1826 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 25, NO.

3, JULY 2010

Modeling the EPRI-Wisconsin Power

and Light Broken Wire Tests
Alan B. Peabody, Member, IEEE, and Ghyslaine McClure

Abstract—In the late 1970s, the Electric Power Research Insti-

tute and Wisconsin Power and Light performed a series of tests to
measure the forces on a power transmission tower due to broken
conductors. Three of those tests have been modeled using ADINA, a
finite-element structural analysis program with the ability to per-
form nonlinear time history analyses of dynamic events. When a
wire breaks, the time history of the force on the tower typically has
two peaks. The first peaks were modeled accurately in time and
magnitude. The second peaks were modeled accurately in time;
however, the magnitudes were larger than those measured during
the tests. The simulated time histories contained high frequencies
due to the discretization of the real structure into the finite ele- Fig. 1. Test line profile (spans in meters).
ments. Numerical filtering was used to remove these modeling ar-
tifacts.
Index Terms—Conductors, finite-element methods, modeling, to analyze the same tests that were modeled here. The structures
power transmission lines, power transmission mechanical factors, were also modeled as simple spring-mass damper systems. The
power transmission testing.
cables were modeled by using the catenary cable element de-
scribed by Peyrot and Goulois [7]. Thomas settled on a three
I. INTRODUCTION span (half of the spans in the test section) with ten elements
in the first span, four in the second, and two in the third. Axial
damping of 20% was used. In the modeling described here, there
I N the late 1970s, the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) and Wisconsin Power and Light performed 12
broken wire tests to measure the dynamic forces on a power
is a large improvement in the fit of the timing and magnitude of
the first peak. There is also a large improvement in the timing
transmission tower. These tests provide excellent “real world” of the second peak.
data to test the accuracy of a dynamic finite-element model McClure and Tinawi [8] reported good results simulating
of the tower-insulator-conductor system. The finite-element model broken wire tests performed by Mozer [9] using ADINA.
model was developed to investigate the effects of adding The model time histories agreed well with the experimental
hydraulic dampers to the tower insulator system [1]–[3]. The time histories, always within 20%. The Wisconsin tests are the
dampers were found to reduce the peak dynamic forces on a first full-scale tests modeled with ADINA.
tower during a broken wire event by 50 to 80% of the total
B. Current Practice
possible reduction. The three full-scale tests that were modeled
are the subject of this paper. In current design practice, rather than design for dynamic
loads, towers are typically designed for the residual static load
A. Background (loads at rest after a broken wire) with the expectation that three
Siddiqui [4], [5] wrote one of the first computer programs to four towers on either side of the broken wire will fail—with
to analyze broken wires. While multiple elements were used to their failures absorbing sufficient energy to prevent the failure
model the structures, the conductors were modeled as a single from propagating into a cascade [10], [11].
element with one degree of freedom. Thomas [6] also developed
a program to analyze broken wire loads. This program was used II. FULL-SCALE TESTS
The full-scale broken wire tests were performed on a double-
circuit 138-kV line owned by Wisconsin Power and Light. [12]
Manuscript received July 23, 2007; revised May 29, 2008. First published
March 08, 2010; current version published June 23, 2010. This work was sup-
The line had been slated for replacement with a new 345-kV
ported in part by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of line, making it available for destructive tests. The line was built
Canada, in part by Hydro-Québec and TransEnergie, in part by the Family of in 1931 using lattice steel towers with square bases. The two
