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Difficult Problem Solving Questions Birthday Probability

If there are 85 students in a statistics class and we assume that there are 365 days in a year,
what is the probability that at least two students in the class have the same birthday (assuming
birthdays are distributed independently)?

A)

B)

C)

D)

E)

Show Answer
Correct Answer: D
Show Explanation

1. Finding P(at least two students with the same birthday) directly will be extremely
difficult. Consequently, we must look for a different way. If we find the complement of
P(at least two students with the same birthday), we can find P(at least two students
with the same birthday) since it will be equal to 1 - P(complement).
P(A) = 1 - P(complement of A)
P(at least two students with the same birthday) = 1 – P(all birthdays are unique)
2. Find P(all birthdays are unique).
3. If every birthday is unique, then with 85 students, there are 85 different days on which
a birthday occurs.
 Let N = Total Students Selected After Student S Selected
Let M = Total Students Selected Before Student S Selected
Let U = Unique Days of Year Remaining Before Student S Selected on Which Future
Students Can Have Unique Birthday
Let P = P(Unique Birthday)
Let O = Students Remaining After Student S Selected

You can draw a table to help solve this problem.

N MU P O
1 0 365 = 365 - 0 365/36584 = 85 - 1
2 1 364 = 365 - 1 364/36583 = 85 - 2
3 2 363 = 365 - 2 363/36582 = 85 - 3
4 3 362 = 365 - 3 362/36581 = 85 - 4

8382283 = 365 - 82283/3652 = 85 - 83

8483282 = 365 - 83282/3651 = 85 - 84
8584281 = 365 - 84281/3650 = 85 - 85
=365 - M =U/365 =85 - N

4. For P(Unique Birthday with 1 student already selected [i.e., the M=1 row]): Since there
are 365 possible days of the year yet only 364 days will satisfy the condition of all
birthdays being unique since 1 day already has a birthday occupying it from the first
student selected, P = 364/365
5. P(all birthdays are unique) = P(unique birthday for 1st person selected) *P(unique
birthday for 2nd person selected) *P(unique birthday for 3rd person selected) ...
*P(unique birthday for 84th person selected) *P(unique birthday for 85th person
selected)
6. Translating this into math by multiplying the values in column P:

P(all birthdays are unique) =

7. At this stage, you should simplify the expression that equals P(all birthdays are
unique).
From 365 to 281, there are (365-281)+1 = 85 numbers (remember that you need to add
1 since it is 365 to 281, inclusive).
8. In the denominator, you know that 365 will be multiplied together 85 times:
Denominator = 36585
9. In the numerator, it is not as easy to simplify. However, you may notice that there
appears to be something resembling a factorial. Specifically, the numerator is 365!
truncated just before 280. If you take 365! and divide it by 280!, every term beneath
281 will cancel out, leaving you with the expression you are looking for in the
numerator.
 10. Combine the numerator and denominator:

11. Use the complement to find the answer to the original question:
P(at least two students with the same birthday) = 1 – P(all birthdays are unique)

P(at least two students with the same birthday) =

What is the units digit of 615 - 74 - 93?

A) 8

B) 7

C) 6

D) 5

E) 4

Show Answer
Correct Answer: C
Show Explanation

1. The authors of the test do not want you to do the calculations long-hand. This would
consume an incredible amount of time and is absolutely unnecessary.
2. In order to determine the units digit of the difference of these three terms, it is essential
to know the units digit of each individual term. Since a digit raised to integer exponent
follows a pattern in its units digit, you need to identify this pattern.
3. In identifying the pattern of the units digit of an exponential expression, it is essential to
remember that you do not need to carry out the entire multiplication process to
determine the units digit of a product. Simply multiply the units digit of each number
being multiplied and the units digit of this product will be the units digit of the entire
expression. For example: (2389283)(24892489) will have a units digit of 7 because
9*3=27 has a units digit of 7.
4. The units digit of 6 raised to an integer exponent follows a definitive pattern.
Consequently, with minimal calculations, you know that the units digit of 615 is 6.
61 = 6 --> units digit of 6
62 = 36 --> units digit of 6
63 = 216 --> units digit of 6
64 = 1,296 --> units digit of 6
6any integer --> units digit of 6
5. The units digit of 7 raised to an integer exponent follows a definitive pattern.
71 = 7 --> units digit of 7
72 = 49 --> units digit of 9
73 = 343 --> units digit of 3
74 --> 3*7 {take units digit of 3 from 343 and multiply by 7} --> units digit of 1
75 --> 1*7 {take units digit of 1 from 74 and multiply by 7} --> units digit of 7
76 --> 7*7 {take units digit of 7 from 75 and multiply by 7} --> units digit of 9
77 --> 9*7 --> units digit of 3
78 --> 3*7 --> units digit of 1

