Embedded generation
Voltage rise
the big issue when c nnecting
embedded generat on to long
11 kV overhead lines
There has recently been much interest in embedding small generators deep within
distribution systems. The steady-state voltage rise resultingfrom the connection of
these generators can be a major obstacle to their connection at the lower voltage
levels. This article summarises the results of some generic studies, explaining this
voltage rise issue and how it may be overcome.
by C. L. Masters
here has recently been much interest in
T connecting small generators, between
200kW and lOMW, deep within distri-
bution systems. These networks are,
by tradition, passive networks. They were
designed to pass power from the national
grid system, down the voltage levels, to LV
customers. They were generally not designed
for the connection of generators. There are
many technical issues that must be considered
when connecting a generating scheme to the
distribution system, such as:
thermal rating of equipment
system fault levels
stability
reverse power flow capability of tap-changers
line-drop compensation
steady-state voltage rise
losses
power quality (such as flicker, harmonics)
protection.
This article concentrates on the steady-state
voltage rise that occurs when connecting
small generators to l l k V networks and often
seriously impacts on the technical feasibility of
such schemes.
Allowable voltage variations
The Electricity Supply Regulations’ stipulate
that, unless otherwise agreed, the steady-state
voltage of systems between lOOOV and 132kV
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL FEBRUARY 2002
should be maintained within +6% of the
nominal voltage. For systems above 50V and
below lOOOV, variations of between +lo%
and -6% of nominal voltage are permitted.
Prior to the 1994 amendments, variations of
+6% were permitted. This change was a result
of proposals to harmonise the UK electricity
system with those in Europe.
The Electricity Supply Regulations are soon
to be replaced with the Electricity Safety,
Quality and Continuity Regulations.’ They
were due to come into force in October 2001,
but have been delayed due to the numerous
comments made during the consultation
process. The Electricity Safety, Quality and
Continuity Regulations do not propose to
make any immediate changes to the permitted
voltage variations. However, it is proposed
that, with effect from January 2003, the
permitted voltage variations for systems
between 50V and lOOOV will change to +lo%.
It is the Distribution Network Operator’s
(DNO’s) responsibility to ensure that its
systems are operated within the limits
permitted by the Electricity Supply Regula-
tions. However, at the planning stage, the 1lkV
system is often designed to maintain voltages
within *3% of nominal, so that the voltage
variations seen by the LV connected customers
remain within the permitted +lo% and -6%
limits.
When a generator is to be connected to the
distribution system, the DNO will consider
5
Embedded generation

1 Voltage profile along

the heavily loaded 11kV
overhead line used in
the example

primary
substation

- nominal voltage at primary substation

- 103% of nominal voltage at primary substation
- 106% of nominal voltage at primary substation
IO8
106
r ___ +6% voltage limit

104

102

100

98

96

94

92 I I I I I
0 4 8 12 16 20
distance from the primary substation, km

the worst case operating scenarios and ensure
that their network and customers will not be
adversely affected. Typically, these scenarios
are:
no generation and maximum system demand
maximum generation and maximum system
demand
maximum generation and minimum system
demand.
Some DNOs take into account the diversity of
the local load and consider the system with the
minimum expected demand. Others do not,
and assume no load as the worst case scenario.
Distribution systems with no embedded
generation
To transmit power from an l l k V primary
substation to a typical LV connected customer
some distance away will require the voltage
at the primary substation to be higher than
the voltage at the point of connection
of the customer to the 11 kV system. This is
explained using Panel 1.
Generally the X/R ratio of an l l k V overhead
line tends to be low, so neither of the terms RP
or X Q can be neglected. This, coupled with the
fact that the reactive power pushed down the
line is usually much lower in magnitude than
the power (assuming the customer imports
reactive power), leads to there being a voltage
drop along the line from the primary substation
to the point of connection of the customer.
To demonstrate this, consider the following
example (Fig. 1): connected to a primary
substation is a 2Okm long, 1 l k V overhead line,
comprising 16mm2 copper conductors. Every
4km along the line is a three-phase load of
lOOkW and 20kvar. As the distance from the
primary substation increases the voltage falls.
With the primary substation at nominal voltage
(IlkV), the far end of the line falls to 10.3kV
(6% below the nominal voltage). This is right
on the permitted limit. If the line had been
longer or the load greater, the voltage would
have fallen even further.
To maintain system voltages within permit-
ted limits, DNOs often maintain primary
substations above nominal voltage using
automatic voltage control (AVC), on-load
tap-changers and line-drop compensation.

