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METAL FORMING PROCESSES

Metal Forming - Definitions


• Plastic Deformation Processes
Operations that induce shape changes on the work piece by
plastic deformation under forces applied by various tools and
dies.

• Bulk Deformation Processes


These processes involve large amount of plastic deformation.
The cross-section of work piece changes without volume
change. The ratio cross-section area/volume is small. For
most operations, hot or warm working conditions are
preferred although some operations are carried out at room
temperature.

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Metal Forming - Definitions
• Sheet-Forming Processes
In sheet metalworking operations, the cross-section of
work piece does not change—the material is only
subjected to shape changes.

The ratio cross-section area/volume is very high. Sheet


metalworking operations are performed on thin sheets,
strips or coils of metal (less than 6 mm) by means of a set
of tools called punch and die on machine tools called
stamping presses. They are always performed as cold
working operations.

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Metal Forming - Definitions
• There are three temperature ranges-cold, warm,
and hot working:

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Hot Working Processes
• Involves deformation of preheated material at
temperatures above the recrystallization temperature.
• Often provide an attractive means of producing a desired
shape.
• At elevated temperatures, metals weaken and become
more ductile.
• With continual recrystallization, massive deformation
takes place without exhausting materials plasticity.
• Hot working processes includes :-
1. Rolling
2. Forging
3. Extrusion
4. Drawing
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Hot Working Processes (cont..)
Advantages ;
• Elevated temperatures bring about a decrease in the yield strength of a metal
and increase ductility.
• At the temperature of hot working, recrystallization eliminates the effects of
strain hardening, so there is no significant increase in yield strength or hardness,
or corresponding decrease in ductility.
• The true stress-strain curve is essentially flat once the yield point is exceeded and
deformation can be used to drastically alter the shape of a metal without fear of
fracture and without requirement of excessively high force.
• The elevated temperatures promote diffusion that can remove or reduce
chemical inhomogenities.
- pores can be welded shut or reduce in size during the deformation.
- metallurgical structure can often be altered through recrystallization to
improve final properties.
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Hot Working Processes (cont..)
Disadvantages ;
• The high temperatures may promote undesirable reactions between the metal
and its surroundings.
• Poor tolerances due to thermal contractions.
• Warping and distortion due to non-uniformity in the cooling.
• Possibility of non-uniform metallurgical structure since final grain size depends
on the amount of deformation, temperature at last deformation and cooling
history.

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Rolling Process
• The first process that is used to convert material into a finished wrought product.
• The preheated at 1200 oC cast ingot (the process is known as soaking) is rolled
into one of the three intermediate shapes called blooms, slabs, or billets.
1. Bloom has a square cross section of 150/150 mm or more (w <2t)
2. Slab (40/250 mm or more) is rolled from an ingot or a bloom (rectangular
solid, w>2t)
3. Billet (40/40 mm or more) is rolled from a bloom (square or circular cross
section)

• These intermediate shapes are then rolled into different products as illustrated in
the figure (next slide):-

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Rolling (cont…)

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Rolling (cont…)
• Rolling is a bulk deformation process in which
the thickness of the work metal is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing
rolls.
• Heated metal is passed between two rolls that
rotate in opposite directions.
• The gap between the rolls less than the
thickness of the entering metal.
• The rolls rotate with a surface velocity that
exceeds the speed of the incoming metal and
friction along the contact interface acts to
propel the metal forward.
• The metal is squeezed and elongates to
compensate for the decrease in thickness or
cross-sectional area. 10
Rolling (cont…)
• In hot rolling, as with all hot working processes, temperature control is a
requirement for success.
• The starting material should be heated to a uniform elevated
temperature.
• If the temperature is not uniform, the subsequent deformation will not be
uniform.
• For plain-carbon and low-alloy steels, the soaking temperature is usually
about 2200 F (1200 C).
• Hot rolling is usually terminated when the temperature falls to about 100
to 200 F (50 to 100 C) above the recrystallization temperature of the
material.
• Quality and Precision of Hot Rolled Products
- Uniform and dependable quality of products
- quite unusual to find any voids, seams or lamination.
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Rolling (cont…)
Some production steps in flat and shape rolling:

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Rolling (cont…)

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Flat rolling
Rolling (cont…)

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Rolling (cont…)
The work is squeezed between two rolls so that it
thickness is reduced by an amount called the draft, d
d = to-tf

If the draft is expressed as a fraction of the starting block


thickness, it is called reduction, r:
r = d/to

Rolling increases the work width from an initial value of wo


to a final one of wf, and this is called spreading.