Based upon this pattern, you know that the units digit of 74 is 1.
6. The units digit of 9 raised to an integer exponent follows a definitive pattern.
91 = 9 --> units digit of 9
92 = 81 --> units digit of 1
93 --> 1*9 --> units digit of 9
94 --> 9*9 --> units digit of 1
95 --> 1*9 --> units digit of 9

9 raised to an odd integer has a units digit of 9.

Consequently, you know that the units digit of 93 is 9.
7. Thus far you know that the units digit of 615 – 74 – 93 = units digit of 6 – units digit of 1 –
units digit of 9.
8. Simplify the first two terms of this expression: units digit of 6 – units digit of 1 = units
digit of 5
Note: If you are having trouble believing that this will always hold true, try a few
numbers. For example, 796 - 11 = 785, 56 - 501 = -445, 86 - 271 = -185
9. The expression now reads: units digit of 5 - units digit of 9.
 10. This is perhaps the trickiest part of the question. Some students think that since 5-9=-4,
the units digit of the entire expression will be 4. However, this fails to consider that the
left term could be larger than the right, resulting in a units digit of 6. For example:
15-9=6 {left term is larger}
155-99=56 {left term is larger}
155-999=-844 {right term is larger}
15-99=-84 {right term is larger}
11. Consequently, the crucial question in determining whether the units digit of the final
expression is a 6 or a 4 is whether the left expression is larger than the right. In other
words, "is (615 - 74) greater than 93?"
12. In order to figure this out, take an approximate guess at the value of each term. You
know that 93 will be less than 1000, which is 103, so the question of whether the units
digit is 6 or 4 really rests on whether 615 - 74 is greater than 1000 (in which case the left
term will be larger than the right term and the units digit will be 6) or whether 615 - 74 is
less than a thousand (in which case the right term will be larger than the left term and
the units digit will be 4).
13. The test does not require long tedious calculations and these are not necessary here. It
should be rather clear that 615 - 74 is greater than 1000, in which case the units digit will
be 6, not 4.
14. Units digit of 5 - units digit of 9 = units digit of 6 since the left term (i.e., the one with a
5) is larger than the right term. The final answer is a units digit of 6.
15. Answer choice C is correct.
16. FYI. The expression is: 470,184,984,576 – 2,401 – 729 = 470,184,981,446

If x is a positive integer and z is a non-negative integer such that (2,066)z is a divisor of

3,176,793, what is the value of zx - xz?

A) -81

B) -1

C) 0

D) 1
 E) It Cannot Be Determined

Correct Answer: B

1. An odd integer (e.g., 3,176,793) is not divisible by an even integer. For example, 3 is
not divisible by 2 nor is 15 divisible by 2.
(3,176,793/even integer) --> non integer
2. The only way (2,066)z can possibly be a divisor of 3,176,793 is if (2,066)z is an odd
number. However, if z is any positive integer, (2,066)z will be an even number. (More
specifically, it will have a units digit of 6). As a result, (2,066)z will not be a factor of
3,176,793 if z is a positive integer.
3. Since the question explicitly says that (2,066)z is a factor of 3,176,793, you know that,
somehow, (2,066)z must be an odd number.
4. Remember that any number raised to the power of 0 will be 1.
(any real number)0 = 1
5. The key to this problem is realizing that if z = 0, which is allowed because the question
stem said z "is a non-negative number," (2,066)z will equal 1. Since the only way z can
be a factor 3,176,793 is if z = 0, you know that z = 0.
(3,176,793/(2,066)0) is the only way 2,066z is a factor of 3,176,793
6. You can now rewrite the question as follows:
0(any positive integer) – (any positive integer)0
zx – xz = 0x – x0 = 0(pos int) – (pos int)0
7. Since 0 raised to any positive integer equals 0 and any positive integer raised to 0 is 1,
the question boils down to: 0 – 1 = -1.
0(pos int) – (pos int)0 = 0 – 1 = -1

If (2439 + 18z)(81-18z)(2715 - 9z) = 1, what is the value of z?

