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0:05:00 Degeneracy
Degeneracy is related to symmetry
For generic Hamiltonian with discrete spectrum of energy levels it would be an odd accident to have
two levels with exactly the same energy
Rotational symmetry.
θ
x
∂ψ ∂ψ
∂ψ = - ϵ = -i ϵ (-i ) Put i’s in so item in bracket will be Hermitian
∂θ ∂θ
∂
Operator called angular momentum is usually denoted L = -i
∂θ
L |Ψ 〉 = m |Ψ 〉 (1)
m is standard for eigenvalue of angular momentum, stands for magnetic quantum number
imθ
∂ψ(θ)
(1) is -i ℏ = m ψ(θ) -> eigenvector for m of ψ(θ) = e ℏ
∂θ
Unlike linear momentum have the further constraint, if θ=2π the wave function should be the same
ψ(2π)=ψ(θ)
imθ im0
For θ=0 e ℏ =e ℏ =1
im2π
⟹ e ℏ =1
m
⟹ is an integer
ℏ
The difference between plus and minus is just the direction the particle is going round the ring.
The sign does not tell you anything about the physical direction it just depends on which way you
chose θ to be positive
If the particle is in a field eg magnetic then the energies are different otherwise they are the same.
With no field the energies are degenerate - ie pairs of E(m)=E(-m), except for zero.
Note: if we think of the magnetic field as into the paper, it does not invalidate the rotational invari-
ance
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
θ
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
Rotational symmetry on its own is not enough to say the energy levels are degenerate
We’ll call ‘reflection symmetry’ ‘mirror symmetry’ and use the operator M to distinguish it from the
rotational symmetry.
If no mirror symmetry then energy levels of these 2 dont have to be the same
But if the descriptions of the 2 items are indistinguishable they must have the same energy.
0:28:30 Adding Mirror Symmetry to Rotational Symmetry
Note: term Mirror is used for something else in physics; dont confuse with our use here
Necessary to have 2 symmetries that dont commute to get degenerate energy levels
x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x
Reflection Mψ(θ)=Mψ(-θ)
∂
Operator for small rotation L=-i ℏ
∂θ
imθ
Consider the commutator acting on eigenvector e ℏ found above
Observations
Consider A and B as operators for 2 symmetries (either generators or the full thing):
Since each of A and B is a symmetry they commute with the Hamiltonian [A,H]=0 [B,H]=0
Result: if A and B commute with H then the commutator of A and B commutes with H
Above also shows product of AB commutes with H but we use the commutator of A and B as it is
Hermitian whereas the product generally isn’t
Given 2 symmetries that dont commute you generate a symmetry which might or might not be
independent of A and B
If it is independent you can commute the new symmetry with A and B and see if you get any other
independent symmetry
Or it will close giving you a finite number of independent symmetries. ie commutation of any 2 of the
symmetries gives you one of the others (or a linear combination of the others)
You now have a commutator algebra for these symmetries and H, called a symmetry group
The symmetries themselves that are built up from the generators by applying small changes transfor-
mations repeatedly, those are the group elements.
Abelian - where the symmetries commute with each other. Dont get anything particularly interesting
Take the unitary symmetry operation and consider a case close to the identy
U = U - iGϵ
The generators contain nearly all the interesting matrerial about the group
The algebra is a collection of generators you can add them, subtract them, multiply them by ordi-
nary numbers and commute them. Commuting is like a product in the algebra.
The 3 components of angular momentum, the three generators, form a Lie algebra / commutator
algebra
Lz Y
Particle in orbit has energy E. At classical level is the energy degnerate? ie is there another orbit
with the same energy?
Yes there are many orbits with the same energy - some of these you can easily prove from rota-
tional invariance eg above shows rotation about y axis giving new configuration, angular momentum
has changed, shift in x angular momentum
Classically, combination of different rotational invariances about different axes means there must be
degeneracy ie orbits with the same energy.
For small ϵ
∂x=-ϵy
∂y=ϵx
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
δψ(x,y) = ∂x + ∂y = -ϵ y +ϵx
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Like -ϵ y px + ϵ x py
∂ψ ∂ψ
By definition -ϵ y +ϵx = i ϵ Lz
∂x ∂y
Lz = x py - y px (part of L = r x p)
Lx = y pz - z py
Ly = z px - x pz
These are symmetries if the system is rotationally invariant eg a particle moving in a centrail force
field where rotating the system doesn’t change the Hamiltonian
Remember: [x, y]=0 etc, px , py = 0 etc [x, py = 0 where the position co-ordinate differs from
momentum suffix but [x, px ] = y, py = [z, pz] = iℏ
= - Lz [pz, z]
= - Lz-i ℏ = i ℏ Lz
[Lx , Ly = i Lz
Ly , Lz] = i Lx
[Lz, Lx ] = i Ly
A Lie algebra has ‘commutation’ as the ‘multiplication’. It contains a group of components where
commutation doesn’t give anything that isn’t in the group in some form already.
Also have [Lx , H]=0 Ly , H]=0 [Lz, H]=0 so each component of angular momentum is conserved.
Here we look at creation/annihilation operators that change the z component of angular momentum
(arbitrary choice)
Doesn’t matter which representation you choose - just pick one and stick with it
Here we pick the z component of angular momentum and its eigenvectors (we could have picked x
or y)
Lz|m> = m |m>
In Harmonic Oscillator we did this by inventing operators that raised and lowered the enrgy, here
will use operators that raise and lower m
Note: audience pointed out Harmonic operator not covered in lectures. But is covered in book.
Let’s define:
Lx + i Ly = L+
Lx - i Ly = L-
from earlier
[Lx , Lz] = - iLy
[iLy , Lz] = - Lx
So we have
Lz|m> = m |m> and [L+ , Lz] = - L+ which combine to give
Doing the same thing with L- gives us an eigenvector with an eigenvalue of one lower
If we plot on a vertical axis the values of m we only know they have integer spacing but not exact
position
3
2
m values
1
at integer
spacing but 0
dont know -1
exact postion -2
-3
There is another possibility in the up and down sequence, getting zero ie the sequence of m might
terminate at some point going up and going
down.
L+ might kill the vector (give null state) at some point going up and L- might kill the vector going down.
If it terminates then there is a relationship between where it terminates above and below because
we have rotational invariance
If really rotationally invariant the eigenvalues for Lz must be the same as for -Lz, so red dots must
be symmetrically placed
1. red dot on the origin and others at integer spacing above and below it
1 1
2. a red dot an and - and others at integer spacing above and below them
2 2
For orbital angular momentum we already proved it was integer spacing using ψ(0)=ψ(2π)
For now we’ll forget the half integer one that corresponds to spin angular momentum, will do this
later
The sequence may or may not terminate, let’s assume it does, we have a multiplet of states that are
somehow related to each other and which have to have the same energy
If H |m> = Em |m> then lets go to |m+1> which is L+ |m> and finds its energy
This is the idea of degeneracy following from symmetries that dont commute with each other
This is the quantum equivalent of the rotation of the classical orbit that we looked at earlier
Raising and lowering operators are typical of this sort of closed algebra