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Rolling (cont…)
The inlet and outlet volume rates of material flow must be the same,
that is,
towovo = tfwfvf
where vo and vf are the entering and exiting velocities of the work.

The power P required to drive each roll is :


P=2πNFL
where N is the rotational speed of the roll, F is the rolling force and L
is the roll strip contact length.

L2 = Rd, R is the roll radius.

F = LwYf, Yf is the average stress, w strip width.


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Rolling (cont…)
The point where roll velocity equals work velocity is known as the
no-slip point or the neutral point.
The amount of slip between the rolls and work can be measured by
the means of forward slip.
S = (Vf – Vr)/Vr
s = forward slip; Vf = exiting work velocity (m/s) ; Vr = roll speed(m/s)

True strain, ɛ = ln (to/tf)


True strain can be used to determine the average flow stress;
Yf = (Kɛn) / 1 + n (Mpa),
Yf = flow stress, K=strength coefficient (MPa), n = strain hardening
exponent; ɛ = max strain during deformation
Maximum draft; dmax = µ2R (mm)
µ = coefficient of friction; R = roll radius
Torque; T = 0.5FL (Nm) 17
Rolling (cont…)
Shape rolling
The work is deformed by a gradual reduction into a contoured
cross section (I-beams, L-beams, U-channels, rails, round,
square bars and rods, etc.).

Ring rolling
Thick-walled ring of small diameter is rolled into a thin-walled
ring of larger diameter.

Thread rolling
Threads are formed on cylindrical parts by rolling them between
two thread dies.

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Rolling (cont…)

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Rolling (cont…)
Defects in Rolled Plates and Sheets
1. Wavy edges on sheets – due to roll bending. The strip is
thinner along its edges than its center.
2. Cracks – poor material ductility at the rolling temperature
3. Alligatoring – due to non-uniform deformation during rolling or
defects in the original cast billet.

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Forging
Forging is a Bulk Deformation Process in which the work is
compressed between two dies.

The metal may be:


- Drawn out to increase its length and decrease its cross section,
- Upset to decrease the length and increase the cross section,
- Squeezed in closed impression dies to produce multidirectional
flow.

According to the degree to which the flow of the metal is


constrained by the dies, there are three types of forging:
• Open-die forging
• Impression-die forging
• Flashless forging
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Forging

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Open-die forging
Forging (cont…)
Known as upsetting, it involves compression of a work between two flat dies,
or platens.

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Forging (cont…)
Impression-die forging (closed die-forging)
In impression-die forging, some of the material flows radially outward to form a flash

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Forging (cont…)
Flashless forging (true closed die forging)
The work material is completely surrounded by the die cavity during
compression and no flash is formed.

Most important requirement in flashless forging is that the work


volume must equal the space in the die cavity to a very close
tolerance. 25
Forging (cont…)
Coining
Special application of flashless forging in which fine detail in
the die are impressed into the top and bottom surfaces of the
workpiece. There is a little flow of metal in coining.

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Forging (cont…)
Calculation of forging Force

1. Open die
F = Yf πr2 (1 + 2µr/3h)

Yf – flow stress, µ- coefficient of friction, r-radius of the


workpiece, h-height of the workpiece.