A) -27

B) -10

C) 0

D) 10
 E) 27

Show Answer
Correct Answer: D
Show Explanation

1. Rewrite the terms on the left-side with common prime bases.

(2439 + 18z)(81-18z)(2715 – 9z)
= (35(9 + 18z))(34(-18z))(33(15 – 9z))
= (345 + 90z)(3-72z)(3(45 – 27z))
2. Simplify by combining terms with like bases.
(345 + 90z)(3-72z)(3(45 – 27z))
= 345 + 45 + 90z – 72z – 27z
= 390 -9z
3. As a result of this simplification, the equation is much easier to deal with.
390 -9z = 1
4. At this point, the problem may appear unsolvable as different bases and exponents
exist. However, remember that any number raised to the 0th power is 1. Consequently,
1 can be rewritten as 30. The equation now reads:
390 -9z = 1
390 -9z = 1 = 30
5. Since the bases are the same, you can set the exponents equal to each other. The
equation becomes:
90 – 9z = 0
90 = 9z
z = 10

z is a positive integer and multiple of 2; p = 4z, what is the remainder when p is divided by 10?

A) 10

B) 6

C) 4
 D) 0

E) It Cannot Be Determined

Show Answer
Correct Answer: B
Show Explanation

1. It is essential to recognize that the remainder when an integer is divided by 10 is simply

the units digit of that integer. To help see this, consider the following examples:
4/10 is 0 with a remainder of 4
14/10 is 1 with a remainder of 4
5/10 is 0 with a remainder of 5
105/10 is 10 with a remainder of 5
2. It is also essential to remember that the z is a positive integer and multiple of 2. Any
integer that is a multiple of 2 is an even number. So, z must be a positive even integer.
3. With these two observations, the question can be simplified to: "what is the units digit of
4 raised to an even positive integer?"
4. The units digit of 4 raised to an integer follows a specific repeating pattern:
41 = 4
42 = 16
43 = 64
44 = 256
4(odd number) --> units digit of 4
4(even number) --> units digit of 6
There is a clear pattern regarding the units digit. 4 raised to any odd integer has a units
digit of 4 while 4 raised to any even integer has a units digit of 6.
5. Since z must be an even integer, the units digit of p=4z will always be 6. Consequently,
the remainder when p=4z is divided by 10 will always be 6.
In case this is too theoretical, consider the following examples:
z=2 --> p=4z=16 --> p/10 = 1 with a remainder of 6
z=4 --> p=4z=256 --> p/10 = 25 with a remainder of 6
z=6 --> p=4z=4096 --> p/10 = 409 with a remainder of 6
z=8 --> p=4z=65536 --> p/10 = 6553 with a remainder of 6
z is a positive integer and multiple of 2; p = 4z, what is the remainder when p is divided by 10?

