OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS

S-108.3110

1
 Course Program
9 6 lectures on Thursdays
™ First lecture Thursday 17.03 in Room 4I-346
™ 10:15-12:00 ((15 minutes break in-between))
9 6 exercises sessions on Fridays
™ Exercises must be returned beforehand (will count in final grade)
™ First exercises session 18.03 in Room 4I-346
™ 13:15-15:00
9 2 labworks
™ Preliminary exercises (will count in final grade)
9 Exam
™ 23.05,
™ XX
9 5 ov

2
 Course Schedule
1. Introduction and Optical Fibers (17.03)

2. Nonlinear Effects in Optical Fibers (24.03)

3. Fiber-Optic Components I (31.03)

4. Fiber-Optic Components II (07.04)

5. Transmitters and Receivers (05.05)

6. p Measurements & Review ((14.04))

Fiber-Optic

3
 Lecturers

In case of problems, questions...

9 Course lecturers
™ G. Genty (5 lectures) goery.genty@tut.fi
™ F. Manoocheri (1 lectures) farshid.manoocheri@tkk.fi

4
 Optical Fiber Concept

9 Optical fibers are light pipes

9 Communications signals can be

transmitted over these hair-thin strands of
glass or plastic

9 Concept is a century old

9 But only used commercially for the last

~30 years when technology had matured

5
 Why Optical Fiber Systems?

9 Optical fibers have more capacity than other

means (a single fiber can carry more
information than a giant copper cable!)
9 Price
9 Speed
S
9 Distance
9 Weight/size
9 Immune from interference
9 Electrical isolation
9 Security

6
 Optical Fiber Applications
Optical fibers are used in many areas

9 > 90% of all long distance telephony

9 > 50% of all local telephony

9 Most CATV (cable television) networks

9 Most LAN (local area network) backbones

9 Many video surveillance links

9 Military

7
 Optical Fiber Technology

An optical fiber consists of two different types of solid glass

9 Core
9 Cladding
9 Mechanical protection layer

9 1970: first fiber with attenuation (loss) <20 dB/km

9 1979: attenuation reduced to 0.2 dB/km commercial systems!

8
 Optical Fiber Communication
Optical fiber systems transmit modulated infrared light

Fiber

Transmitter Components Receiver

Information can be transmitted over

very long distances due to the low attenuation of optical fibers

9
 Frequencies in Communications
ffrequency
100 km 3 kHz
wire pairs Submarine cable
10 km 30 kHz
p
Telephone
1 km Telegraph 300 kHz
100 m 3 MHz
coaxial TV
10 m 30 Mhz
cable Radio
1m 300 MHz
10 cm Satellite 3 GHz
waveguide
1 cm Radar 30 GHz

optical Telephone
1 µm 300 THz
fiber Data
wavelength
a e e gt Video

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Frequencies in Communications

Data rate
Optical Fiber: > Gb/s
Mi
Micro-wave ~10
10 Mb/
Mb/s
Short-wave radio ~100 kb/s
Long-wave radio ~4 Kb/s

Increase of communication capacity and rates

requires higher carrier frequencies

Optical Fiber Communications!

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 Optical Fiber
Optical fibers are cylindrical dielectric waveguides
Dielectric: material which does not conduct electricity but can sustain an electric field

n2 Cladding (pure silica)

Cladding diameter Core diameter
125 µm from 9 to 62.5 µm n1 Core silica doped with Ge, Al…

Typical values of refractive indices

9 Cladding: n2 = 1.460 (silica: SiO2)
9 Core: n1 =11.461
461 (dopants increase ref
ref. index compared to cladding)

A useful parameter: fractional refractive index difference δ = (n1-n2) /n1<<1

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 Fiber Manufacturing
Optical fiber manufacturing is performed in 3 steps

9 Preform (soot) fabrication

™ deposition of core and cladding materials onto a rod using vapors of SiCCL4 and
GeCCL4 mixed
GeCC ed in a flame
a e bu
burned
ed