Emil Nenniger, in part by the Joseph S. Stauffer Foundation, and in part by the
Friends of McGill University. Paper no. TPWRD-00471-2007.
shield wires were 7 No. 8 Copperweld; the left circuit used 397
A. B. Peabody is with the Construction Management Program, University of kcmil ACSR 26/7 conductor and the right circuit 7/3 copper/
Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK 99508 USA (e-mail: apeabody@ieee.org). bronze. The test section had seven towers as shown in Fig. 1
G. McClure is with the Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Me- [12, Fig. 3.1].
chanics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2K6, Canada (e-mail: ghys-
laine.mcclure@mcgill.ca). The tower outline is shown in Fig. 2. Two tests to determine
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2010.2041559 the tower’s natural frequencies were performed, one with all of
0885-8977/$26.00 © 2010 IEEE
PEABODY AND MCCLURE: MODELING THE EPRI-WISCONSIN POWER AND LIGHT BROKEN WIRE TESTS
Fig. 2. Test towers (all dimensions in meters).
Fig. 3. Full-scale test time histories.
the wires attached to the tower with their normal suspension
hardware and one with the shield wires detached.
The tower was excited by tensioning a cable attached to the
top of tower to approximately 9.8 kN (1000 kgf) and suddenly
releasing it. The approximate static deflection was 2 to 3 cm.
The motion of the tower top was measured by using an ac-
celerometer. The period of the first mode of the tower with the
shield wires detached was reported to be 0.25 s (4 Hz) with a
viscous damping ratio of 4%. With the shield wires attached,
the period was reported to be 0.24 s (4.2 Hz) with a damping
ratio of 7% [12].
Twelve broken conductor tests were then performed as de-
scribed in Table I.
Tests IIIL1, 2 and 3 were modeled. These tests were per-
formed at the top, center, and lower left crossarms with three
different conductor tensions (see Table I). All of the tests were
performed by using a 397 kcmil ACSR 26/7 conductor. Fig. 2
shows the time histories of the tension force measured in the in-
sulator assembly. Test IIIL1 had a gap in the time history for the
second peak and its timing and magnitude were taken from the
report in [12, Table 6-2]. The time history of test IIIL1 shows a
bifurcated first peak, which may be due to the incipient buckling
of the crossarm noted by Kluge [13].
1827
TABLE I
BROKEN CONDUCTOR TESTS
TABLE II
WISCONSIN TEST TOWER DEFLECTIONS AND STIFFNESSES
III. TOWERS
The towers were modeled as a pin-connected truss using
ADINA [14]. Static analysis was performed with tension-only
members modeled by using a modulus of elasticity in compres-
sion of 1/1000 the modulus in tension.
In order to reduce the number of nodes and members in
the transmission-line model, a dynamically similar model
for the tower-attachment point was constructed. A two-de-
gree-of-freedom spring-mass system is needed in the hor-
izontal direction to model the combined longitudinal and
torsional vibration characteristics of the tower and a single-de-
gree-of-freedom system is needed to model the vertical
vibration characteristics. The spring stiffnesses were selected
to match the stiffnesses at the tower attachment point with the
mass selected so that the spring-mass systems would have the
same natural frequencies as the tower.
The static analyses included load cases to determine the at-
tachment stiffness in the vertical and longitudinal directions.
The dead load of the tower was included in all load cases. The
first load case was a longitudinal load of 9807 N (1000 kgf)
applied at the top-left phase attachment point to determine the
overall deflection of the attachment point. The second case was
two longitudinal loads of 4903.5 N (500 kgf) applied at the two
upper phase attachments. This case gives the longitudinal de-
flection at the phase attachments without the torsional compo-
nent of the deflection. In a separate load case, a 9807 N vertical
load was applied to the attachment point to measure the vertical
stiffness. These results are summarized in Table II.
1828 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 25, NO. 3, JULY 2010

