Journal of Marketing Education

Volume 30 Number 2
August 2008 160-173
© 2008 Sage Publications
10.1177/0273475308319352
Integrating the Development of Graduate http://jmd.sagepub.com
hosted at

Attributes Through Constructive Alignment http://online.sagepub.com

Lesley Treleaven
Ranjit Voola
The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

The importance of graduate attributes is increasingly recognized internationally in higher education and by industry, government,
and accrediting bodies. However, integrating the development of graduate attributes, such as critical thinking and critical reflec-
tion, has proved challenging in business education. This article demonstrates the value of constructive alignment for integrating
graduate attributes into an intensive marketing course. This illustrative Australian study traces the integration of two graduate
attributes from course design, through active student engagement in a range of learning activities, to various assessments of student
learning outcomes using standards-based assessment criteria. The study recommends that graduate attributes are expressed as
learning outcomes and aligned with assessment criteria, that students’ awareness of graduate attributes and their value is devel-
oped, that relevance for students’ future marketing careers is embedded into learning activities, that substantial opportunities for
practice in developing generic skills is offered, that formal and informal feedback from lecturers and peers is provided, and that a
programwide approach to developing and integrating graduate attributes is adopted. Finally, the implications for enhancing
employability skills of new business professionals and for institutions meeting the assurance of learning standards required for
business school accreditation by bodies such as Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, European Quality
Improvement System, and Community of European Management Schools and International Companies are considered.

Keywords: graduate attributes; critical thinking; critical reflection; marketing curriculum; assessment; assurance of learning

G raduate employability is a central concern of contem-

porary higher education. For some time now, commis-
sioned reports into higher education (AC Nielsen Research
Services, 2000; Hager, Holland, & Beckett, 2002) have
highlighted that discipline-specific knowledge is not suffi-
cient for graduate employability. Harvey and Howard (1999)
go further, suggesting that graduates’ success in their jobs
depends more on graduate attributes than on narrow discipline-
specific degrees. Demonstrably, there has been a shift away
from the view that only professional courses, such as medi-
cine, should develop employability skills toward recognition
of their importance in all academic courses (Crammer,
2006). In making the case for this shift in business educa-
tion, Schibrowsky, Peltier, and Boyt (2002) argue for profes-
sionally oriented business schools whose key goal is to
prepare the next generation of business professionals.
There is strong research evidence that such employability
requires the development of graduate attributes (Alexander,
2006; Hoban et al., 2004; Kember & Leung, 2005). As
Thompson, Treleaven, Kamvounias, Beem, and Hill (2008)
note, graduate attributes are variously referred to across edu-
cation and training internationally as key skills (Drew,
Thorpe, & Bannister, 2002), generic attributes (Wright,
1995), key competencies (Mayer, 1992), transferable skills
(Assiter, 1995), employability skills, and soft skills (Business,
Industry and Higher Education Collaboration Council
[BIHECC], 2007). However, there is a wide range of defini-
tions and understandings of what constitutes these graduate
attributes. In this article, we adopt the view of graduate attrib-
utes as defined by the Higher Education Council Australia
(1992) report Achieving Quality as “the skills, personal attrib-
utes and values which should be acquired by all graduates,
regardless of their discipline or field of study. In other words,
they should represent the central achievements of higher edu-
cation as a process” (p. 20). Bath, Smith, Stein, and Swann
(2004) elaborate on these attributes, suggesting that they
include critical thinking, intellectual curiosity, ability to solve
problems, independent thought, ethical practice, communica-
tion, creativity, and integrity. Increasingly, universities world-
wide are expected to develop graduate attributes relating to
Authors’ Note: The financial support received from the Office of
Learning and Teaching, Faculty of Economics and Business,
University of Sydney, for this research is gratefully acknowledged.
We also thank the JME editor Doug Lincoln for his most helpful edi-
torial comments and Jarrod Ormiston for his excellent research assis-
tance. Authors are listed in alphabetical order. Please address
correspondence to Lesley Treleaven, Office of Learning and Teaching
in Economics and Business, Faculty of Economics and Business, Rm
336 Merewether Building (H04), University of Sydney, New South
Wales 2006, Australia; e-mail: l.treleaven@econ.usyd.edu.au.

160
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 Treleaven, Voola / Development of Graduate Attributes Through Constructive Alignment 161

Table 1
International Approaches to Graduate Attributes
Country Approaches to Graduate Attributes

Australia Graduates are expected to develop a “generally accepted” set of attributes by engaging in their degree program.
United Kingdom Universities have either attempted to embed skills within existing courses or offer stand-alone courses.
New Zealand Various measures such as the National Qualification Framework (NQF) have been developed.
Canada Universities have introduced “critical skills” that are seen to be important.
United States Assesses students through work-based or -related learning criteria.
Denmark The qualification framework stipulates completion of a “competence” profile.
Finland Skills courses are integrated into the curriculum.
South Africa NQF includes two sets of outcomes, “critical and specific,” which target graduates’ personal development.

Sources: Crammer (2006) and Harvey and Bowers-Brown (2004).