9 Consolidation of the preform

™p
preform is p
placed in a high
g temperature
p furnace to remove the water vapor
p and obtain
a solid and dense rod

9 Drawing in a tower
™ solid preform is placed in a drawing tower and drawn into a
thin continuous strand of glass fiber

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 Fiber Manufacturing
Step 1 Steps 2&3

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 Light Propagation in Optical Fibers
9 Guiding principle: Total Internal Reflection
™ Critical angle
p
™ Numerical aperture

9 Modes

9 Optical Fiber types

™ Multimode fibers
™ Single mode fibers

9 Attenuation

9 Dispersion
™ Inter-modal
™ Intra-modal

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 Total Internal Reflection

Light is partially reflected and refracted at the interface of two media

with different refractive indices:
9 Reflected ray with angle identical to angle of incidence
9 Refracted ray with angle given by Snell’s law
Snell s law:
Snell’s
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
Angles θ1 & θ2 defined
! p
with respect to normal!
n1 > n2
θ1 θ1
n1
n2
θ2
9 Refracted ray with angle: sin θ2 = n1/ n2 sin θ1
9 Solution only if n1/ n2 sin θ1≤1

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 Total Internal Reflection

Snell’s law: If θ >θc No ray

sin θc = n2 / n1
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 is refracted!

θ1 θ1 n1
θc n1
n1 > n2
n2 n2n2
θ2
n2
n1
θ
n2

For angle θ such that θ >θC , light is fully reflected at

the core-cladding interface: optical fiber principle!

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 Numerical Aperture
9 For angle θ such that θ <θ max, light propagates inside the fiber
9 For angle θ such that θ >θmax, light does not propagate inside the fiber

n2
n1
θc Example: n1 = 1.47
n2 = 1.46
θmax NA = 0.17

n1 − n2
NA = n1 sin θ max = n − n ≈ n1 2δ with δ =
2
1
2
2 << 1
n1

Numerical aperture NA describes

p
the acceptance angle
g θmax for light
g to be g
guided

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 Theory of Light Propagation in Optical Fiber

9 Geometrical optics can’t describe rigorously light propagation in fibers

9 Must be handled by electromagnetic theory (wave propagation)

9 Starting point: Maxwell’s equations

∂B
∇×E =− ((1))
∂
∂T B = µ0 H + M : Magnetic
M ti flflux d
density
it
∂D D = ε0 E + P : Electric flux density
∇×H =J+ (2) with
∂T
J =0 : Current densityy
∇ ⋅ D = ρf (3)
ρf = 0 : Charge density
∇⋅B =0 (4)

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Theory of Light Propagation in Optical Fiber

P (r,t ) = PL (r,t ) + PNL (r,t )

PL (r,t ) = ε0 ∫−∞ χ (1) (t − t1 )E (r,t1 )dt1 : Linear Polarization
+∞
χ(1): linear
susceptibility
PNL (r,T ) : Nonlinear Polarization

We consider only linear propagation: PNL(r,T) negligible

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Theory of Light Propagation in Optical Fiber

1 ∂ 2 E (r , t ) ∂ 2 PL (r , t )
∇ × ∇ × E (r , t ) + 2 = − µ0
c ∂t 2
∂t 2
+∞
We now introduce the Fourier transform: E% (r , ω ) = ∫
-∞
E(r,t)eiωt dt
∂ k E (r , t )
( )
k
⇔ iω E% (r , ω )
∂t k

ω 2
And we get: ∇ × ∇ × E% (r , ω ) − 2 E% (r , ω ) = + µ0ε 0 χ (1) (ω )ω 2 E% (r , ω )
c
which can be rewritten as
ω2
∇ × ∇ × E% (r , ω ) − ⎡⎣1 + c 2 µ0ε 0 χ (1) (ω ) ⎤⎦ E% (r , ω ) = 0
2
c
ω2
i.e. ∇ × ∇ × E% (r , ω ) − 2
ε (ω ) E% (r , ω ) = 0
c

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 Theory of Propagation in Optical Fiber

