UNIT: SAFETY

Introduction

Employers must have an overall safety program including relative site specific safety
information where applicable. The safety training program should cover topics such as

 accident prevention and safety promotion

 safety compliance

 accident and emergency response

 personal protective equipment

 safety practices

 equipment and machinery

 chemical and hazardous materials safety

 workplace hazards

 employee involvement

Employers must document all training. Creating a training matrix will help keep track of who has
been trained, when they were trained, the training topic, and when it is time for refresher
training. Employees must also sign an official sign-in sheet provided by the employer that can
serve as proof that employees received proper training. The sign in sheet must have a broad
description of what is being covered in the training. Tests or quizzes on the presented material
can help gauge employee understanding of the material and highlight topics that need to be
reviewed.

The non-English speaking population is consistently growing in many industries and it is

important that employers provide bilingual training for those workers, as OSHA requires that all
employees be properly trained.

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Most employees display attitudes of disinterest and dread at the thought of attending a safety
training, which can leave the trainer feeling frustrated and unappreciated. It is the trainer's duty
to make safety training fun and educational, which will help the trainees to retain the
information, enjoy the course, and apply the learning to their work and lives.[2]

Safety In Plot Planning:

This involves the physical locations of the equipment relative to each other within the
battery limits of each processing unit. It’s not so easy to develop a plot at minimum operating
costs, and at the same time, provide an adequate level of safety. In general, more compact the
plant, less will be cost of piping, pumping and real estates but for safety we should keep the plant
spread well for separation of hazards and provision of adequate space for fire fighting or other
emergency operations.

As a compromise we should keep a long, straight IN-LINE ARRANGEMENT of most of the

towers, drums, exchangers, pumps and the main pipe alley of the unit.

Staring from the left side, we notice the following

1. A roadway.
2. A gantry way, which is an area adjacent to the roadway along which travels a gantry crane
on the rails for handling the channels and tube bundles of heat exchangers.
3. Cooling tower headers beneath the gantry crane.
4. A line of fractionating towers, heat exchangers, accumulators, reflux drums etc. It is usual
for the grade below this line of equipment to be depressed by 8”
5. The main pipe alley of the plant. If the unit includes fan type air coolers, these can be
mounted very nicely atop the pipe alley.
6. A row of pumps.
7. A roadway.

In addition to serving well, the operating and maintenance requirements of the unit, the in-line
arrangement makes notable contribution to safety.

(a) The two way roadways flanking the in-line arrangement provides excellent access to both
sides of a considerable portion of the processing equipment in the unit. It’s ideal for the fire

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 fighting or rather emergencies. The same two roadways plus the gantry way serve as fire
breaks, separating the in-line equipment from the other blocks of equipment in the unit.
(b) The gantry crane is specifically designed for it’s job. Thus it provides safe handling of the
heavy exchanger components.
(c) The area required for gantry way provides space for the tube bundles from heat exchangers
to be worked on at the unit the unit or stored until picked up and taken to shops.
(d) The location of the cooling water headers make practically the cooling water system
accessible for repairs without digging around and under the equipment.
(e) The gantry way provides an open area besides every fractionating column. Tray segments
and other tower internals may be lowered into this area or directly onto a truck bed for
transporting to the working area. This minimizes the chance of dropping these parts on other
equipments or on men who may be working on the equipment.
(f) The depressed area below the tower, drum and heat exchanger line up will retain spills of
flammables or toxics from spreading into other areas until the sewers carry the material
away. Fire walls of 8” height crossing the depressed area from side to side prevents the
spreading of spills along the length of the depressed area. The walls will prevent the spread
of spills into and beneath the equipment.
(g) The strategic location of a pipe alley permits a clean and efficient piping layout.
(h) The pumps are located immediately adjacent to a roadway. This will enable us to remove
the pumps or drives for maintenance works even while the plant is operating.
(i) Air coolers require a considerable space and are hazardous if these are placed below the
tube banks. Placing the air coolers above the pipe alley relieves these problems without
adding noticeably to the cost of structural support.
(j) The arrangement provides clear areas for walking traffic along the length of the rows of the
equipment. The openness enables people to retreat rapidly from fires, explosions or spills of
toxic materials which may occur.

With the in-line arrangement serving as the backbone of the plot planning, the other
components of the unit (such as control house, compressors, reactors, knockout drums, surge
drums, furnaces etc.) may be located along either side of the in-line grouping.

In case of integrated process units, we have

(1) Keep the control house well separated from the high temperature or pressure vessels, or
from vessels normally containing toxic or flammable liquids.