teamwork abilities and lifelong learning (Barrie, 2004;
Hendry, Hyde, & Barrat, 2006). More recently, awareness of
ethical considerations, global sustainability, and equity issues
including intercultural sensitivity are expected as outcomes of
business education (BIHECC, 2007).
The importance of graduate attributes is increasingly rec-
ognized not only by higher education and industry but also
in the move toward quality assurance by governments and
accrediting bodies. Jones (2002) has drawn attention to how
quality assurance is likely to affect institutional funding and
pedagogy. In the United Kingdom, the National Committee
of Enquiry Into Higher Education (1997) states that higher
education should “sustain a culture which demands disci-
plined thinking, encourages curiosity, challenges existing
ideas and generates new ones, and [creates students who
become] part of the conscience of a democratic society” (p. 1).
Internationally, especially in the United States and Europe,
business school accreditation by bodies such as Association
to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB),
European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS), and
Community of European Management Schools and
International Companies (CEMS) are focusing on assurance
of learning. Universities are required to demonstrate con-
structive alignment (Biggs, 2003) of their program learning
goals, with the achievement of student learning outcomes
that “reflect broad educational expectations . . . (and) reflect
the major intellectual and behavioural competencies a pro-
gram intends to instil in their students” (AACSB, 2007,
p. 4). In the Australian context, employers have been so dis-
satisfied with the skills and competencies of graduates that
the Australian government considered for a time linking
graduate skills testing with federal funding (McClymont,
Volkov, Gardiner, Behjat, & Geoghegan, 2005; Thompson,
2006). Table 1 summarizes the different approaches that var-
ious countries have adopted in dealing with graduate attrib-
utes in their curricula.
The completion of a university qualification is regarded
in some countries as evidence of the development of
graduate attributes. Several countries have adopted more
proactive strategies in developing graduate attributes. For
example, the Danish Qualifications Framework requires the
research-oriented bachelor’s and master’s courses to have a
competence profile, whereas in Australia there are “gener-
ally accepted” graduate attributes that universities are
required to develop in their graduates. In the United States
and Canada, work-based and work-related learning and
portfolios are the primary mechanisms for emphasizing
graduate attributes (Harvey & Bowers-Brown, 2004/2005).
In the marketing education literature, there is some inves-
tigation of the development of graduate attributes (e.g.,
Ackerman, Gross, & Perner, 2003; Duke, 2002; Peltier, Hay,
& Drago, 2006). However, there is a significant gap in high-
lighting how the development of graduate attributes is inte-
grated, especially into a master’s-level course. The aim of
this article is to illustrate the processes of integrating two
graduate attributes through constructive alignment into a
Marketing Strategy course. This integration is traced from
course design, active student engagement in a range of learning
activities and assessment tasks, to assessment of the student
learning outcomes using criteria-referenced standards.
This article is structured as follows: first, the literature in
marketing education relating to graduate attributes is
briefly reviewed. Second, the study setting is contextual-
ized for the illustrative aspects of the marketing courses in
which two overlapping graduate attributes, personal and
intellectual autonomy and research and inquiry, are inte-
grated. Third, the processes of constructive alignment from
course design to learning activities and student assessment
are described in detail. Fourth, the action research approach
and its cycles are discussed, followed by the methods used
to collect and analyze quantitative and qualitative student
evaluations and faculty reflection on outcomes. Next, the
study’s findings are considered and recommendations pro-
vided for course design and pedagogical practice directed
toward improving the integration of graduate attributes into
marketing courses. Finally, the study’s limitations and
future research questions are considered. The implications
for developing business professionals with employability

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162 Journal of Marketing Education
skills and for institutions in being able to meet the
assurance of learning standards required for business
school accreditation by bodies such as AACSB, EQUIS,
and CEMS are then drawn out.
Graduate Attributes and Marketing
Education
Technology in the twenty-first-century workplace
strongly shapes both what and how marketing academics
teach their marketing students (Kelley & Bridges, 2005).
Nevertheless, marketing graduates also need to develop
generic skills, such as interpersonal, writing, and speaking
skills (“Challenges Facing Workers in the Future,” 1999),
often more broadly referred to as graduate attributes.
Although companies were previously willing to spend
money training graduates to develop professional skills
(Georges, 1996), contemporary firms expect new graduates
to have already developed these generic skills as the basis
for their employment (O’Sullivan, 2000). However, there is
an increasing belief in the practitioner community that mar-
keting graduates do not have the necessary skills (Bacon &
Anderson, 2004; Schibrowsky et al., 2002), especially com-
munication and writing skills (West, 2006), further rein-
forcing the importance of integrating graduate attribute
development into marketing education.
In the context of undergraduate marketing programs, sev-
eral studies of graduate attributes have been discussed in the
marketing education literature. For example, Duke (2002)
reports that business students see interpersonal, leadership,
and communication skills for the global economy as impor-
tant. Ackerman et al. (2003) highlight that a key graduate
attribute is the ability of the student to analyze future-oriented
issues, as the contemporary marketplace requires managers
who can visualize futures (Aufreiter, Ouillet, & Scott, 2001).
Both critical thinking and critical reflection, key aspects
of personal and intellectual autonomy and research and
inquiry, are emphasized in the marketing education litera-
ture (Catterall, Maclaran, & Stevens; 2002, Peltier et al.,
2006; Ramocki, 2007). Critical thinking requires the devel-
opment of informal reasoning and argumentation (van
Gelder, 2001a), which are difficult skills to teach (van
Gelder, 2001b). A critical thinker is characterized by the
ability to self-assess, strive to engage in lifelong learning,
and to improve their thinking skills (Celuch & Slama, 2000).
Critical reflection requires challenging taken-for-granted
assumptions and accepted “truths,” thereby developing the
capacity for awareness of and attention to wider moral,
societal, and political issues. Relatedly, the concepts of
metacognition, the ability to “think about thinking,” and of
transfer, the ability to apply concepts from one discipline to
another (Ramocki, 2007), are important in reconceptualizing
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marketing from its current focus on micromarketing man-
agement to strategic marketing principles (Catterall et al.,
2002). However, with the advent of assurance of learning
standards, including outcomes assessments, how graduate
attributes are linked to assessments,1 and learning outcomes
has not been extensively discussed, particularly in the con-
text of a master’s program.
The Study Setting
The study was conducted in a Marketing Strategy course
as part of a master’s program offered in the Faculty of
Economics and Business at the University of Sydney. Three
intensive courses in Marketing Strategy provide the set-
ting.2 The first course took place over three weekends in
February 2007, with one weekend break between the sec-
ond and the third weekend. The second course ran over
three weekends in May-June 2007, with one weekend break
between each of the three weekends. The third course ran
over three weekends in January-February 2008, with one
weekend break between each of the three weekends. Each
intensive course, equivalent to a 13-week semester-long
course, comprised 39 hr of face-to-face classroom engagement
and an expectation of at least 78 hr of individual preparation,
reading, assessment tasks, and revision. The same lecturer
taught each course and marked all assessments.
As a large research-intensive university in metropoli-
tan Sydney, the student demographic includes both local
and international students. The cohort included 18
students in the first course, 21 students in the second
course, and 17 in the third course, most of whom were
majoring in marketing. The majority of the students
undertook the Marketing Strategy course as part of the
Masters of Commerce Program (in which students com-
plete 12 units of study and major in any of the business
disciplines). Although few students were in full-time
work while undertaking the course (four students in the
first course, three students in the second course, and
three students in the third course), some students had
previous business experience or were working part-time.
Each cohort was composed of approximately 70% inter-
national students and 50% to 80% female students.
Constructive Alignment of Graduate
Attributes
The course was first designed by the lecturer3 and
revised in consultation with the senior academic adviser
working on Faculty and University projects to integrate the
development of graduate attributes. They coauthored this arti-
cle. At the University of Sydney, learning outcomes are
 Treleaven, Voola / Development of Graduate Attributes Through Constructive Alignment 163