A) 10

B) 6

C) 4

D) 0

E) It Cannot Be Determined

Correct Answer: B

1. It is essential to recognize that the remainder when an integer is divided by 10 is simply

the units digit of that integer. To help see this, consider the following examples:
4/10 is 0 with a remainder of 4
14/10 is 1 with a remainder of 4
5/10 is 0 with a remainder of 5
105/10 is 10 with a remainder of 5
2. It is also essential to remember that the z is a positive integer and multiple of 2. Any
integer that is a multiple of 2 is an even number. So, z must be a positive even integer.
3. With these two observations, the question can be simplified to: "what is the units digit of
4 raised to an even positive integer?"
4. The units digit of 4 raised to an integer follows a specific repeating pattern:
41 = 4
42 = 16
43 = 64
44 = 256
4(odd number) --> units digit of 4
4(even number) --> units digit of 6
There is a clear pattern regarding the units digit. 4 raised to any odd integer has a units
digit of 4 while 4 raised to any even integer has a units digit of 6.
5. Since z must be an even integer, the units digit of p=4z will always be 6. Consequently,
the remainder when p=4z is divided by 10 will always be 6.
In case this is too theoretical, consider the following examples:
z=2 --> p=4z=16 --> p/10 = 1 with a remainder of 6
z=4 --> p=4z=256 --> p/10 = 25 with a remainder of 6
 z=6 --> p=4z=4096 --> p/10 = 409 with a remainder of 6
z=8 --> p=4z=65536 --> p/10 = 6553 with a remainder of 6

Walking across campus, a student interviewed a group of students. 25% of the students took a
finance class last semester, 50% took a marketing class last semester, and 40% took neither a
finance nor a marketing class last semester. What percent of the students in the group took
both a finance and a marketing class?

A) 60%

B) 50%

C) 25%

D) 15%

E) 10%

Show Answer
Correct Answer: D
Show Explanation

1. There are two common ways of solving this problem. One involves algebra and the
other involves statistical formulas.
2. Method 1: Use Algebra
1. Assign variables to the groups of interest:
Let b = the percent of students who took both classes (what we are interested
in).
Let f = the percent of students who only took a finance class.
Let m = the percent of students who only took a marketing class.
2. We know that 40% of the students did not take either class, so 60% (=100% -
40%) must have taken either a finance class, a marketing class, or both.
3. This 60% is made up of those three distinct groups: those who took a finance
class only, those who took a marketing class only, and those who took both:
m+f+b=60%.
 4. We know that 25% of the students took a finance class, which is made up of
those who only took this class and those who took both classes:
f+b=25%.
5. Likewise, 50% of the students took a marketing class, made up of those who
only took marketing and those who took both:
m+b=50%.
6. We are interested in finding the value of b (percent who took both classes). So
solve these last two equations for f and m by subtracting b from both sides of
each equation:
f=25%-b.
m=50%-b.
7. Now plug these values of f and m into the first equation:
m+f+b=60%
50%-b + 25%-b + b = 60%.
8. Combine like terms to simplify:
75% - b = 60%.
9. Add b to both sides:
75%= 60% + b.
10. Subtract 60% from both sides:
15%= b.
Thus the correct answer is D.
3. Method 2: Use Statistical Formulas
1. In general, the probability of event M or F occurring is P(M∪F) = P(M) + P(F) -
P(M∩F) where P(M∩F) is the probability of M and F simultaneously occurring.
2. In this problem:
P(M) = the probability of a student taking marketing
P(F) = the probability of a student taking finance
P(M∪F) = the probability of a student taking marketing or finance
P(M∩F) = the probability of a student taking marketing and finance; this is the
variable we are trying to solve for
3. Fill in what we know:
P(M) = 50%
P(F) = 25%
4. An important insight into this problem is to realize that (the probability of a
student taking marketing or finance) + (the probability of a student taking
neither marketing nor finance) = 1 since these two events are complementary
and complementary events must sum to one.
5. The question tells us that "40% took neither a finance nor a marketing class last
semester." As a result, we know that 40% + P(M∪F) = 100%
Consequently: (M∪F) = 60%
 6. Filling all that we know into the fundamental equation:
P(M∪F) = P(M) + P(F) - P(M∩F)
60% = 50% + 25% - P(M∩F)
-15% = - P(M∩F)
P(M∩F) = 15%
Thus the correct answer is D.

The ratio of a compound, by weight, consisting only of substances x, y, and z is 4:6:10,

respectively. Due to a dramatic increase in the surrounding temperature, the composition of the
compound is changed such that the ratio of x to y is halved and the ratio of x to z is tripled. In
the changed compound, if the total weight is 58 lbs, how much does substance x weigh?