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 (2) Make every effort to maintain at least a soft separation between the furnaces and other
blocks of hazardous equipments.
(3) For indoor installations, separation by physical means is the best.
(4) Building of multiple floors or of varying floor levels will have it’s own topography.
(5) Concentration of hazards will improve practicability of providing special facilities for safety
such as
(a) High capacity ventilating systems help keep air-vapour or air-dust mixtures below
the explosive limit.
(b) High capacity drainage system for very quick removal of spilled liquids.
(c) Remotely operated handling devices.
(d) Automatic fire fighting devices such as water sprays,steam blanketing and foam or
inert gas system.
(6) The platforms at manholes on towers should provide enough working space for the safe
handling of towers internals.
(7) Hot piping should be insulated

Psychology of Behavioral Safety

Many companies have spent a lot of time and effort improving safety, usually by addressing
hardware issues and installing safety management systems that include regular (e.g.
monthly) line management safety audits. Over a number of years these efforts tend to
produce dramatic reductions in accident rates.

Often, however, a plateau of minor accidents remains that appears to be stubbornly

resistant to all efforts to remove them. Although many of these are attributed to peoples'
carelessness or poor safety attitudes, most of these are triggered by deeply ingrained unsafe
behaviors. Behavioral Safety addresses these by making use of proven management
techniques which almost always results in a positive step change in safety performance and
safety attitudes.

Why Focus on Unsafe Behavior?

Although difficult to control, approximately 80-95 percent of all accidents are triggered by
unsafe behaviors, which tend to interact with other negative features (termed Pathogens)
inherent in workflow processes or present in the working environment. Often inadvertently
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introduced by the implementation of strategic plans, every organization has its fair share of
accident causing pathogens. These pathogens lie dormant and are relatively harmless, until
such time as two or more combine and are triggered by an unsafe behavior to produce an
accident.

Illustrating this, is a company that installed a new production process that entailed
designing and building two new mezzanine floors in an existing plant. A project team had
approved plans developed by plant based engineers. Once the construction work was
complete, it was found that supporting girders had been installed five foot above the second
step of a staircase on both floors, thereby introducing two pathogens into the physical
environment. During commissioning of the process equipment, product blockages were
frequently found to occur in the related pipe work (a third pathogen) that could only be
cleared by going to the top mezzanine floor where the inspection hatch was situated. Due to
increased production pressures and reduced manning resulting from a downsizing exercise
the blockage required the operator to isolate the equipment at a lower production floor
(another pathogen), and ascend the stairs to the mezzanine floors to clear the pipe work. At
this point all these pathogens combined to trigger an accident when the operator rushed up
the stairs to clear the blockage. He ran into one of the low girders, gashing his head and
inflicting whiplash effects on his neck while also knocking himself unconscious. This
resulted in a reportable accident, lost production and associated costs, etc.

In this true example, the potential for this type of lost-time accident will always be present
until such time as the pathogens are addressed. Given that it is much more difficult to
address these resident pathogens, focusing attention upon the operator’s unsafe behavior of
running up the stairs is a much easier option as it is within the operator's control, whereas
the pathogens are not. Because behavioral safety approaches identify and focus on
particular sets of unsafe behaviors, people tend to be more aware of their potential to cause
harm. In turn this gives people the mechanism by which they can control their own safety
behavior and that of their colleagues.

A focus upon unsafe behaviors also provides a much better index of ongoing safety
performance than accident rates for two reasons: First, accidents are the end result of a

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causal sequence that is usually triggered by an unsafe behavior; And second, unsafe
behaviors can be measured in a meaningful way on a daily basis. Accident rates tend to be
used as the primary outcome measure of safety performance simply because they signal
that something is wrong within the company's safety management system. Because of the
way they are calculated, they also provide a crude benchmark by which companies can
compare the effectiveness of their safety management systems across industries.
Unfortunately, this tends to result in management attention and resources being focused on
safety only when accident rates rise dramatically. When the immediate problems appear to
be resolved, management attention and resources are diverted to other pressing
organizational issues until such time as the accident rate rises once again, and so on.

Consequently, rather than being proactive, those who focus almost exclusively on accident
rates as a measure of safety performance tend to be reactive in their approach to safety.
Conversely, a regular focus on actual safety behavior is proactive as it allows other safety-
related issues in the accident causal chain to be identified and dealt with before an incident
occurs. Because 'safety behavior' is the unit of measurement, a collaborative, problem-
solving approach involving both management and employees is adopted to identify critical
sets of safe and unsafe behaviors and used to develop 'Safety Behavior Inventories' (See
Cooper, 1998). These inventories provide the basis for personnel to systematically monitor
and observe their colleague’s ongoing safety behavior, on a daily basis, in an enabling
atmosphere. Based on the first few weeks’ results of the peer monitoring, the workforce set
their own 'safety improvement' targets. Information feedback is then provided on a weekly
basis to allow the workgroups to track their progress in reaching the safety improvement
targets. Companies adopting this approach are usually rewarded by fewer accidents,
consistent safety management, better communications and greater involvement in team
working, all of which can exert beneficial effects on production related issues and bottom
line profits.

Why Do People Behave Unsafely?