Table 2
The University of Sydney Five Graduate Attributes
Personal and Intellectual Autonomy: Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will be able to work independently and sustain-
ably, in a way that is informed by openness, curiosity, and a desire to meet new challenges.
Research and Inquiry: Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will be able to create new knowledge and understanding
through the process of research and inquiry.
Information Literacy: Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will be able to use information effectively in a range of contexts.
Communication: Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will recognize and value communication as a tool for negotiating and
creating new understanding, interacting with others, and furthering their own learning.
Ethical, Social, and Professional Understanding: Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will hold personal values and beliefs
consistent with their role as responsible members of local, national, international, and professional communities.

Source: http://www.econ.usyd.edu.au/grad_attributes/

expressed in terms of graduate attributes (http://www.econ
.usyd.edu.au/grad_attributes). The development of the course
outlines in the Faculty of Economics and Business, prepared
on a Unit of Study template, is supported by online guide-
lines (http://teaching.econ.usyd.edu.au/UoS/index.html)
prepared by the Office of Learning and Teaching in consul-
tation with faculty members. These guidelines state,
“Because knowledge changes over time, employers expect
our graduates to have generic qualities and attributes
beyond an ability to recall current theories and facts. Each
learning outcome is expected to contribute to the develop-
ment of one of the five graduate attributes” (http://teaching
.econ.usyd.edu.au/UoS/2_0_home .html). In their Unit of
Study outline, lecturers are required to show the curricu-
lum alignment across intended student learning outcomes
expressed as one of the five graduate attributes, the student
learning activities, the assessment tasks, and the assess-
ment criteria for measuring achievement of learning out-
comes (see appendix for an illustration). Engaging in these
processes of constructive alignment (Biggs, 2003) pro-
vides a basis for designing in the integration of graduate
attributes across the university’s programs at all levels.
However, this ongoing process is by no means standard
across the university or the faculty.
In the Faculty of Economics and Business, these Unit of
Study outlines are reviewed by peers in each discipline before
being provided to students at their first lecture and uploaded
to the course Web site. An annual audit of the extent to which
the Unit of Study outlines complete the provision of informa-
tion on the course, especially the alignment table, provides
useful information for pedagogical support and disciplinary
feedback of exemplars.
Through extensive, multiple-stakeholder research within the
university and on benchmarking similar initiatives with interna-
tional universities, the University of Sydney has identified three
overarching graduate attributes—scholarship (attitude or stand
toward knowledge), lifelong learning (attitude or stand toward
world), and global citizenship (attitude or stand toward personal
development). Within this overarching framework, five specific
but overlapping graduate attributes are emphasized in course
and program development. They are personal and intellectual
autonomy, research and inquiry, information literacy, commu-
nication, and ethical, social, and professional understanding
table 2. describes each of these graduate attributes.
All five graduate attributes were constructively aligned in
the Marketing Strategy course and embedded in the statement
of the learning outcomes. Furthermore, their development
was integrated into the learning activities and assessment
tasks and they were measured using standards-based assess-
ment criteria. For reasons of focus and space, this article
selects only two of these five graduate attributes, personal and
intellectual autonomy and research and inquiry, to illustrate
the approach taken to alignment, integration, and develop-
ment of graduate attributes in the Marketing Strategy course.
Personal and intellectual autonomy refers to the ability of the
students to work independently and sustainably, with open-
ness, curiosity, and a desire to meet new challenges. Research
and inquiry as a graduate attribute refers to the ability to cre-
ate new knowledge and understanding. Both are informative
in this illustrative study as they are interrelated in practice,
especially in terms of developing critical thinking and critical
reflection table 3. describes both of these graduate attributes
in more detail.
A crucial site for graduate attribute development is assess-
ment, because Ramsden (2003) argues that “from our
students’ point of view, assessment always defines the actual
curriculum” (p. 182). Thus, the alignment of assessment with
graduate attribute development is demonstrably a way for-
ward (Boud & Falchikow, 2006). The appendix shows the five
assessment components in the study’s new intensive courses:
seminar and online discussion board participation, online
reflective journal entries, a team-based computer simulation
game, a team-based written case study, and a final exam.
Numerous opportunities structured into the learning activi-
ties and assessment tasks aimed to develop the five graduate
attributes and provide practice in the skills that comprise per-
sonal and intellectual autonomy and research and inquiry.
Participation in seminar and online discussions of marketing