6 POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL FEBRUARY 2002


where
VPS is the primary substation voltage
VC is the voltage at the customer connection point
R, X are the resistance and reactance of the overhead line
P, Q are the power and reactive power transmitted from
the primary substation into the overhead line
Controlling the primary substation, in this
example, to 103%and 106%of nominal voltage
(11.3 kV and 11.7 kV) maintains the end of the
l l k V line well within the permitted voltage
limits.
Although the Electricity Supply Regulations
allow voltage variations on the 11kV system of
c6%, DNOs often impose limits of *3% at the
planning stage. This is in order to maintain
the LV connected customers within the
permitted +lo% and -6% of nominal voltage.
In this generic study the +3% planning limit is
ignored. The l l k V system voltages are allowed
to vary by +6% of nominal voltage, to more
clearly demonstrate the effect of connecting a
generator.
Effect of connecting generation to
distribution systems
Connecting a generator to the distribution
system will affect the flow of power and the
voltage profiles. To export its power, a genera-
tor is likely to have to operate at a higher
voltage than the primary substation, unless it is
-- I_ ___ _I I-.
1
where
VPS is the primary substation voltage
I
VGEN IS the voltage at the generator connection point
R, X are the resistance and reactance of the overhead line
P, Q are the power and reactive power transmitted from
the generator into the overhead line
i
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL FEBRUARY 2002
Embedded generation
able to absorb a significant amount of reactive
power. This is explained using Panel 2.
As the XIR ratio of the l l k V line is small,
neither RP nor X Q is negligible. The XQ term
may be positive or negative, depending on
whether the generator is exporting or
importing reactive power. However, as the
magnitude of the reactive power will be small
compared to that of the power (unless some
form of compensation is used), the RP+XQ
term will tend to be positive. Thus, the voltage
at the point of connection of the generator to
the l l k V system will rise above that of the
primary substation.
To demonstrate this, a 300kW generator
(operating at unity power factor) is connected
l2km from the primary substation (controlled
at 103% of nominal voltage). The output of the
generator is equal to the downstream demand,
so the direction of the power flow from the
primary substation is not altered. The voltage
falls as the distance from the primary sub-
station increases, as before. But the magnitude
of the voltage drop is less profound (Fig. 2).
-I I I ___
VPS
I
tI
VGEN
.
I .. .. " ....
7
Embedded generation

the transformer's tap-changers are capable of

-no generation operating with a reverse power flow.
-300 kW generator
-1 MW generator /-- How can this voltage rise be counteracted?
g 109 If the connection of a generator to an 11 kV
<-
m
c
107 overhead line causes an excessive voltage
2
._ 105 rise, there are several techniques that can
E be employed to alleviate the situation, for
e
c
103
example:
8 101
reduce the primary substation voltage