A) 48

B) 36

C) 24

D) 12

E) 10

Show Answer
Correct Answer: D
Show Explanation

1. The old ratio of x to y was 4:6. If this ratio is cut in half, then the new ratio of x to y is
2:6.
2. The old ratio of x to z was 4:10. If this ratio is tripled, then the new ratio of x to z is
12:10.
3. In order to combine these two ratios into a new ratio of x:y:z, we must rewrite them so
that the element in common, x, has the same coefficient. With the same x-coefficient,
we can compare the ratios of x:y and x:z. Using a multiplier of 6 on the first ratio (x:y =
2:6) yields x:y = 12:36.
4. Since the new ratio of x:z is 12:10, we can combine the new x:y ratio that we multiplied
by 6/6 with the new x:z ratio in order to arrive at an x:y:z ratio of 12:36:10. In other
 words:
x:z = 12:10
x:y = 12:36
With 12 as a common term:
x:y:z = 12:36:10
5. In order to find the weight of substance x in the total changed compound, set up an
equation of the combination:
x + y + z = 58 lbs
6. Now substitute an unknown multiplier, m, for each quantity to ensure that the ratios are
enforced in the equation (x=12m, y=36m, z=10m):
12m + 36m + 10m = 58 lbs
Note: The unknown multiplier is the ratio by which the 12:36:10 ratio holds true. In
other words, if m = 1, the substances will be in the ratio of 12:36:10. If m = 2, the
substances will be in the ratio of 12(2):36(2):10(2) = 24:72:20
7. Combining like terms simplifies the equation to 58m=58.
8. Dividing through by 58 shows a multiplier of m=1.
9. Using this multiplier in the original equation we set up, we can see that the weight of
x=12(1)=12. Thus, 12lbs or D is correct.

Computer Games Plus needs to get rid of its copies of an old computer game. If it lowers the
cost of the old computer game by $5 dollars, it can increase sales of the old computer game by
10 units and still generate exactly $100 of revenue from the old game. How many units of the
old computer game did Computer Games Plus sell after implementing the new selling
strategy?

A) 10

B) 15

C) 20

D) 30

E) 50

Show Answer
Correct Answer: C
Show Explanation

1. Assign variables to pieces of the problem:

Let n = number of computer game units sold with the old strategy
Let p = price of computer game per unit with the old strategy
2. We know that before the new strategy, the total revenue was $100. Based on the
number of copies sold at the price of the old strategy:
np = $100.
3. We know that with the new strategy, the total revenue was $100. Based on 10 more
copies sold and a $5 reduction in the price per unit:
(n+10)(p-$5) = $100.
4. Expand this second equation:
np - 5n + 10p - 50 = 100.
5. From the first equation, we know that np = $100, so plug that in for np:
100 - 5n + 10p - 50 = 100.
6. From the first equation, if we divide by n, we end up with p = $100/n. Plug this value in
for p:
100 - 5n + 10(100/n) - 50 = 100.
7. Combine like terms:
50 - 5n + 1000/n = 100.
8. Subtract 50 from each side:
1000/n - 5n = 50.
9. Divide by 5:
200/n - n = 10.
10. Multiply through by n:
200 - n2 = 10n
11. Subtract 10n from both sides:
200 - n2 - 10n = 0
12. Rearrange:
-n2 - 10n + 200 = 0
13. Multiply by -1:
n2 + 10n - 200 = 0
14. Factor the quadratic:
(n+20)(n-10) = 0
15. Thus n= -20, or n=10. Since n cannot be negative, n in this case must be 10. However,
do not be tricked into choosing A at this point. We want the number sold with
the new strategy, not the old.
16. n=10 means 10 copies were sold with the old strategy. The new strategy sold 10 more,
resulting in a total of 20 copies sold.
 nnew = nold + 10 = 10 + 10 = 20
The answer is C.

x, y, and z are consecutive positive integers such that x < y < z; which of the following must be
true?

