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Metal Forming - Definitions
• Sheet-Forming Processes
In sheet metalworking operations, the cross-section of
work piece does not change—the material is only
subjected to shape changes.
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Metal Forming - Definitions
• There are three temperature ranges-cold, warm,
and hot working:
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Hot Working Processes
• Involves deformation of preheated material at
temperatures above the recrystallization temperature.
• Often provide an attractive means of producing a desired
shape.
• At elevated temperatures, metals weaken and become
more ductile.
• With continual recrystallization, massive deformation
takes place without exhausting materials plasticity.
• Hot working processes includes :-
1. Rolling
2. Forging
3. Extrusion
4. Drawing
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Hot Working Processes (cont..)
Advantages ;
• Elevated temperatures bring about a decrease in the yield strength of a metal
and increase ductility.
• At the temperature of hot working, recrystallization eliminates the effects of
strain hardening, so there is no significant increase in yield strength or hardness,
or corresponding decrease in ductility.
• The true stress-strain curve is essentially flat once the yield point is exceeded and
deformation can be used to drastically alter the shape of a metal without fear of
fracture and without requirement of excessively high force.
• The elevated temperatures promote diffusion that can remove or reduce
chemical inhomogenities.
- pores can be welded shut or reduce in size during the deformation.
- metallurgical structure can often be altered through recrystallization to
improve final properties.
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Hot Working Processes (cont..)
Disadvantages ;
• The high temperatures may promote undesirable reactions between the metal
and its surroundings.
• Poor tolerances due to thermal contractions.
• Warping and distortion due to non-uniformity in the cooling.
• Possibility of non-uniform metallurgical structure since final grain size depends
on the amount of deformation, temperature at last deformation and cooling
history.
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Rolling Process
• The first process that is used to convert material into a finished wrought product.
• The preheated at 1200 oC cast ingot (the process is known as soaking) is rolled
into one of the three intermediate shapes called blooms, slabs, or billets.
1. Bloom has a square cross section of 150/150 mm or more (w <2t)
2. Slab (40/250 mm or more) is rolled from an ingot or a bloom (rectangular
solid, w>2t)
3. Billet (40/40 mm or more) is rolled from a bloom (square or circular cross
section)
• These intermediate shapes are then rolled into different products as illustrated in
the figure (next slide):-
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Rolling (cont…)
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Rolling (cont…)
• Rolling is a bulk deformation process in which
the thickness of the work metal is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing
rolls.
• Heated metal is passed between two rolls that
rotate in opposite directions.
• The gap between the rolls less than the
thickness of the entering metal.
• The rolls rotate with a surface velocity that
exceeds the speed of the incoming metal and
friction along the contact interface acts to
propel the metal forward.
• The metal is squeezed and elongates to
compensate for the decrease in thickness or
cross-sectional area. 10
Rolling (cont…)
• In hot rolling, as with all hot working processes, temperature control is a
requirement for success.
• The starting material should be heated to a uniform elevated
temperature.
• If the temperature is not uniform, the subsequent deformation will not be
uniform.
• For plain-carbon and low-alloy steels, the soaking temperature is usually
about 2200 F (1200 C).
• Hot rolling is usually terminated when the temperature falls to about 100
to 200 F (50 to 100 C) above the recrystallization temperature of the
material.
• Quality and Precision of Hot Rolled Products
- Uniform and dependable quality of products
- quite unusual to find any voids, seams or lamination.
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Rolling (cont…)
Some production steps in flat and shape rolling:
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Rolling (cont…)
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Flat rolling
Rolling (cont…)
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Rolling (cont…)
The work is squeezed between two rolls so that it
thickness is reduced by an amount called the draft, d
d = to-tf
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Rolling (cont…)
The inlet and outlet volume rates of material flow must be the same,
that is,
towovo = tfwfvf
where vo and vf are the entering and exiting velocities of the work.
Ring rolling
Thick-walled ring of small diameter is rolled into a thin-walled
ring of larger diameter.
Thread rolling
Threads are formed on cylindrical parts by rolling them between
two thread dies.
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Rolling (cont…)
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Rolling (cont…)
Defects in Rolled Plates and Sheets
1. Wavy edges on sheets – due to roll bending. The strip is
thinner along its edges than its center.
2. Cracks – poor material ductility at the rolling temperature
3. Alligatoring – due to non-uniform deformation during rolling or
defects in the original cast billet.
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Forging
Forging is a Bulk Deformation Process in which the work is
compressed between two dies.
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Open-die forging
Forging (cont…)
Known as upsetting, it involves compression of a work between two flat dies,
or platens.
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Forging (cont…)
Impression-die forging (closed die-forging)
In impression-die forging, some of the material flows radially outward to form a flash
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Forging (cont…)
Flashless forging (true closed die forging)
The work material is completely surrounded by the die cavity during
compression and no flash is formed.
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Forging (cont…)
Calculation of forging Force
1. Open die
F = Yf πr2 (1 + 2µr/3h)
2. Impression/Closed Die
F = kYfA
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Extrusion
Extrusion
Extrusion is a bulk deformation process in which the work is forced
to flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional
shape.
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Extrusion (cont…)
Direct and Indirect Extrusion
In direct extrusion, a solid ram drives the entire billet to and through
stationary die and must provide additional power to overcome the
frictional resistance between the surface of the moving billet and and
confining chamber.
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Extrusion (cont…)
With indirect extrusion, a ram
pushes the die back through a
stationary confined billet. Since
there is no relative motion,
friction between the billet and
the chamber is eliminated. Lower
force is required and longer billet
can be used.
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Extrusion (cont…)
Force and power analysis in extrusion
F = Aok ln (Ao/Af)
P = FV ,
where V is the ram velocity. 35
Extrusion (cont…)
Advantages of Extrusion Process :
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Drawing
Drawing (Bar/Rod/Wire)
• Drawing is a bulk deformation process in which the cross-section of
a bar, rod or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening.
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Drawing (cont…)
• Bar drawing is a single-draft operation. By contrast, in wire drawing the wire
is drawn through a series of dies, between 4 and 12.
• The draft, d, is defined as:
d = Do - Df
and reduction, r, is given by:
r = d/Do
Drawing Force
• The expression of drawing force under frictionless conditions is :
F = Yavg ln (Ao/Af)
Yavg is the average true stress of the material.
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Drawing (cont…)
Drawing (Sheet and Plate)
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Drawing (cont…)
Examples of drawing operations: (a) pure drawing and (b) pure stretching. The bead prevents the sheet metal
from flowing freely into the die cavity. (c) Possibility of wrinkling in the unsupported region of a sheet in drawing.
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Drawing (cont…)
(a) Example of drawing process. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup
from the punch. (b) Process variables in drawing process. Except for the punch force, F, all
the parameters indicated in the figure are independent variables.
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Q&A
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