TABLE III
WISCONSIN TEST TOWER FREQUENCIES

TABLE IV
COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY ANALYSIS AND PLUCKING ANALYSIS

Fig. 4. Simplified tower model. (a) Plan view. (b) Transverse elevation.
The natural frequencies and mode shapes of the tower were
determined for two modeling assumptions. The first case as-
TABLE V
sumed that the tension-only cross bracing acted as tension-com- EQUIVALENT MASS, STIFFNESS, AND DAMPING
pression bracing; in the second, the modulus of elasticity of the
tension-only members was assumed to be one-half the modulus
of elasticity of steel. This latter case simulated the stiffness of a
tension-only system by giving the total stiffness of these mem-
bers equal to the stiffness of one of them. Changing the mod-
ulus rather than the area has the advantage of keeping the same
mass in the model. Table III compares the natural frequencies
obtained with the two tower models.
Note that there is very little difference in the first transverse
and longitudinal modes; however, there is a significant differ-
ence in the frequencies of the first torsional mode because the
bracing is the main contributor to the torsional stiffness. The mass associated with the linear longitudinal spring was
The natural frequencies of the numerical models were also calculated by using (1), where is the mass, is the spring
explored by plucking the tower with a 20-kN force released in stiffness, and is the natural frequency
0.005 s. This was applied in three directions, longitudinally with
a 10 downdrop angle (x and -z), transversely (y) and vertically (1)
(-z). Table IV compares the frequency analysis with the frequen-
cies determined from Fourier transforms of the plucking anal- The torsional spring constants and rotational moments of
ysis, which confirms the frequency of the tension-only bracing inertia were calculated by using (2) and (3) where is the
in Table III. applied load, is the moment arm, and is the resulting longi-
Plucking the arm vertically excites the tower in the first trans- tudinal deflection
verse mode with a frequency of 4.6 Hz.
In order to simplify the finite-element model for nonlinear (2)
dynamic analysis, the tower was modeled as a set of spring-
mass dampers. This was advantageous for the many runs needed
for the subsequent analysis of adding supplemental dampers (3)
[1]–[3]. The balanced longitudinal mode of vibration was mod-
eled as a linear translational spring-mass system. The torsional Viscous damping for the linear and torsional spring-mass sys-
mode was modeled as a torsional spring with a rotational iner- tems was calculated by using (4) and (5), respectively
tial mass. Both linear and torsional springs were connected to a
rigid massless arm with length L being equal to the horizontal (4)
distance from the center of the tower to the conductor attach- (5)
ment point. The vertical motion of the tower was also modeled
by using a torsional spring with a rotational inertial mass. The Table V shows the properties of the equivalent spring-mass
simplified model is shown in Fig. 4. systems.
PEABODY AND MCCLURE: MODELING THE EPRI-WISCONSIN POWER AND LIGHT BROKEN WIRE TESTS
Fig. 5. Longitudinal deflection at the upper left-phase comparison of full and
simplified tower models.
Fig. 6. Fourier spectra-tower model comparison.
Fig. 5 compares the time histories of the longitudinal dis-
placements of the full tower model and the simplified tower
model, described before, under a longitudinal plucking load that
is inclined downwards at a 10 angle from horizontal. Fig. 6
shows the corresponding Fourier spectra for the full and sim-
plified tower models. The natural frequencies of the simplified
tower model match well with those of the full tower model.
IV. INSULATOR ASSEMBLIES
The insulator assembly for the tower next to the break was
modeled as five pin-connected truss elements with stiffnesses
commensurate with the swinging arm bracket, standard insula-
tors, and a load cell. The insulators at the remaining towers were
modeled with four truss elements.
V. CONDUCTOR
A. Properties
The properties of the conductor used in the tests that were
modeled are shown in Table VI.
The conductor was modeled as pin-connected truss elements
with additional internal and aerodynamic damping elements.
B. Length of Conductor Finite Elements
Methods of calculating the natural frequencies of single spans
of wire are described in [12] and [15]–[17]. One measure of the
goodness of the finite-element model of a structure is how well
the natural frequencies calculated for the finite-element model
1829
TABLE VI
IBIS 397.5 kcmil ACSR CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES
TABLE VII
COMPARISON OF FREQUENCIES (IN HERTZ) IBIS: 300-m SPAN, H = 14.4 kN
conform to the theory. A second measure is how the frequencies
converge as the length of the elements is reduced. Table VII
compares theoretical calculations of the natural frequencies of
a typical 300-m span with the results of ADINA analyses for
different numbers of elements in the span. There is little change
in the natural frequencies for the higher modes when at least
60 elements 5 m long are used and practically no difference
between 120 elements 2.5 m long and 300 elements 1 m long.
The length of the wire elements used was approximately 2.5 m.
C. Conductor Damping
Damping of transmission conductors can be separated into in-
ternal damping and aerodynamic damping. Internal damping is
a combination of hysteretic damping within the individual cable
strands and damping due to the sliding friction between strands
as they move past one another during cable movement. Aerody-
namic damping arises from the motion of the cable through the
air.
1) Internal Damping: Much of the literature related to the
damping of transmission conductors is focused on the energy
dissipated by the cable when excited by vortex shedding in
smooth laminar winds. This motion is known as aeolian vibra-
tion. The results of tests of the self-damping capabilities of the
conductor are usually stated in terms of the energy dissipated
per-unit length as a function of the vibration frequency. The
peak-to-peak amplitude of vibration is very small, typically
less than the conductor diameter [18]. These measurements
often do not distinguish between the internal damping and the
aerodynamic damping, in some cases, describing the vortex
excitation as negative aerodynamic damping. The internal
1830 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 25, NO. 3, JULY 2010

TABLE VIII
AXIAL DAMPING RATIOS

Fig. 7. Conductor model.