2
⎡ αc ⎤ 1
ε(ω ) = ⎢n + i ⎥ with n = 1+ ℜ[χ (1) (ω )] n: refractive
f ti index
i d
⎣ 2ω ⎦ 2
ω α: absorption
and α = ℑ[χ (1) (ω )]
cn(ω )

∇ × ∇ × E˜ (r,ω ) = ∇ (∇ ⋅ E˜ (r,ω ))− ∇ 2 E˜ (r,ω ) = −∇ 2 E˜ (r,ω )

(∇ ⋅ E˜ (r,ω ) ∝ ∇ ⋅ D˜ (r,ω ) = 0)

ω 2
∇ E˜ (r,ω ) + n 2 E˜ (r,ω ) = 0 : Helmoltz Equation!
2 2

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 Theory of Light Propagation in Optical Fiber
9 Each components of E(x,y,z,t)=U(x,y,z)ejωt must satisfy the Helmoltz equation
⎧ n = n1 for r ≤ a
⎪
2
∇ 2U + n 2 k0 U = 0 with ⎨ n = n 2 for r > a Note: λ=ω /c
⎪ k = 2π / λ
⎩ 0

9 Assumption: the cladding radius is infinite

9 In cylindrical coodinates the Helmoltz equation becomes
⎧ n = n1 for r ≤ a
∂2U 1 ∂U 1 ∂2U ∂2U 2 2
⎪
+ + + + n k U = 0 with ⎨ n = n 2 for r > a
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂ϕ 2 ∂z 2
0
⎪ k = 2π / λ
⎩ 0 0

x Er
φ
Ez r
z
y
Eφ

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Theory of Light Propagation in Optical Fiber
9 U = U(r,φ,z)= U(r)U(φ) U(z)
9 Consider waves travelling in the z-direction U(z) =e-jβz
9 U(φ) must be 2π periodic U(φ) =e-j lφ , l=0,±1,±2…integer

U (r , ϕ , z ) = F (r )e − jlϕ e − jβz with l = 0,±1,±2...

Plugging into the Helmoltz Eq. one gets :
⎧n = n1 for r ≤ a
d F 1 dF ⎛ 2 2
2
l ⎞ 2
⎪
+ + ⎜ n k − β 2
− F = 0 with ⎨n = n2 for r > a
dr 2 r dr ⎜⎝
0
r2 ⎠ ⎪k = 2π / λ
⎩ 0 0

One can define an effective index of refraction n eff β = k0 neff is the

ω propagation
such that β = n eff , n 2 < n eff < n1 constant
c

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 Theory of Propagation in Optical Fiber

9 A light wave is guided only if n2 k0 ≤ β ≤ n1k0

κ 2 = (n1k 0 ) − β 2
2

9 We introduce Note : κ 2 , γ 2 ≥ 0
γ 2 = β 2 − (n 2 k 0 )
2
κ, γ :real
κ 2 + γ 2 = k02 (n12 − n 22 )= k 02 NA 2 : constant!

We then get :
d 2 F 1 dF ⎛ 2 l 2 ⎞
2
+ + ⎜κ − 2 ⎟F = 0 for r ≤ a
dr r dr ⎝ r ⎠
d 2 F 1 dF ⎛ 2 l 2 ⎞
2
+ − ⎜γ + 2 ⎟F = 0 for r > a
dr r dr ⎝ r ⎠

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Theory of Propagation in Optical Fiber

The solutions of the equations are of the form :

Fl (r ) = J l (κr ) for ρ ≤ a
J l : Bessel function of 1st kind with order l
Fl (r ) = K l (γr ) f ρ >a
for
K l : Modified Bessel function of 1st kind with order l

with
κ 2 = (n1k 0 ) − β 2
2

γ 2 = β 2 − (n 2 k 0 )
2

κ 2 + γ 2 = k02 (n12 − n 22 )= k 02 NA 2 : constant!