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164 Journal of Marketing Education
Table 3
The Two Graduate Attributes Illustrated in This Study
Personal and Intellectual Autonomy
Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will be
able to work independently and sustainably, in a way that is
informed by openness, curiosity, and a desire to meet
new challenges.
Research and Inquiry
Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will be
able to create new knowledge and understanding through
the process of research and inquiry.
Source: http://www.econ.usyd.edu.au/grad_attributes/
theory and case studies aimed to encourage and develop
students’ ability to think critically about underlying theories,
concepts, assumptions, and arguments in strategic marketing
theory. With no correct answers in strategic marketing, only a
range of better strategies, it was important for students to
develop skills in justifying their assertions and being persua-
sive in their arguments. The debates on the online discussion
board required critical reflection, with the inclusion of context
and justification, to support viewpoints and arguments. Critical
thinking and critical reflection on the lecture topic and
expected reading beyond the text, such as Business Review
Weekly and academic journals, addressed the need to be more
current than textbooks and case studies, which tend to be more
simply backward-looking (Ackerman et al., 2003).
The online reflective journal, introduced on the evidence
that critical reflection is important for contemporary mar-
keters (Ramocki, 2007), was a major tool for developing per-
sonal and intellectual autonomy. Writing a reflective journal
in which a student documents his or her thought processes is
a useful way to engage with and understand the metacogni-
tive processes (Ramocki, 2007) that support critical thinking
and critical reflection. Students were therefore encouraged to
develop each graduate attribute by critically reflecting and
bringing forward new ways of thinking on all aspects of the
course. Six reflective journal entries relating to any core
aspect of strategy, such as competitive advantage, core com-
petence, and strategic analysis, formed the basis for one
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Be open to new ways of thinking and appreciate the importance of
intellectual curiosity and reflection as the foundation for continuous
learning.
Demonstrate a commitment to lifelong learning through continuous
reflection on personal and professional experiences, self-evaluation,
and self-improvement.
Demonstrate a willingness to meet new challenges and deadlines.
Demonstrate a capacity to work independently, including the ability to
plan and achieve goals.
Display a commitment to achieving a broad vision that aims to balance
personal, intellectual, emotional, physical, and social needs, and that
can be sustained.
Identify, define, and analyze problems and recommend creative solutions
within real-world constraints.
Apply economic, political, legal, commercial, and business theories and
concepts to problems and practice.
Critically evaluate underlying theories, concepts, assumptions,
limitations, and arguments in disciplinary and cross-disciplinary
fields of study.
Develop coherent arguments when recommending solutions and
critically evaluating theories in major fields of study.
Appreciate the advancing nature of knowledge frontiers
through research.
assessment task that measured the intended learning out-
comes related to this graduate attribute development.
The team-based written case study assessed students’
ability to apply core marketing strategy concepts to a case
study and justify the application, thereby using critical
thinking skills (Klebba & Hamilton, 2007). Students were
required to identify the strategic problem and/or strategic
opportunity and then propose how to solve or exploit it. The
students not only needed to understand the various market-
ing strategy theories but also to critically reflect on these
theories in the light of their participation in class discus-
sion, their posting on the discussion board before and after
class, and their reflective journal entries. This assessment
task aimed to facilitate their development of the two gradu-
ate attributes as it required thinking critically and creatively
to identify and address marketing strategy issues, question-
ing taken-for-granted assumptions, and justifying their
assertions through developing coherent arguments based on
academic journals.
The team-based computer simulation game required
teams to make a series of complex, “real” world strategic
marketing decisions simulated over a period of 6 to 8 years,
based on their understanding of the key marketing strategy
theories. The simulation placed teams in a dynamic com-
petitive environment in which they devised and pursued
their own strategy while reacting to the moves of their com-
petitors. For most marketing students, this assessment task
 Treleaven, Voola / Development of Graduate Attributes Through Constructive Alignment 165

was a challenge because it required an understanding of Figure 1

finance and operations. Students therefore spent substantial The Action Research Spiral
time outside class between weekend sessions deliberating on
decisions and developing skills of critical thinking, inquiry,
and critical evaluation. The computer simulation game
developed and assessed students’ ability to analyze a com-
mercial situation and to devise and implement a strategy
within an existing industry business model. Team members
had to find their own answers to questions without input
from the lecturer to be fair across teams and to facilitate
autonomous learning. Attending to group dynamics so as to
successfully complete the team simulation also provided
relevant learning opportunities for developing autonomy
and openness to new approaches and different people.
The final exam assessed individual students’ understanding
and critical evaluation of the concepts, tools, and frameworks
covered in the course as well as their application. The 3-hr
exam covered all aspects of the course and included four
short-answer questions, two longer answer questions, and two
questions on a short case study. To achieve a good grade in the
exam, students needed to exhibit key characteristics of the two
graduate attributes: critical thinking, critical reflection,
autonomous learning, and application of marketing strategy
theories.
To integrate and develop each of the graduate attributes,
each assessment task had specific assessment criteria
expressed in graduate attributes terms (see appendix). Each
assessment was designed to challenge students to take up
and defend their positions, because one of the key charac-
teristics of a marketing strategist is the ability to question Adapted from Kemmis and McTaggart (2005, p. 564).
assumptions of marketing strategy and relate concepts from
different perspectives. Argumentation by students was research processes, often represented as a spiral (illustrated
emphasized over reaching one correct answer. Thus, the in Figure 1), show how each cycle iteratively informs the
renowned strategist Kenichi Ohmae (1982) was quoted on next cycle, often widening the focus of inquiry as new
the first page of the course outline: knowledge is taken up from the reflections on each cycle.
Thus the lecturer’s learning from each course, facilitated by
The strategist’s method is very simply, to challenge monitoring student participation, achievements, and feed-
the prevailing assumptions with a single question: back as well as his own reflections with the academic adviser
why? and to put the same question relentlessly to are reflexively part of subsequent cycles to improve student
those responsible for the current way of doing things learning (observing and reflecting). Such an approach is con-
until they are sick of it. (p. 1038) gruent with a model of academic development through
engagement, premised on a social constructivist approach to
learning and teaching (see Rust, O’Donovan, & Price, 2005).
Method It also offers a useful framework to adopt where small
numbers of students preclude more conventional empirical
An action research approach enabled the course improve- data being accepted as definitive.
ments to be systematically planned, implemented, observed, In preparation for the new intensive course, the first cycle
and reflected on in a cyclical manner (Kemmis & commenced with a critically reflective dialogue between the
McTaggart, 2005). Action research is widely used in educa- lecturer and the academic adviser on the two semester-length
tion. Arising historically from the work of Lewin (1946), its courses previously conducted by the lecturer. We anticipated
emphasis is on bringing together action and research in ways that the challenges of the new intensive format for this small
that promote improvement through learning during the par- cohort would be long hours and reduced attention spans in
ticipatory processes of the research itself. The action class over weekends, with little time to prepare or to reflect