1. xyz is divisible by 6
2. (z-x)(y-x+1)=4
3. xy is odd

A) I only

B) II only

C) III only

D) I and II only

E) I, II, and III

Show Answer
Correct Answer: D
Show Explanation

1. Evaluate each statement one by one, starting with the first.

2. Evaluate Statement I.
1. In order to be divisible by 6, a number must have the prime factors of 6, which
are 2 and 3.
2. In a set of 3 consecutive integers, at least one of them will be even. Any even
number has a 2 as one of its prime factors. Thus, the product of the 3
consecutive positive integers will have a factor of 2.
3. Any consecutive series of 3 integers has a multiple of 3 in it, since every third
integer is a multiple of 3. Thus, either x, y, or z is a multiple of 3 and therefore
has 3 as one of its prime factors. Thus, the product xyz will have a factor of 3.
4. Since xyz will have a 3 and a 2 in its prime factorization tree, xyz must be
divisible by 6. Therefore, I is always true.
 3. Evaluate Statement II.
1. Since x, y, and z are consecutive integers such that x < y < z, we can rewrite y
and z in terms of x: y=x+1, and z=x+2.
2. Substitute these values in the equation:
(z-x)(y-x+1)=4
([x+2]-x)([x+1]-x+1)=4
3. Simplify the equation:
(x-x+2)([x-x+1+1)=4
(2)(1+1) = 2(2) = 4
4. It is clear that II will always be true.
4. Evaluate Statement III.
1. Since x, y, and z are consecutive numbers such that x < y < z, if y is even, then
x and z will both be odd. The product of two odd numbers is odd so xz would
be odd in this case. But, xy = (odd)(even) = even.
2. But, if y is odd, then x and z will be even. The product of two even numbers is
even, so xz is even in this case and xy is also even.
3. Since there is no way to guarantee that both x and y are odd, we cannot
conclude that statement III is always true.
4. Note: Since x and y are consecutive integers, either x or y will always be even.
Consequently, xy will always be even: either (even)(odd) = even OR
(odd)(even) = even.
5. Since I and II must be true, but III is not always true, the correct answer is D.

At a local appliance manufacturing facility, the workers received a 20% hourly pay raise due to
extraordinary performance. If one worker decided to reduce the number of hours that he
worked so that his overall pay would remain unchanged, by approximately what percent would
he reduce the number of hours that he worked?

A) 83%

B) 80%

C) 20%

D) 17%
 E) 12%

Show Answer
Correct Answer: D
Show Explanation

1. This question can be solved using either real numbers or algebra.

2. Method 1: Use Real Numbers.
1. Assume that the worker in question, call him John, earned $50 by working 10
hours for $5 per hour.
2. After the pay-raise, the total amount earned will be the same at $50, but the
hourly rate will increase by 20% to $5(1.2) = $6 per hour.
3. Using the intuition that salary=(hours)(wage), you can find that $50=(hours)($6)
and therefore the number of hours worked after the change in pay will equal
(50/6) = 8.33 hours
4. Since John worked 10 hours before the change in wage and he now works
8.33 hours, John reduced the number of hours he worked by (10-8.33)/10 =
.1666666% = 17%
5. Note: It does not matter what numbers you use, as long as the original pay
equals the post wage-change pay and the wage is increased by 20%.
3. Method 2: Use Algebra.
1. Assign variables to pieces of the problem:
Let p = the percentage of old hours worked after the raise
if p = 95%, the worker labors 95% of the old hours after the raise (i.e., 5% fewer
hours after the raise)
Let r = hourly rate that employees were paid before the raise
Let R = hourly rate that employees were paid after the raise
Let n = number of hours worked before pay-raise
Let N = number of hours worked after pay-raise
2. We know that the total pay before and after the pay-raise equal each other. The
pay before was based on the rate r with hours n while the pay afterwards was
based on rate R and hours N:
rn = RN
3. The rate after the raise was 20% more than the rate before the raise:
R = 1.20r
Plug this value into the equation for R:
rn = RN
rn = 1.20rN
4. We are looking for the percentage of hours worked after the raise, so substitute
N in terms of n and percent p.
 N = pn; the new number of hours equals the old number of hours multiplied by
the percent of old hours worked after the raise
rn = (1.2r)(pn).
5. Divide both sides by r and n:
1 = 1.2p
6. Divide by 1.2 to solve for p:
p = 1/1.2 = 10/12 = 5/6 = .8333 = 83.33%.
7. Be careful: the question asks what percent the worker would reduce his hours,
so subtract from 100% to yield 16.66%, or 17%. The correct answer is D.