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 Examples
l=0 l=3

r
K0(γr) J0(κr) K0(γr) K3(γr) J3(κr) K3(γr)
r
a a a

⎧ J 0 (κr) for r ≤ a ⎧ J 3 (κr) for r ≤ a

F(r) ∝ ⎨ F(r) ∝ ⎨
⎩K 0 (γr) for r < a ⎩K 3 (γr) for r < a

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 Characteristic Equation

9 Boundary conditions at the core-cladding interface

give a condition on the p
g propagation
p g constant β ((characteristics equation)
q )

The propagation constant β can be found by solving

the characteristic equation :
2
⎡ J l' (Κ ) K l' (Γ) ⎤ ⎡ n12 J l' (Κ ) K l' (Γ) ⎤ l 2 β lm2 ⎡ 1 1⎤
⎢ + ⎥×⎢ 2 + ⎥= 2 2 +
⎢⎣ Κ 2 Γ 2 ⎥⎦
Κ
⎣ l J ( Κ ) Γ K l ( Γ ) n
⎦ ⎣ 2 Κ J l ( Κ ) Γ K l ( Γ ) ⎦ n2 k0
with Κ = aκ and Γ = aγ

For each l value there are m solutions for β

Each value βlm corresponds to a particualr fiber mode

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Number of Modes Supported by an Optical Fiber
9 Solution of the characteristics equation U(r,φ,z)=F(r)e-jlϕe-jβlmz is
called a mode, each mode corresponds to a particular
electromagnetic
g field p
pattern of radiation

9 The modes are labeled LPlm

9 Number of modes M supported by an optical fiber is related to the

V parameter defined as
2πa
V = ak0 NA = n12 − n22
λ
9 M is an increasing function of V !

9 If V <2.405, M=1 and only the mode LP01 propagates: the fiber is
said to be Single-Mode
g

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Number of Modes Supported by an Optical Fiber
2
⎛ 2π a ⎞ 2
9 Number of modes well approximated by: M ≈ V / 2, where V ≈ ⎜ ⎟ ( n1 − n2 )
2 2 2

⎝ λ ⎠
10
1.0
LP01

0.8 LP11
21 Example:
02
neff − n2 06
0.6
31 12 41
2a 50 µm
2 =50
core

n1 − n2 22 32
n1 =1.46 V=17.6
0.4 61
51 13 δ=0.005 M=155
0.2
03 23
42 7104
λ=1.3
=1 3 µm
8152
33
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
V

9 If V <2.405, M=1 and only the mode LP01 propagates: Single-Mode

fiber!

cladding
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Examples of Modes in an Optical Fiber
λ =0.6328 µm a =8.335 µm n1 =1.462420 δ =0.034

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Examples of Modes in an Optical Fiber
λ =0.6328 µm a =8.335 µm n1 =1.462420 δ =0.034

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 Cut-Off Wavelength
9 The propagation constant of a given mode depends on wavelength
[β (λ)]

9 The cut-off condition of a mode is defined as β2(λ)-k02 n22= β2(λ)-4π2

n22/λ2=0

9 There exists a wavelength λc above which only the fundamental

mode LP01 can ppropagate
p g

2π Example:
V < 2.405 ⇔ λC = n1a 2δ = 1.84an1 δ 2a =9.2 µm
2.405
2.405 λc λ n1 =1.4690
or equivalently a = = 0.54 c δ=0.0024
2π n1 δ n1δ λc~1.2 µm

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 Single-Mode Guidance
In a single-mode fiber, for wavelengths λ >λc~1.26 µm
only the LP01 mode can propagate

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 Mode Field Diameter

The fundamental mode of a single-mode fiber

pp
is well approximated by
y a Gaussian function

2
⎛ ρ ⎞
− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
F ( ρ ) = Ce ⎝ w0 ⎠

where C is a constant and w0 the mode size

A good approximation for the mode size is obtained from
⎛ 1.619 2.879 ⎞
w0 = a⎜ 0.65 + 3 / 2 + f 1.2 < V < 2.4
for
⎝ V V6 ⎠
a
w0 = for V > 2.4
ln(V )