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166 Journal of Marketing Education
Table 4
Comparison of USE Results Across Delivery Modes and Over Time
Semester
Unit of Study Evaluation Item 3 Course 1
This unit of study helped me to develop 3.87 (0.68)
generic attributes; e.g. (a) research and
inquiry skills; (b) communication skills;
(c) personal and intellectual autonomy;
(d) ethical, social, and professional
understanding; and (e) information literacy
Note: Values within parentheses are standard deviations. USE = Unit of Study Evaluation. 1= strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree.
between classes during each weekend. Informed by a range of
pedagogical literature on assessment (Boud & Falchikow,
2006), we based the course design principles on promoting
deep approaches to learning (Marton & Säljö, 1976; Prosser
& Trigwell, 1999) through active student learning (Gibbs &
Simpson, 2004/2005), both individual and group activities
(Bacon, 2005; Hamer, 2000; Johnson & Johnson, 2002), and
on experiential learning experiences relevant for the market-
ing industry (Davis, Misra, & Van Auken, 2002).
In the second cycle, a comprehensive constructive align-
ment matrix, integrating all five graduate attributes with
learning outcomes, learning activities, assessment tasks,
and criteria, was developed for the Unit of Study outline
(see appendix, where the alignment for two graduate attrib-
utes is presented.). This approach is consistent with the
increasing evidence in the literature that embedding the
development of graduate attributes in preference to provid-
ing separate programs is more likely to be successful
(Barrie, 2007; Bowden, Hart, King, Trigwell, & Watts,
2000; Hager et al., 2002; Kelley & Bridges, 2005). In this
cycle, the engagement between the lecturer and the acade-
mic adviser using constructive alignment clarified the
intended learning outcomes and the teaching and learning
activities through which they were to be achieved and
assured. The dialogic processes, together with student feed-
back, facilitated increased clarity for both the lecturer’s
classroom practice and students’ understanding of his
expectations in undertaking the assessment tasks.
The constructive alignment matrix was then included in
the Unit of Study outline given to students, as shown in the
appendix, to more seamlessly integrate graduate attributes
into the student learning experience. The lecturer also facil-
itated in-depth critical discussion at both the macro and
micro levels in class. For example, the macro-level discus-
sion centered on employability and graduate attributes,
whereas the micro-level discussion focused on the links
between the graduate attributes, the assessment tasks, and the
criteria on which their achievement would be assessed. In
the third cycle, the engagement between the lecturer and the
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Semester
Course 2 Intensive 1 Intensive 2 Intensive 3
3.93 (0.83) 3.94 (0.62) 4.33 (0.78) 4.71 (0.45)
academic adviser centered on revising the assessment crite-
ria and considering demonstrable evidence for increasing
awareness and development of graduate attributes.
Data Collection, Method, and Analysis
Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected.
The quantitative data included the Unit of Study
Evaluations (USEs) and a survey (Kember & Leung, 2005).
The qualitative data included comments by students on
their USEs and the reflections of the lecturer. The USE,
developed and tested by the university over many years, is
administered at the end of each course and then submitted
to the university for analysis. It provides student feedback
on a set of 12 standard items using a 5-point Likert-type
scale. One USE item specifically measures student percep-
tion of their graduate attribute (generic skills) development.
Table 4 shows the difference in means between five
courses: the two previous semester-long courses in which
graduate attributes were not emphasized; the first intensive
course in which graduate attributes were given more
attention but not constructively aligned; and the second
and third intensive courses where graduate attributes were
highlighted in the course outline and debated in class.
Although there were only relatively small increases over
the first three courses (i.e., 3.87, 3.93, and 3.94) on
whether students felt the course had helped them to
develop generic skills, the mean on this item for the second
intensive increased to 4.33 and the third to 4.71. These
increases suggest that the changes made in the second
intensive course, including constructive alignment of the
graduate attributes, supported students’ focus on graduate
attribute development.
The survey developed by Kember and Leung (2005) is
relevant for the purposes of the study because it measures
key aspects of personal and intellectual autonomy and
research and inquiry: critical thinking and lifelong learning.
It also provides student feedback on the course design and
the opportunities it afforded for active learning that is
 Treleaven, Voola / Development of Graduate Attributes Through Constructive Alignment 167
Table 5
Evaluation of Selected Items Related to Graduate Attribute Development
Survey Item Statement of Ability (Kember & Leung, 2005)
1. Critical thinking Through this course, I developed my ability to make
judgements about opposite perspectives.
I have become more willing to consider differing
points of view.
2. Ability to pursue I feel that I can take responsibility for my own learning.
lifelong learning I have become more confident of my ability to pursue
further learning.
3. Active learning The teaching staff used a variety of teaching methods.
Students were given a chance to participate in class.
Note: 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree.
a. Data not yet available at the time of publication for Intensive 3.
*p < .05.
essential for developing graduate attributes through practice
scaffolded in learning activities throughout the course.
Eighteen students from each intensive course chose to partic-
ipate in the survey conducted on the last day of each course.
Reliability analysis for the Cronbach’s alpha results was
above .7, illustrating internal consistency. As only three
students in the second course did not participate, nonresponse
bias is not an issue.
Table 5 shows the results of the survey and an indepen-
dent sample t test conducted to examine whether there were
any significant differences between the first and second
intensive course. Five of the six statements show significant
differences in means. The ability to pursue lifelong learning
(p = .015 and .001) showed significant differences, whereas
critical thinking showed a significant difference, with .047
on one of the statements. There was no significant difference
for the statement “I have become more willing to consider
differing points of view.” However, as suggested earlier, the
comparison between two different cohorts, each small in
size, needs to be taken into account. There was a significant
increase (p = .008 and .004) on the third item, active learn-
ing, with students indicating that the teaching staff used a
variety of methods and students were given a chance to par-
ticipate in class. The demonstrable improvement in the grad-
uate attribute scores across both measures (Tables 4 and 5)
may reflect the focus on and impact of constructive align-
ment of the graduate attributes in the second and third inten-
sive course.
The qualitative comments written by students on their
USEs strongly reflect their self-reported development
of their critical thinking and coherent argumentation in mar-
keting. Table 6 provides indicative feedback from students.
In addition to self-reporting on the student feedback
surveys, their assessment tasks show evidence of using
graduate attributes in ways that students in the previous
courses had not. Each of the assessments in the second
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Intensive 1 Intensive 2a Significance
3.78 4.39 .047*
4.00 4.45 .110
4.28 4.73 .015*
3.56 4.45 .001*
4.12 4.67 .008*
4.39 4.89 .004*
and third intensive courses provides evidence of questioning
assumptions, critically thinking and reflecting, appreciating
the nature of knowledge frontiers through research, and
developing coherent arguments to justify recommenda-
tions. For example, a student in the third intensive course
questioned the either–or approach to Porter’s (1980)
generic strategies in her exam. That is, she questioned the
assumption that firms must focus either on low cost or dif-
ferentiation and then argued for ambidexterity (i.e., simul-
taneous pursuit of seemingly contradictory strategies).
Other examples of questioning assumptions and critical
thinking in the exam included critiquing, for example, the
marketing concept and the related statement that “the cus-
tomer is always right,” the role of the four Ps in marketing
strategy and, from a broader perspective, the role of mar-
keting in business strategy.
Three examples of students’ online reflections (see Table 7)
further highlight their awareness of the attribute personal
and intellectual autonomy, particularly critical reflection,
which is an important outcome in higher education (van
Gelder, 2001b). These reflective journal entries suggest that
the students engaged in critical thinking by questioning
taken-for-granted assumptions to reconceptualize market-
ing beyond the current micro focus on marketing manage-
ment. Furthermore, the second online reflective journal
highlighted reflecting in practice, where a practitioner con-
sciously alters his or her practice to improve it (Boud,
Keogh, & Walter, 1985; Schon, 1983).
According to the reflections of the lecturer, the second
and third intensive course students engaged more actively
in debating fundamental marketing strategy concepts in
class and online. They were not afraid to discuss and justify
their perspective on issues that were contradictory to tradi-
tional marketing thought. In encouraging these skills of
critical thinking, argument development, and their applica-
tion to marketing theory, it was important that the lecturer
168 Journal of Marketing Education