2. Impression/Closed Die
F = kYfA

k – multiplying factor, A-projected areas of the forging,


including flash.
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Forging (cont…)
Forging Machines
1. Presses
• Require to form larger pieces or thicker products.
• Deformation is analyzed in terms of forces and pressures.
• The slow squeezing action penetrates completely through the
metal producing a more uniform deformation and flow.
• Press forgings usually require less draft than drop forgings and have
higher dimensional accuracy.
• 2 basic types of Forging Press:
1. Mechanical presses – produce a preset and reproducible
stroke, production are capable of up to 50 strokes/minute.
2. Hydraulic presses – move in response to oil pressure in a
piston, slower, more massive, more costly to operate. Usually
more flexible and have greater capacity. 28
Forging (cont…)
Forging Machines
2. Hammers
 Derive their energy from the potential energy of the ram,
which is converted into kinetic energy, thus they are energy
unlimited.
 Operate at high speeds, the resulting of low forming time
minimizes the cooling of a hot forging.
 Low cooling rates, allow the forging of complex shapes,
particularly with thin and deep recesses.
 To complete the forging, several successive blows are usually
made in the same die.
 Available in variety designs, most versatile and least expensive
type of forging equipment.
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Forging (cont…)
Forging machines

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Extrusion
Extrusion
Extrusion is a bulk deformation process in which the work is forced
to flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional
shape.

Extrusion is performed in different ways therefore different classifications


are available:
• Direct and indirect extrusion
• Hot and cold extrusion
• Continuous and discrete extrusion
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Extrusion (cont…)
Metal Flow in Extrusion

 The flow of metal during extrusion is often quite complex and


some care must be exercised to prevent surface cracks, interior
cracks and other flow-related defects.
 Metal near the center of the chamber can often pass through the
die with little distortion, while metal near the surface undergoes
considerable shearing.
 In direct extrusion, friction between the forward-moving billet and
the stationary chamber and die serves to further impede surface
flow.

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Extrusion (cont…)
Direct and Indirect Extrusion
In direct extrusion, a solid ram drives the entire billet to and through
stationary die and must provide additional power to overcome the
frictional resistance between the surface of the moving billet and and
confining chamber.

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Extrusion (cont…)
With indirect extrusion, a ram
pushes the die back through a
stationary confined billet. Since
there is no relative motion,
friction between the billet and
the chamber is eliminated. Lower
force is required and longer billet
can be used.

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Extrusion (cont…)
Force and power analysis in extrusion

The extrusion force F, is estimated as

F = Aok ln (Ao/Af)

Ao and Af are the billet and extruded product areas.

k– extrusion constant (depends on the type of metals)

Power required is calculated as

P = FV ,
where V is the ram velocity. 35
Extrusion (cont…)
Advantages of Extrusion Process :

• Many shapes can be produced that are not possible with


rolling
• No draft is required
• Amount of reduction in a single step is only limited by the
equipment, not the material or the design
• Dies are relatively inexpensive
• Small quantities of a desired shape can be produced
economically.

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Drawing
Drawing (Bar/Rod/Wire)
• Drawing is a bulk deformation process in which the cross-section of
a bar, rod or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening.

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Drawing (cont…)
• Bar drawing is a single-draft operation. By contrast, in wire drawing the wire
is drawn through a series of dies, between 4 and 12.
• The draft, d, is defined as:
d = Do - Df
and reduction, r, is given by:
r = d/Do
Drawing Force
• The expression of drawing force under frictionless conditions is :
F = Yavg ln (Ao/Af)
Yavg is the average true stress of the material.

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Drawing (cont…)
Drawing (Sheet and Plate)

 Hot drawing is used for forming relatively thick-walled parts of


simple geometries, usually cylindrical.
 A flat sheet or plate is formed into a recessed, three-dimensional
part with a depth more than several time the thickness of the
metal.
 Because the material is hot, there is often considerable thinning as
it passes through the dies.
 As punch descend into a mating die, the metal assumes the desired
configuration.

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Drawing (cont…)

Examples of drawing operations: (a) pure drawing and (b) pure stretching. The bead prevents the sheet metal
from flowing freely into the die cavity. (c) Possibility of wrinkling in the unsupported region of a sheet in drawing.

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Drawing (cont…)

(a) Example of drawing process. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup
from the punch. (b) Process variables in drawing process. Except for the punch force, F, all
the parameters indicated in the figure are independent variables.

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Q&A

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