damping due to friction between the strands is reduced as the

tension in the wire increases, and increases as the amplitude of
vibration increases. Diana et al. [19] indicate that the damping
coefficient for the ACSR conductor is in the range of 0.1 to
0.01% of critical for the frequencies and amplitudes of interest
for aeolian vibration. When discussing guys for vertical axis
wind turbines, Carne [20] reports damping of less than 0.2%
of critical. In Bachmann et al. [21], a value as low as 0.05% of
critical is suggested.
The internal damping can be divided into two parts: 1) axial
damping that takes place due to changes in the conductor tension
and 2) damping due to bending of the conductor. The critical
axial viscous damping for an elastic rod is given in
(6)
Note that the critical damping constant is independent of
the length of the rod. Table VIII shows some values of axial
damping used in previous time history analyses of conductor
motion. McClure and Tinawi [22], [23] did not use explicit
damping; however, some of the time history analysis algorithms
they investigated introduce some numerical damping which
reduces high-frequency components of the response. An axial
viscous damping ratio of 0.5% of critical was used in this study.
Little information is available on the lateral damping of
ACSR conductors; Yu [26], however, presents results of some
tests performed on slack-stranded steel cables similar to those
used for shield wires and the steel core of ACSR. These tests
indicate there may be substantial lateral damping.
2) Aerodynamic Damping: ADINA has the capability of
modeling the aerodynamic damping directly. Aerodynamic
damping is due to the motion of the conductor relative to the
air. In still air, the aerodynamic damping force is given by [27]
(7)
where is the damping force, is the air density, and is
the velocity relative to the air, is the drag coefficient, and
is the projected area. depends on the Reynolds number (8),
where is the conductor diameter and is the viscosity of air
(8)
Fig. 8. Insulator tension at tower T3-test IIIL3 versus the ADINA model.
For smooth circular cylinders, is between approximately
0.9 and 1.2 for Reynolds numbers between 200 and 100 000
(Binder 1973; Eisner 1931), which correspond to relative veloc-
ities for the Ibis conductor of 0.15 m/s and 73 m/s, respectively.
As the relative velocity is reduced below a Reynolds number of
200, steadily increases to more than 50 at a Reynolds number
of 0.1. A of 1.25 was used.
D. Conductor Finite-Element Model
Fig. 7 shows the conductor model used in ADINA with axial
and aerodynamic damping. Although the aerodynamic damping
should be applied normal to the direction of movement, this
would be more difficult to model in ADINA. Instead, the aero-
dynamic damping was applied to the vertical motion of the con-
ductor by using the initial horizontal projected area.
VI. TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS RESULTS
Fig. 8 shows the load-cell tension at tower T3 from a time
history analysis of test IIIL3 performed with ADINA [14] and
the load-cell tension reported in Peyrot et al. [12].
Fig. 9 shows the Fourier transforms of the ADINA time
history and the test record for test IIIL3. The amplitudes of
frequencies above 8 to 10 Hz in the test record are very small
in comparison to the amplitudes from the ADINA model. An
inverse Fourier transform of only the frequencies below 10 Hz
in the test record could not be distinguished from the original,
while higher frequencies are obviously represented in the
ADINA time history.
The test report indicates that “ the basic concern for the in-
strumentation was within the low frequency to dc range for the
PEABODY AND MCCLURE: MODELING THE EPRI-WISCONSIN POWER AND LIGHT BROKEN WIRE TESTS 1831

Fig. 9. Frequency content of test IIIL3 and ADINA model.