97
99 0 1 4 8 12 16 20
full demand on the line
distance from the primary substation, km
2 Effect of connecting a
generator On thevoltage
profile along the 11kV
line used in the
3 rural3311 1kV
primary substation
k adversely impact on any of its customers. If
0 4 8 12 16 20
no demand on the line
Increasing- the -
generation to 1MW reverses
the flow of power along the line, from the
generator towards the primary substation.
The voltage at the generator rises above that
elsewhere, thus allowing the power to be
exported in both directions. In this example,
the voltage in some parts of the system rises
above the permitted +6% voltage limit.
The voltage rise is more onerous when
there is no demand on the system, as all
the generation is exported back to the
primary substation. With 1MW of generation
connected, the voltage rises to 112% of
nominal. This suggests that it is the voltage rise
during periods of no/minimum demand that
limits how much generation can be connected.
When connecting a generator to the distri-
bution system, a DNO must consider whether
the power may be exported back through the
primary substation and must ensure that
allow the generator to import reactive power
(reducing the RP+XQ term)
install auto transformers, or voltage regu-
lators as they are often called, along the line
(resetting the voltage along the line)
increase the conductor size (reducing the
resistance)
constrain the generator at times of low
demand (reducing the transmitted power)
a combination of the above.
Reduce the primary substation voltage
It is common practice for DNOs to maintain
l l k V primary substations above nominal
voltage to ensure that system voltages remain
within the permitted -6% voltage limit. In the
previous example, the voltage at the 1MW
generator is 109% of nominal (under full-
load conditions). Lowering the voltage at the
primary substation from 103% to 100% of
nominal reduces the voltage rise to just below
the permitted +6%voltage limit (Fig. 4). It also
reduces the voltage during periods of no
system demand to around 110% of nominal,
which is not sufficient.
Before lowering the voltage at a primary
substation, a DNO must ensure that it will not
there are other feeders connected to the
primary substation or teed off the l l k V line,
the voltage profile along these circuits may be
depressed. This may reduce the voltage of the
LV customers connected to these feeders below
the permitted -6% limit.
Also, if the generator is not exporting power,
the system voltages will be depressed. In this
example, the primary substation is maintained
at 103%of nominal to ensure that the voltage
2Okm away is satisfactory. If the primary
substation voltage is reduced to l l k V in order
to connect the generator, the voltage at the end
of the line will drop to 94% of nominal
whenever the generator is not exporting power.
The DNO must consider how it will correct this
voltage depression. One solution may involve

8 POWER ENGI NEERlN G JOURNAL FEBRUARY 2002

 Embedded generation

4 Effect of using various

- example system methods to reduce the

voltage rise on the 11kV
- effect of reducing primary substation to nominal voltage line used in the example
effect of the generator operating at 0 9 power factor leading
- effect of installing an auto transformer, 8 km from the
I

primary substation
- effect of upgradingthe line with 70 mm* copper conductor
110 - effect of constraining the generator
... --- +6% volta

I I I I I I I I I I
0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
full demand on the line no demand on the line

I distance from the primary substation, km

customer minutes lost while the off-circuit lowered sufficiently.

tap-changers are reset on the 11/0-415kV If a generator is to import significant levels
distribution transformers. However, this may of reactive power, it may be necessary to agree
not be practical if there are long lines or many a charging mechanism with a supplier to cover
distribution transformers involved. the costs involved with purchasing and
transporting these extra kvars. The DNO must
Import reactive power also consider the effect that this additional
DNOs may stipulate that generators operate at reactive power flow will have on system losses
leading, lagging or even unity power factor, and the loading on circuits. The effect of the
depending on the X/R ratio of the system, generator tripping must also be considered, as
voltage regulation, local load etc. Generators this will cause a transient voltage rise. It may
are typically operated at a power factor such take the transformer tap-changers at the
that if they trip, when at rated generation, the primary substation several seconds to respond
disturbance to the system is minimised. and restore the voltages. Under such circum-
The amount of reactive power that can stances a DNO may be able to use a switched 5 Typical rural1 l k v
be imported is generally governed by the 'capacitor bank or some other form of reactive overhead line
parameters of the generator. Typically a
synchronous generator can import reactive
power at a 0.95 power factor. Wind turbines,
with uncompensated induction generators, can
import reactive power at around a 0.9 power
factor.
In the initial example the 1MW generator
operates at unity power factor. The voltage
rises to almost 109% of nominal (under full
load conditions) and 113% of nominal (under
no load conditions). Allowing the generator to
operate at a leading power factor of 0.9 limits
the voltage rise to 104%and 108%of nominal,
respectively (Fig. 4). With maximum demand
on the system, this brings the voltages within
the permitted +6% voltage limit. During
periods of no system demand, the voltage is not

'
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL FEBRUARY 2002 9
Embedded generation

6 Some guidance as to
the level of generation
that can be accepted
onto an 11kV overhead
line
- 16 mm2 conductor, 11 kV at primary substation
- 16 mm2conductor, 11.3 kV at primary substation
- 16 mm2 conductor, 11.6 kV at primary substation
- - - 70 mm2 conductor, 11 kV at primary substation
- - - 70 mm* conductor, 11.3 kV at primary substation
--- 70 mm2 conductor, 11.6 kV at primary substation