Table 6
Excerpts From Student USE Qualitative Feedback to the Lecturer
[The lecturer] particularly encourages us to understand the foundations for developing convincing arguments [and] . . . the use of research
articles is encouraged in developing our arguments, particularly the case study analysis.
[The lecturer] . . . gets students to think deeper . . . instead of the usual techniques, such as referring to the textbooks. Autonomous learning
and critically analyzing situations is something I had got out of the class. As a [master’s] student, I think these are very important skills
that I can bring with me into my future career.
[The lecturer] questioned theories that seemed intuitive but which one could not answer and stimulated thinking creatively and independently.

Note: USE = Unit of Study Evaluation.

Table 7
Excerpts From Students’ Reflective Journals
Currently marketing remains enshrouded in mystery in comparison to other business areas such as operations, production, and finance, and this
is because marketing lies somewhere in between being an art and a science. If marketers had more competencies across those named business
units, they could perhaps clear up some of the vagueness surrounding it and plead a better case for themselves at the strategic decision mak-
ing level. The result would be better understanding from other business units and ultimately more favourable business marketing decisions.
Whilst a lot of the concepts are central to all business, the course has actually made me challenge some of the current initiatives our firm has in
place. For example, I have actually gone through an exercise of setting up meetings with some of our partners to really challenge our cur-
rent value propositions for some of our sub-service offerings. It’s very difficult for technical people to clearly articulate the benefits for the
client. They know what they do, but they never really challenge why they do it better than anyone else.
“Capital isn’t that important in business. Experience isn’t that important. You can get both of these things. What is important are ideas (imagina-
tion).” At first glance, I totally disagreed with it [this statement]. I think money should always come first and it is the most important factor in
doing business. I mean how can you start a business without money? Nevertheless, after I came home, read through it again and deliberately
thought about it, I have changed my mind. I agree with this statement. In order to become successful, ideas are actually the most important
factors in doing business. It is undeniable that capital is essential to turn ideas into reality; however, capital is worthless without useful ideas.