Fig. 10. Insulator tension at tower T3, test IIIL3, and the ADINA model versus
basic vibrational characteristics.” The fundamental frequency of the ADINA model with a 10-Hz low-pass filter.
the tower was expected to be in the neighborhood of 5 Hz. The
load-cell signals were conditioned before recording with an os-
cillographic recorder. No detail is given about the extent of the
signal conditioning; however, it is likely that a low-pass analog
filter was used. Even though higher frequencies would be ex-
pected in model tests, Kempner [28] used a low-pass filter with
50-Hz cutoff in his 1/23.33 scale broken wire model tests. This
is roughly equivalent to a 10-Hz cutoff frequency at full scale.
Analog low-pass filters partially attenuate some of the frequen-
cies below the nominal cutoff frequency. It can be reasonably
inferred that any higher frequencies shown in Fig. 8 would, if
they occurred in the tests, have been filtered out or attenuated Fig. 11. Insulator tension, test IIIL1 versus the filtered ADINA model.
before recording the data.
The ADINA time history analysis can itself be expected
to introduce some higher frequencies in the response due
to breaking up the continuous elements in the real structure
into discrete pieces in the finite-element model. In some past
studies, damping has been increased to suppress these spurious
frequencies in transmission-line dynamic analysis [24]. Holmes
and Belytschko [29] discuss the problem in reference to wave
propagation problems and explore the use of numerical filters to
remove the spurious frequencies. Using unequal elements in the
mesh will also introduce spurious frequencies due to reflections
between elements [30]. For this reason, using equal-length Fig. 12. Insulator tension, test IIIL2 versus the filtered ADINA model.
elements to model the conductor is preferred. For convenience
in calculation, lengths were made equal in the horizontal
projection of the elements leading to small differences in the
lengths within a span. Since spans must be divided up into an
integral number of elements, there are also small differences
in the length of elements used in the different spans. Some of
the high-frequency content shown in Fig. 8 can reasonably be
attributed to the modeling.
Numerical filtering of the load-cell tensions from the ADINA
time history analysis is an effective way to remove the high-
frequency components for better comparison with the full-scale
test data. Fig. 10 shows the use of a 10-Hz low-pass filter. A Fig. 13. Insulator tension, test IIIL3 versus the filtered ADINA model.
filter with a sharp cutoff was used because it is extremely easy
to program once the Fourier coefficients have been determined.
Figs. 11–13 compare the filtered results of the time history Similarly, the much faster reduction in tension during the fall of
analyses for tests IIIL1, 2, and 3. In all three cases, there is a the first peak may be explained by a permanent set in the tower
very good fit in the timing, the rise in tension, and the peak caused by connections slipping. In a theoretical analysis of bolt
tension of the first peak. The unloading part of the first peak slippage in the connections of lattice towers, Kitipornchai et al.
does not have such a good fit. It appears to improve with the [31] report an increase in a deflection of 20% due to slippage in
lower conductor tensions in tests IIIL1 and IIIL2. The small the connections.
bumps on the rising part of the first peak may be explained by the The timing of the second peak due to bottoming out of the
bolted connections suddenly slipping during the loading cycle. fall of the first span of conductor is well predicted, but all three
1832
models substantially overpredict the magnitude of the peak.
There is a small angle in line at tower T4 (1 31 ) which was
not included in the ADINA model. This may explain some of
the differences. Increased movement of the tower under the
impact due to slippage in the connections may also contribute
to the difference.
The time history of the forces depends on the line character-
istics. These results should not be extrapolated to other lines or
line sections. If only three spans are modeled, the second peak
will occur earlier and both peaks will be smaller in magnitude.
VII. CONCLUSION
Analog time histories from older tests can be digitized, an-
alyzed for their frequency content, and used to test numerical
models. Numerical filtering is an effective way to remove the
high frequencies introduced by breaking continuous systems up
into finite-element models.
The ADINA time history analysis does a good job of pre-
dicting the first peak due to the snap from the sudden loss of
conductor tension on one side of the tower. The prediction of
the magnitude of the second peak due to the retensioning of the
conductor at the bottom of its fall was not as good. For the pur-
poses of the further research based on the model, the model was
adequate as the second peak was on the conservative side for
evaluating the effect of measures introduced into the tower and
insulator system to control the impact. Modeling of other more
recent broken wire tests has also shown good agreement with
the test measurements [32].
ADINA may be used to model complete sections of existing
or new transmission lines, and to simulate the effects of broken
wires and other disturbances. For preliminary design, a simpli-
fied model as discussed here would be appropriate. For analysis
of existing lines, the ADINA model may be made as detailed
as desired, even to the extent of modeling the foundations in a
manner similar to that used in some foundation design programs
(for example, L-Pile).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank R. Kluge for lending a film
of the tests and providing additional information about the tests.
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in Proc. Int. Conf. Large High Voltage Electric Systems: CIGRE, 2004,
p. B2-208.
PEABODY AND MCCLURE: MODELING THE EPRI-WISCONSIN POWER AND LIGHT BROKEN WIRE TESTS
Alan B. Peabody (M’92) was born in New Haven,
CT, in 1949. He received the B.S. degree in art and
design (architecture) from the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology in 1971, the M. Civil Eng. degree
from the University of Alaska, Anchorage, in 1995,
and the Ph.D. degree from McGill University, Mon-
treal, QC. Canada, in 2004.
He has 35 years experience in transmission-line
engineering.
Dr. Peabody is Chairman of the ASCE 7 Subcom-
mittee on Atmospheric Icing of Structures and is a
member of the International Advisory Committee for the International Work-
shops on Atmospheric Icing of Structures.
1833
Ghyslaine McClure was born in St. Ger-
main-de-Grantham, QC, Canada, in 1957. She
received the B.Eng. degree in civil engineering from
École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC,
Canada, in 1980, the S.M. degree in civil engineering
from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, in 1984, and the Ph.D. degree from
École Polytechnique de Montréal in 1989.
She joined McGill University as an Assistant
Professor in 1991, after working a few years in
the Quebec transmission-line industry. The bulk
of Professor McClure’s research relates to nonlinear structural dynamics
problems, and more specifically, to cable dynamics and transient response of
transmission lines to shock loads.
Dr. McClure is an active contributor to the CIGRÉ Study Committee B2 on
Overhead Lines.