Fiber Optics Communication Technology-Mynbaev & Scheiner

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 Types of Optical Fibers

Step-index single-mode

n2
Cladding diameter Core diameter
125 µm from 8 to 10 µm n1

n
n1
Refractive index profile
δ = 0.001
n2
r

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 Types of Optical Fibers

Step-index multimode

n2
Cladding diameter Core diameter
from 125 to 400 µm from 50 to 200 µm n1

n
n1
Refractive index profile
δ = 0.01
n2
r

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 Types of Optical Fibers

Graded-index multimode

n2
Cladding diameter Core diameter
from 125 to 140 µm from 50 to 100 µm n1

n
n1
Refractive index profile
n2
r

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 Attenuation
9 Signal attenuation in optical fibers results form 3 phenomena:
™ Absorption
™ Scattering
™ Bending

9 Loss coefficient: α
POut = Pin e −αL
⎛P ⎞ 10
l 10 ⎜⎜ Out = −αL
10 log = −4.343αL
P
⎝ in ⎠ ln(10)
α is usually expressed in units of dB/km : α dB = 4.343α
9 α depends on wavelength

9 For a single-mode fiber, αdB = 0.2 dB/km @ 1550 nm

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 Scattering and Absorption
9 Short wavelength: Rayleigh scattering
4
™ induced by inhomogeneity of the 1st window 2nd 3rd
refractive
f i iindex
d andd proportional
i l to 2
820 nm 1.3
1 3 µm 1.55
1 55 µm

1/λ4 IR absorption
1.0 Rayleigh
0.8 scattering
9 Absorption α ∝1/λ4 W t peaks
Water k
0.4
™ Infrared band UV absorption
™ Ultraviolet band 0.2

0.1
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
9 3 Transmission windows Wavelength (µm)
™ 820 nm
™ 1300 nm
™ 1550 nm

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 Macrobending Losses

Macrodending losses are caused by the bending of fiber

9 Bending of fiber affects the condition θ < θC

9 For single-mode
single mode fiber
fiber, bending losses are important
for curvature radii < 1 cm

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 Microbending Losses

Microdending losses are caused by the rugosity of fiber

Micro-deformation
Micro deformation along the fiber axis results in scattering and power loss

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Attenuation: Single-mode vs. Multimode Fiber
4
2
MMF
Fundamental mode
1

0.4 SMF
Hi h order
Higher d mode
d
0.2
0.1
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Wavelength (µm)

Light in higher-order modes travels longer optical paths

Multimode fiber attenuates more than single-mode fiber

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 Dispersion
9 What is dispersion?
™ Power of a pulse travelling though a fiber is dispersed in time
™ Different spectral components of signal travel at different speeds
™ Results from different phenomena

9 Consequences
C off di
dispersion:
i pulses
l spread
d iin time
i

t t

9 3 Types of dispersion:
™ Inter-modal dispersion (in multimode fibers)
™ Intra-modal dispersion (in multimode and single-mode fibers)
™ Polarization mode dispersion (in single-mode fibers)

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 Dispersion in Multimode Fibers (inter-modal)

Input pulse
Output pulse
Input pulse

t t

9 In a multimode fiber, different modes travel at different speed

temporal spreading (inter
(inter-modal
modal dispersion)

9 Inter-modal dispersion limits the transmission capacity

9 The maximum temporal spreading tolerated is 1/2 bit period

9 The limit is usually expressed in terms of bit rate x distance

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Dispersion in Multimode Fibers (Inter-modal)
9Fastest ray guided along the core center

9Slowest ray is incident at the critical angle

∆T = TSLOW − TFAST
n2
LFAST L
n1 with TFAST = and TSLOW = SLOW
θc Slow ray Fast ray
vFAST vSLOW

