electrical circuits required by most sensors and
actuators. The user purchases the types of I/O modules that are
needed for the sensors and actuators that need to be used, and the
user can connect several different types (or several of the same type)
K_
of I/O modules to a PLC's bus. I/O modules offered by PLC
manufacturers are designed to work with that manufacturer's CPU
module, so the user can be confident that compatibility won't be a
problem.
Most manufacturers have a wide range of I/O modules that the
user can select from, including:
K 
Äë
, which are used to connect the PLC to sensors
and actuators that can only be switch on and off. Modules are
available for a variety of dc and ac voltages and currents. Each
module typically can be connected to several digital sensors and/or
to several digital actuators of similar electrical characteristics.
È 
Äë
, which are used to connect the PLC to
sensors that can provide electrical signals which are proportional to
a measured value or to actuators that vary their output
proportionally with the electrical signals they receive from an output
analog module. ? single analog I/O module can typically only be
connected to a few sensors or actuators of similar electrical
characteristics.
$ 


  Äë
, each with its own built-in
microprocessor and memory. Intelligent I/O modules are designed
for special purposes such as counting high-frequency signals or
providing servo control of motors.
% = 
  

, which are intelligent I/O
modules that handle the exchange of data via a communication
link. The user-program in the CPU writes data to the
communication interface module, and the module ensures that it is
placed on the communication network. Similarly, the
communication interface module can accept data from other
computers via the communications network and hold it until the
CPU reads it from the module. Modern CPU modules can be
connected directly to communication networks, so communication
interface modules are needed only if communications requirements
exceed the CPU's built-in capabilities.
È
Êhen most PLCs power up, they perform a self-check that includes
searching the bus to determine how many modules are present, in
order to optimize the data exchange that will be performed each scan
cycle. The PLC often exchanges different amounts of information with
different types of I/O modules, so optimization of communication also
requires the PLC to know what type of module is in each slot of the
rack. In a truly optimized data exchange, a PLC will not waste time
reading from an output module and will not try to write data to an input
module. (The CPU module's memory will still contain an input image
and an output image data word for each slot, but the data won't reflect
sensor or actuator states).
3-4-1. 
Äë

Digital input modules allow a CPU module to read input image data
words from the module. Each individual bit of a data word reflects the
open or closed state of a single switch or switched sensor.
Digital output modules accept output image data words from the
CPU module. Each bit of the data word will turn a single actuator on or
off.
Digital I/O modules primarily provide electrical isolation between the
low-power internal circuits of the PLC and the (typically) higher-power
circuits containing sensors or actuators. ? digital output module also
provides a buffering feature so that after the CPU writes a data word
to the output module, the module will retain that data word (holding
some actuators on and others off) until the next scan cycle, when a
new output image data word will be written to the output module.
a) 
Ä


PLC inputs must convert a variety of logic levels to the 5VDC
logic levels used on the data bus. This can be done with circuits
similar to those shown Figure 3-3. Basically the circuits condition
the input to drive an optocoupler. This electrically isolates the
external electrical circuitry from the internal circuitry. Other circuit
components are used to guard against excess or reversed voltage
polarity.

b) 
ë


Note that the PLC outputs must convert the 5VDC logic levels on
the PLC data bus to external voltage levels. This can be done with
circuits similar to those shown in Figure 3-5. Basically the circuits
use an optocoupler to switch external circuitry. This electrically
isolates the external electrical circuitry from the internal circuitry.
Other circuit components are used to guard against excess or
reversed voltage polarity.

3-4-2. 
Äë


Sometimes, the control system requires the PLC to either monitor
an analog voltage or produce an analog voltage. Because analog I/O
modules can interpret continuous signals, analog I/O interfaces are
used in applications, such as batching and temperature control, where
the simple two-state capabilities of discrete I/O systems are
insufficient.

a) 
Ä



Control systems sometimes receive analog signals from analog
transducers like flow transducers, humidity transducers, load cell
transducers, potentiometers, pressure transducers, vibration
transducers, temperature transducers «etc.
?nalog input modules digitize analog input signals, thereby
bringing analog information into the PLC (see Figure 3-6). The
modules store this multi-bit information in register locations inside
the PLC.

b) 
ë


?nalog output interfaces are used in applications requiring the
control of field devices that respond to continuous voltage or
current levels like analog valves, actuators, meters, electric motor
drives«etc. ?n example of this type of field device is a volume
adjust valve (see Figure 3-8). This type of valve, which is used in
hydraulic-based punch presses, requires a 0±10 VDC signal to vary
the volume of oil being pumped to the press cylinders, thereby
changing the speed of the ram or platen.