Table 8
Excerpts From Lecturer Feedback to Students on the Written Case Study
This report clearly illustrates the core competence required in this course, capacity to think strategically, and it applied the relevant theoretical con-
cepts. You seamlessly integrated core strategic concepts and your strategic recommendations required an in-depth understanding of the concepts.
In some areas, there needed to be more justification. (i.e., more persuasion required). For example, on page 9, there was a discussion of strate-
gic positioning; this needed further development. . . . Furthermore, some theoretical frameworks were discussed and some explanation
provided without clearly explaining the relevance of these frameworks and justification for their application.
The organization of the assessment, including its structure and headings clearly enhanced and supported your arguments. The deductive decision-
making capability was clearly illustrated in the use of research-oriented articles.
Although this report has dealt with some strategic issues, there are several suggestions for improvement. The most important suggestion is to
justify your analysis/recommendations. As suggested previously in class, the key to this assessment task was dealing with the questions of
why and how, as opposed to what (i.e., being persuasive and building a solid argument). Your assignment clearly suggested what the firm
should do; however, the discussion of why and how was not very convincing.

provided feedback to students in class and on their written
work on the development of these graduate attributes. Table 8
therefore illustrates this feedback given by the lecturer in
the context of the written case study assessment.
Written case study reports demonstrate that students
paid particular attention to justifying their strategic recom-
mendations, developing coherent and convincing argu-
ments, and using quality academic references. For example,
one group of students developed a coherent argument for
their choice of a particular recommendation and titled a
section of their case study report “Different Ways to Skin
the Strategic Cat.” They presented four alternative strate-
gies to solve the strategic problem and argued, drawing on
both academic references and their own arguments, how
one strategy was the best option.
An increase in grades for the team-based case study,
from a mean of 69% in the first semester-long course to
73% for the third intensive course, and for the final exam,
from a mean of 60% in the first semester-long course to
68% for the third intensive course, suggests that awareness
and possibly development of graduate attributes played a
role in the students’ completing better assessments.

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 Treleaven, Voola / Development of Graduate Attributes Through Constructive Alignment 169
Findings and Recommendations
In this study, there is evidence on which to claim that
students exhibited an increased awareness of the graduate
attributes in each of the intensive courses. This evidence
includes quantitative and qualitative data from the USEs
(Tables 4 and 6), Kember and Leung’s survey results (Table
5), examples from the assessments (Table 7), and the lec-
turer’s feedback and his reflection (Table 8). During the
period from the initial semester-long course to the third
intensive course, there was also arguably an increase in
integrating and facilitating graduate attribute development
into the course. First, students agreed or strongly agreed
(≥4) that the Unit of Study helped them develop generic
skills (3.94-4.71). Second, students agreed or strongly
agreed that they had developed their critical thinking and
lifelong learning skills, both of which are key aspects of the
two gradate attributes identified as learning outcomes
(Tables 4 and 5). Third, there is increasing evidence of pos-
itive student perceptions regarding their graduate attribute
development with each successive course (Tables 4 and 5).
The significant differences between the first and second
intensive courses in Table 5 suggest that, at a macro level,
the development of the constructive alignment matrix was
important. At a micro level, there were significant differ-
ences in the students’ reporting of their development of spe-
cific skills, such as critical thinking, applied to making
judgments about opposite perspectives. The numerical evi-
dence is confirmed by triangulation with the qualitative
data (Tables 6 to 8).
The qualitative evidence from USEs (Table 6) demon-
strates that the second and third intensive course students
perceived that they developed their critical thinking about
marketing strategy by questioning taken-for-granted
assumptions, key themes in both personal and intellectual
autonomy and research and inquiry. Lastly, the lecturer
feedback on the case studies (Table 8) shows how he rein-
forced the importance of the graduate attributes.
On the basis of this study, the following recommenda-
tions are offered:
1. Constructively align graduate attributes with assess-
ment criteria.
Constructive alignment of learning outcomes, expressed in
terms of graduate attributes, with learning activities, assess-
ment tasks, and assessment criteria is a way forward to
developing the employability skills required of marketing
education in particular and graduate attributes in higher
education more generally. Furthermore, there is a clear
imperative for universities internationally to integrate these
attributes as a result of government and accreditation pres-
sures (AACSB, 2007).
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2. Embed the development of graduate attributes into
course content in ways that students will encounter
in marketing jobs.
Graduate attribute development not only needs to be inte-
grated into marketing curricula but also, as Davis et al.
(2002) argue, in ways that students can see are relevant to
their future careers. Including assessments that are future-
oriented and not just retrospective case analyses will help to
encourage creative skills and critical thinking required for
an unknown future. Contemporary issues related to busi-
ness ethics, equity issues including intercultural sensitivity
and sustainability are an increasingly important focus inter-
nationally for global leaders.
3. Explicitly develop student awareness of the value of
graduate attributes at both the macro level of their
employability and at the micro level of the relation
to their learning activities.
A proactive strategy of integrating graduate attributes
appears to be important as the results in Table 4 show clear
differences in the USE scale between courses where gradu-
ate attributes were and were not emphasized. The signifi-
cant differences in the mean scores highlight the
importance of constructive alignment between graduate
attributes and assessment and emphasizing this relationship
consistently to the students. Based on student feedback and
the lecturer’s reflection, there are plans to highlight further
the employability aspects of graduate attributes through
prominent industry speakers and what they are looking for
in marketing graduates, and to include graduate attribute
development as one topic in the student online reflective
journal entry.
4. Ensure that students have substantial opportunities
to engage in critical thinking processes and critical
reflection in class and online.
The findings suggest that designing a course that promotes
a deep approach to learning is important to support,
develop, and assess the breadth of skills, abilities, and qual-
ities of business graduates. Students need a range of learn-
ing activities and assessment tasks, written and oral,
individual and team-based, that provide opportunities to
practice and thus develop graduate attributes (Bacon &
Stewart, 2006). In this Marketing Strategy course, the
online reflective journal, discussion board debates, and
seminar discussions as well as the team-based written case
study and simulation were a multifaceted approach to such
provision. In contrast, the lecture–exam mode provides
little engagement with active learning to support develop-
ment in practice of the complex skills, values, and attitudes
170 Journal of Marketing Education
(Thompson, 2006) denoted by personal and intellectual
autonomy and research and inquiry.
5. Provide feedback to students that is both formal and
informal in relation to their development of gradu-
ate attributes throughout the course.
Because it is well acknowledged that assessment drives
learning (Boud & Falchikow, 2006), lecturer feedback both
written and verbal not only draws attention to but encour-
ages awareness and development as reflected recursively in
the USE student comments from the second and third inten-
sive courses.
6. Adopt a program-level approach to integrating the
development of graduate attributes.
This study anticipates a new Master of Marketing in which
integration of graduate attributes will take place at the pro-
gram level. Program-level learning goals are aligned with
program-level learning outcomes to be achieved by the indi-
vidual courses (Units of Study). This move means that each
course will contribute to the overall development of gradu-
ate attributes through a scaffolded approach across the full
program. Such a programwide approach to learning out-
comes through the achievement of program-level outcomes
is being sought by accreditation bodies such as the AACSB.
Limitations, Future Research Questions,
and Conclusions
There are three limitations to consider when interpreting
these results. First, there was no baseline testing of graduate
attribute levels of awareness or development achieved
prior to entry into the course. Second, presentation of
student course evaluations and selected assessments from
the small numbers is not statistically convincing or gener-
alizable. Rather, in an action research approach focused
on improving course design and student learning, they
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are illustrative and indicative for successive cycles while
contextualized by the specificity of the course and its local
context. Third, this brief account cannot do justice to the
pedagogical processes of active student learning engaged
in the course, nor control for a different lecturer’s teach-
ing strategies and conceptions of teaching. The latter are
well known to affect student learning outcomes, espe-
cially in regard to deep and shallow approaches to learn-
ing (Prosser & Trigwell, 1999).
Some of these limitations will be addressed when more
data are available from forthcoming Marketing Strategy
courses, such as benchmarking the level of graduate attribute
development at entry. Although this study focused on only
two graduate attributes, future research should address the
integration of other, or preferably all five, graduate attributes.
Development of appropriate taxonomies for graduate attrib-
utes may prove useful in mapping their development across
programs (Popper, 2005). Once graduate attributes are more
widely embedded in courses and programs, it will be impor-
tant for future research to open up questions relating to dif-
ferent strategies and their success in semester-long and
intensive courses and in undergraduate and master’s courses.
In conclusion, despite wide-ranging calls for higher edu-
cation to attend more closely to the development of gradu-
ate attributes for employability, there have been few studies
of integrating graduate attributes into marketing programs,
especially at the master’s level. This article therefore con-
tributes to the marketing education literature by illustrating
how several graduate attributes were integrated through the
constructive alignment of the learning outcomes, across a
range of learning and teaching activities, varied assessment
tasks, and assessment criteria. In the context of increasing
attention being placed on universities to ensure the quality
of student learning outcomes, generally, and on the accred-
itation of higher education programs, more specifically, this
study offers some practical ways forward underpinned by
sound pedagogical principles to address the challenges in
marketing curriculum design and an integrated approach to
developing graduate attributes.
 Appendix
Marketing Strategy Curriculum Alignment Matrix
Intended Graduate
Learning Attributes Learning
Outcomes Emphasized Activities Assessment Tasks and Assessment Criteria