θ vFAST = vSLOW =
c
n1
LFAST = L
L L L L n
LSLOW = = = = 1L
cos θ ⎛π ⎞ ssin θC n2
cos⎜ − θ
sin
2 2 2
⎝2 ⎠
n n n L ⎡ n2 ⎤ n1 L
∆T = 1 L − 1 L = 1 1− = δ
c n2 c n2 c ⎢⎣ n1 ⎥⎦ n2 c

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 Dispersion in Multimode Fibers

If bit rate = B b ⋅ s −1
1
We must have ∆T <
2B
L n12 1 p n1 = 1.5 and δ = 0.01 → B × L< 10 Mb·s-1
Example:
i.e. δ<
c n2 2B
cn2
or L × B <
2nδ
2
1

Capacity of multimode-step index index fibers B×L≈20 Mb/s×km

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Dispersion in graded-index Multimode Fibers

Input pulse
Output pulse
Input pulse

t t

9 Fast mode travels a longer physical path

Temporal spreading
is small
9 Slow mode travels a shorter physical path

Capacity of multimode-graded index fibers B×L≈2 Gb/s×km

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 Intra-modal Dispersion
9 In a medium of index n, a signal pulse travels at the group
velocity νg defined as: dω ⎛ λ2 dβ ⎞
−1

vg = = ⎜⎜ − ⎟
dβ ⎝ 2πc dλ ⎠

9Intra-modal dispersion results from 2 phenomena

™ Material dispersion (also called chromatic dispersion)
™ Waveguide dispersion

9 Different spectral components of signal travel at different speeds

9 The dispersion parameter D characterizes the temporal pulse broadening

∆T p
per unit length
g p per unit of spectral
p bandwidth ∆λ: ∆T = D × ∆λ × L

d ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞
⎟=− λ 2
d 2
β
DIntra − modal = in units of ps/nm × km
dλ ⎜⎝ v g ⎟
⎠ 2π c d λ 2

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 Material Dispersion
9 Refractive index n depends on the frequency/wavelength of light

9 Speed of light in material is therefore dependent on

frequency/wavelength

Input pulse, λ1

t
Input pulse, λ2 t

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 Material Dispersion

Refractive index of silica as a function of wavelength

is given by the Sellmeier Equation

A1λ2 A2 λ2 A3λ2
n (λ ) = 1 + 2 + +
λ1 − λ2 λ22 − λ2 λ32 − λ2
with A1 = 0.6961663, λ1 = 68.4043 nm
A2 = 0.4079426, λ 2 = 116.2414 nm
A3 = 0.8974794, λ3 = 9896.161 nm

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 Material Dispersion
−1
λ1 λ2 ⎛ λ2 dβ ⎞ c
v g = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ =
∆λ ⎝ 2πc dλ ⎠ n − λdn / dλ

λ
∆T
Input
p p pulse, λ1

t t
Input pulse, λ2
L

t
d ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞ L
⎟ = − λ∆λ n
d 2
∆T = L∆λD = L∆λ
dλ ⎜⎝ v g ⎟ c
⎠ dλ2

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 Material Dispersion
m)
ps/nm/km

0
-200
-400 λ d 2n
DMaterial =− (units : ps/nm × km)
-600
600 c dλ 2
Material (p

-800
-1000
DMaterial=0@1.27
0@ µm
µ
DM

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Wavelength (µm)

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 Waveguide Dispersion

⎛ 1.619 2.879 ⎞
9 The size w0 of a mode depends on the ratio a/λ : w0 = a⎜ 0.65 + 3 / 2 + ⎟
⎝ V V6 ⎠
λ1 λ2>λ1

9 Consequence: the relative fraction of power in the core and cladding

varies

9 This implies that the group-velocity νg also depends on a/λ

d ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞
⎟= λ d ⎛ λ ⎞
DWaveguide = ⎜ ⎟ where w0 is the mode size
dλ ⎜⎝ v g ⎟ 2π 2 nc dλ ⎜ w2 ⎟
⎠ ⎝ 0⎠