0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
distance, km

power compensation to restore the system
voltages.
Install auto transformers along the line
Auto transformers (voltage regulators or
voltage boosters) are simply transformers with
a voltage ratio of 1:l and on-load tap-changers
for voltage regulation. Essentially, inserting an
auto transformer into a long circuit splits it into
two sections. The voltage along one section
will be regulated by the AVC, tap-changers
and line-drop compensation at the primary
substation. The auto transformer will regulate
the voltage along the other section.
Inserting an auto transformer 8km from the
primary substation, in the initial example, has
little effect on the voltage profile between itself
and the primary substation. Under full and
no load conditions the primary of the auto
transformer rises to 106% and 109% of
nominal voltage, respectively (Fig. 4). The on-
load tap-changer, in this example, is set to
control the voltage at the secondary of the auto
transformer to nominal voltage (using a tap
range of ~ 5 in % five steps). Under both full and
no load conditions it operates to reduce the
voltage to 101% of nominal, thus maintaining
the voltage rise along the remainder of the
l l k V line below the permitted +6% voltage
limit. In this example, the auto transformer
does not prevent this limit being exceeded
when there is no demand. However, by careful
positioning of either one or two auto
transformers, the voltages may be maintained
within limits.
Auto transformers have not traditionally
been used by DNOs in this manner because
there has been little generation connected to
the distribution system. However, as the levels
of embedded generation are set to increase
their use may become more common.
When installing an auto transformer into the
distribution system the DNO must consider its
effect' on the system voltages under all the
worst case operating scenarios to ensure that
no customers will be adversely affected. The
effect of the auto transformer on the line
loading must also be taken into account, as it
may increase the flow of reactive power along
the line. The DNO must also consider how the
presence of the auto transformer will affect
system security, as it will introduce another
factor of unreliability into the system.
Upgrade the conductor
Small overhead line conductors have higher
impedance than large conductors. A 70mm2
copper conductor has approximately one-third
of the resistance and 90% of the reactance of
a 16mm2conductor. Thus, upgrading the con-
ductor on an l l k V overhead line will signifi-
cantly reduce its resistance and will smooth the
voltage profile along the line.
In the initial example, the voltage at the
1MW generator was 109% of nominal (under
full load conditions) and 113% of nominal

10 POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL FEBRUARY 2002

 Embedded generation

(under no load conditions). The voltage profile
along the line is improved by replacing the
16mm2conductor with 70mm2copper (Fig. 4).
It reduces the voltage at the generator to
less than 105% of nominal (under full load
conditions). With no demand on the line, it is
marginally above the permitted +6% voltage
limit.
This suggests that upgrading the conductors
is a very effective method of counteracting the
voltage rise problem. However, replacing the
conductors can be expensive and may make a
scheme uneconomic.
Constrain the generation
The sophisticated control systems available
these days will allow a generator to control its
output in line with the system voltage. Thus if
the voltage is approaching the permitted +6%
voltage limit, a generator can reduce its output
in order to maintain the voltage below the
threshold. This will allow the generator to
continue operating, rather than being con-
strained off during periods of low system
demand. Conversely, should the system voltage
fall below nominal, a generator may be able to
respond by increasing its output.
The initial example suggests that the 1MW
generator cannot be accepted onto the llkV
line, even when it is fully loaded. Its output has
to be constrained to 750kW to maintain the
system voltages within the permitted +6% limit
(Fig. 4). It will have to be constrained further
as the system loading is reduced. Under no load
conditions the generator has to be constrained
to 300kW to maintain the voltages below the
permitted +6% threshold.
Constraining an embedded generator will
obviously affect the economic benefit of the
scheme. It is usually only-aviable option when
the constraints are expected to be infrequent
and where significant system reinforcement
costs are avoided.
operating regime of the generation.
Fig. 6 gives some indication as to the amount
of generation that can be connected to an 11kV
overhead line. It is clear that, as the distance
from the primary substation increases, the
amount of generation that can be accepted
reduces.
Case studies
Three brief case studies are presented here to
show how Innogy plc has approached this
voltage rise issue when developing small
generating schemes.
ChiRex.CHP scheme
The ChiRex combined heat and power (CHP)
scheme in Northumberland (Fig. 7) comprises
a 4.5MW gas turbine. It has been operational
since June 1994, providing electricity and
steam to the ChiRex pharmaceutical plant.
Both are normally connected to the l l k V
primary substation by a single l l k V cable. a
During some periods, such as Christmas, the
demand at the pharmaceutical plant falls
dramatically, and the CHP scheme exports the
majority of its power into the distribution
system. This causes the voltage to rise and the
generator was once tripped off by the
overvoltage protection.
This problem was overcome by altering the
operating procedure of the CHP scheme. The
output and power factor of the generator are 7 ChiRexCHPscheme