On successful
completion of this Seminar and Online
unit of study, online reflective Team-based
students should be discussion board journal Team-based written computer
able to: participation 10% entries 10% case study 20% simulation 20% Exam 40%

Engage in lifelong Personal and Read text and other Ability to ask relevant Ability to question Demonstrated the Ability to work Ability to think
learning, reflective intellectual materials and be and thought- some of the traditional ability to develop independently and critically and
thinking in autonomy prepared to critically provoking questions assumptions of coherent and as a group to solve differently about key
marketing strategy analyze the topics marketing strategy convincing arguments any problems with concepts and theories
Ability to work Proactive in class that require critical the simulation or
Think critically independently and Make own notes and participation Ability to clearly thinking team process
about underlying sustainably, in a way summaries before articulate why you
marketing strategy that is informed by lectures disagree or agree
theories, concepts, openness, curiosity, with a particular
and assumptions and a desire to meet Contribute strategic topic or
new challenges constructively to concept
discussion board
topics

Reflect and
post online journal
entries

Manage, analyze, Research and inquiry Prepare for lectures Ability to transfer Ability to identify Demonstrated the Demonstrated Additional research
evaluate, and use by conducting new knowledge into and discuss concepts ability to summarize evidence of managing, to support your
marketing-related Ability to create new research on the class discussion and that are strategic the key articles and analyzing, and arguments when

Downloaded from jmd.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on January 8, 2016

information knowledge and relevant topics beyond online discussion by develop coherent responding to vast answering the exam
efficiently and understanding the textbook researching extant Develop coherent arguments based on amounts of questions
effectively through the process academic and or arguments when academic journals information relating
of research and Be able to access practitioner-related recommending to the simulation Apply business
Appreciate the inquiry library databases and literature solutions and critically Identify, define, and theories and concepts
changing nature apply the arguments evaluating theories in analyze strategic to problems and
of the frontiers of in the articles to the major fields of study problems and practice
knowledge in classroom discussion recommend creative
marketing strategy solutions
through research
and conduct
research in
archives, libraries,
and the Web

171
172 Journal of Marketing Education
Notes
1. The term assessment, which may equate to assignment in some
countries, is widely used in Australia and hence used in this article to
denote a learning activity that the student or a group of students completes
and submits for marking against a set of assessment criteria. It is distin-
guishable from assignments that may not be assessed and from evaluation
that takes place at the end of a course by staff and students.
2. It is beyond the scope of this article to examine the challenges and
advantages of intensive course learning and teaching.
3. Lecturer in Australian higher education is equivalent to Assistant
Professor in the United States.
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Lesley Treleaven is a senior lecturer whose academic background in
organizational studies informs her current work as Senior Academic
Adviser in the Office of Learning and Teaching in Economics and
Business. Her research interests in learning and teaching lie in theorizing
embedding, especially in relation to graduate attributes and assessment
and intercultural competence, and she is a team member of two Carrick
Institute for Teaching projects.
Ranjit Voola is a lecturer in marketing at The University of Sydney. His
research interests include strategic marketing and international market-
ing. In the context of teaching, he is interested in examining the integra-
tion of graduate attributes and implementing new technologies and
team-based learning into marketing courses.