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 Total Dispersion

DIntra−modal = DMaterial + DWaveguide

DIntra-modal<0: normal dispersion region

DIntra-modal>0: anomalous dispersion region

Waveguide dispersion shifts the wavelength of zero-dispersion to 1.32 µm

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 Tuning Dispersion
9 Dispersion can be changed by changing the refractive index
9 Change in index profile affects the waveguide dispersion
9 Total dispersion is changed

20

Single-mode Fiber

n2 10
n2
n1
n1
0
Single-mode Fiber Dispersion shifted Fiber
Dispersion shifted Fiber
Single-mode fiber: D=0 @ 1310 nm -10
1.3 1.4 1.5
Dispersion shifted Fiber: D=0 @ 1550 nm Wavelength (µm)

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Dispersion Related Parameters

ω
β= neff
c
1 dβ
= = β1 : g
group
p delay
y in units of s/km
v g dω
d ⎜⎛ 1
⎞
⎟ = dβ1 = dβ1 dω = β 2 ⎜⎛ − 2πc ⎞⎟
DIntra − modal =
dλ ⎜⎝ v g
⎟ dλ dω dλ
⎠ ⎝ λ ⎠
2

β 2 : group velocity dispersion parameter in units of s 2 /km

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 Polarization Mode Dispersion

9 Optical fibers are not perfectly circular

y

x
x

9 In general, a mode has 2 polarizations (degenerescence): x and y

9 Causes broadening of signal pulse

1 1
∆T = L − ≈ DPolarization L
v gx v gy

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 Effects of Dispersion: Pulse Spreading
Total pulse spreading is determined as the geometric sum of
pulse spreading resulting from intra-modal and inter-modal dispersion

∆T = ∆T 2 + ∆T 2 + ∆T 2
Intermodal Intra - modal Polarization

Multimode Fiber : ∆T = (DInter−modal × L )2 + (DIntra −modal × ∆λ × L )2

(DIntra −modal × ∆λ × L )2 + (DPolarization × )
2
Single - Mode Fiber : ∆T = L

Examples: Consider a LED operating @ .85 µm ∆λ=50 nm after L=1 km, ∆T=5.6 ns
DInter-modal =2.5 ns/km
DIntra-modal =100 ps/nm×km

Consider a DFB laser operating @ 1.5 µm ∆λ =.2 nm after L=100 km, ∆T=0.34 ns!
DIntra-modal =17 ps/nm×km
DPolarization=0.5 ps/ √km

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Effects of Dispersion: Capacity Limitation

Capacity limitation: maximum broadening<1/2f a bit period

1
∆T <
2B
F Single
For Si l - Mode Fib ∆T ≈ LDIntra −modal ∆λ
M d Fiber,
(neglecting polarization effects)
1
⇒ LB <
2DIntra −modal ∆λ

1 55 µm
Example: Consider a DFB laser operating @ 1.55
∆λ =0.2 nm LB<150 Gb/s ×km
D =17 ps/nm×km If L=100 km, BMax=1.5 Gb/s

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 Advantage of Single-Mode Fibers

9 No intermodal dispersion

9 Lower attenuation

p modes
9 No interferences between multiple

9 Easier Input/output coupling

Single-mode fibers are used in long transmission systems

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 Summary

Attractive characteristics of optical fibers:

9 Low transmission loss

9 Enormous bandwidth

9 Immune to electromagnetic noise

9 Low cost

9 Light weight and small dimensions

9 Strong, flexible material

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 Summary
9 Important parameters:
™ NA: numerical aperture (angle of acceptance)
™ V: normalized frequency parameter (number of modes)
™ λc: cut-off wavelength (single-mode guidance)
™ D: dispersion (pulse broadening)

9 Multimode
M lti d fib
fiber
™ Used in local area networks (LANs) / metropolitan area networks
(MANs)
™ Capacity limited by inter-modal dispersion: typically 20 Mb/s x km
f step iindex
for d and d 2 Gb/
Gb/s x kkm ffor graded
d d iindex
d

9 Single-mode fiber
™ Used for short/long distances
™ Capacity limited by dispersion: typically 150 Gb/s x km

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