How much generation can be connected to

an 11kV overhead line?
The level of generation that can be absorbed
onto the distribution system is determined by
many factors, such as:

voltage level
voltage at the primary substation
distance from the primary substation
size of conductor
demand on the system
other generation on the system

POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL FEBRUARY 2002 11

 Embedded generation
8 Typical small hydro now manually adjusted by the operators who
generating scheme monitor the local demand and the system
(Blantyre, Scotland)
voltage.
500kW hydro-generating scheme
Innogy Hydro is in the early stages of
developing a 500kW hydro-generating scheme
in the north of Scotland (Fig. 8). The generator
is to be connected to an l l k V overhead
line, comprising 16"' copper conductors,
approximately 15km from the primary
substation. Also connected to this 1lkV line
are numerous domestic customers fed by
individual 1U0.415 kV distribution trans-
formers with off-circuit tap-changers.
The DNO has stipulated that the voltage
along this l l k V line must not exceed 11.13 kV
(1.2% above nominal voltage) as this will raise
customers' voltages above 253\3 the +lo%
tolerance specified in the Electricity Supply
Regulations.
Provisional studies have shown that the
existing l l k V system cannot accept 500kW
9 Jenbacher gas of generation. Reducing the voltage at the
engine, produced by primary substation is not feasible, as there are
Clarke, for small other l l k V circuits connected to the primary
embedded generation substation. Upgrading the line with 70"'
schemes (photo:
copper conductors increases the amount of
courtesy of Clarke
Energy, www.clarke- generation that can be connected, but not
energy.co.uk) sufficiently.
I I
12
The cost and feasibility of two methods of
overcoming the voltage rise problem are
currently being considered-installing reactive
power compensation at the generator, or an
auto transformer part way along the 11kV line.
1OMW mines gas generating scheme
Cogen, an Innogy subsidiary, is currently
developing a lOMW generating scheme to burn
methane gas from a disused coal mine. The
scheme will comprise two 5MW plants (Fig. 9)
connected separately to two existing l l k V
cables that run along the edge of the proposed
site. Studies have shown that the generation
cannot be accepted onto the existing system
due to the excessive voltage rise.
The local DNO currently operates the
primary substation at 11.6kV. Following tests
on the system, the DNO has agreed to reduce
the primary substation voltage to 11.3kV so the
generation can be connected. However, should
the generating scheme be out of service, the
system voltages will be depressed and the
voltage of a few customers will fall below the
permitted limit. As the generating scheme is
expected to operate at base load, this scenario
will not occur frequently. It has been agreed
that, when this does occur, the DNO will
dispatch an engineer to manually alter the
distribution transformers' tap-changers and
'the DNO will be compensated appropriately by
Innogy.
Conclusions
In conclusion, there are many factors that
determine the level of generation that can be
connected to the distribution system at 1lkV
Thus every scheme will face different technical
and commercial issues and must be studied on
a site-by-site basis. One of the major technical
difficulties is the voltage rise resulting from the
reversed power flow. There are methods of
counteracting this voltage rise; however, a
developer must consider whether the addi-
tional costs are justified.
References
1 The Electricity Supply Regulationsl988: Regulation
30, paragraph 2, amended in 1994
2 The Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity
Regulations. 2001: Draft copy-available for con-
sultation purposes on the DTI wehsite
0 IEE: 2002
Dr C. L. Masters is a Power Systems Engineer in
Operations and Engineering, lnnogy plc. She is a
Member of the IEE.
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL FEBRUARY 2002