People often behave unsafely because they have never been hurt before while doing their
job in an unsafe way: 'I've always done the job this way' being a familiar comment. This

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may well be true, but the potential for an accident is never far away as illustrated by
various accident triangles. Heinrich's triangle, for example, suggests that for every 330
unsafe acts, 29 will result in minor injuries and 1 in a major or lost time incident. Over an
extended period of time, therefore, the lack of any injuries for those who are consistently
unsafe is actually reinforcing the very behaviors that in all probability will eventually lead
them to be seriously injured. The principle being illustrated here is that the consequences
of behaving unsafely will nearly always determine future unsafe behavior, simply because
reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

How Do We Stop People Behaving Unsafely? Why not engineer out hazards?

Eliminating hazards by engineering them out or introducing physical controls can be an

effective way of limiting the potential for unsafe behavior. While successful in many
instances, it does not always work, simply because people have the capacity to behave
unsafely and override any engineering controls.

For example, in attempts to reduce the number of fatalities associated with quarry
transport, companies install belt conveyers to replace vehicles as the main haulage system
for transporting extracted minerals. To overcome major operational problems associated
with these conveyance systems (e.g. the spillage of minerals at transfer points from the
belt), engineer’s design and install belt scrapers to minimize mineral build-ups at the
pulleys to reduce belt distortion. Despite these precautions, materials often build-up at the
nip point between belt and pulley. When this occurs, it is not unusual to find operators
removing the guards while the belt is still in operation to clear the material build-up.
Others are known to attempt to clear the moving pulleys with iron bars or shovels. In both
cases there is a high risk of the tools becoming caught in the nip

Benefits of a training program

An effective training program can reduce the number of injuries and deaths, property damage,
legal liability, illnesses, workers' compensation claims, and missed time from work. A safety

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training program can also help a trainer keep the required OSHA-mandated safety training
courses organized and up-to-date.

Safety training classes help establish a safety culture in which employees themselves help
promote proper safety procedures while on the job. It is important that new employees be
properly trained and embrace the importance of workplace safety as it is easy for seasoned
workers to negatively influence the new hires. That negative influence however, can be purged
with the establishment of new, hands-on, innovative effective safety training which will
ultimately lead to an effective safety culture. A 1998 NIOSH study concluded that the role of
training in developing and maintaining effective hazard control activities is a proven and
successful method of intervention.[3]

Training guidelines follow a model that consists of:

 A. Determining if Training is Needed

 B. Identifying Training Needs

 C. Identifying Goals and Objectives

 D. Developing learning activities

 E. Conducting the training

 F. Evaluating program effectiveness

 G. Improving the program

 H. Training must align with job tasks.

o A. Determining if training is needed

You first have to determine if a situation can be solved using training. Training, or retraining as
the case may be, could be required by an OSHA standard. Training is an effective solution to
problems such as employee lack of understanding, unfamiliarity with equipment, incorrect

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execution of a task, lack of attention, or lack of motivation. Sometimes, however, the situation
cannot be mitigated through the use of training and other methods, such as the establishment of
engineering controls, may be needed to ensure worker safety.

o B. Identifying training needs

A job safety analysis and/or a job hazard analysis should be conducted with every employee so
that it is understood what is needed to do the job safely and what hazards are associated with the
job. A safety trainer may observe the worker in his/her environment to adequately assess the
worker's training needs. Certain employees may need extra training due to the hazards associated
with their particular job. These employees should be trained not only on how to perform their job
safely but also on how to operate within a hazardous environment.

o C. Identifying Goals and Objectives

It is important for the Trainer to identify necessary training material. It is equally important that
the trainer identify training material that is not needed to avoid unnecessary training and
frustration from their trainees.

At the beginning of every safety training session the trainer should clearly iterate the objectives
of the class. The objectives should be delivered using action oriented words like: the employee...
"will be able to demonstrate" or "will know when to"... which will help the audience understand
what he/she should know by the end of the class or what to information to assimilate during the
class. Clearly established objectives also help focus the evaluation process on those skill sets and
knowledge requirements necessaary to perform the job safely.

o D. Developing Learning Activities

Training should be hands-on and simulate the job as closely as possible. Trainers can use
instructional aids such as charts, manuals, PowerPoint presentations, and films. Trainers can also

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include role-playing, live demonstrations, and round-table group discussions to stimulate
employee participation. Games like "what's wrong with this picture" (it is usually good to use
pictures of situations found at their specific location)" or "safety jeopardy" can be useful ways to
make the training fun yet educational.

o E. Conducting the Training

Trainers should provide employees with an overview of the material to be learned and relate the
training to the employees' experiences. Employers should also reinforce what the employees
have learned by summarizing the program's objectives and key points of training. At the
beginning of the training program, the trainer should show the employees why the material is
important and relevant to their jobs. Employees are more likely to pay attention and apply what
they've learned if they know the benefits of the training.[1]

o F. Evaluating Program Effectiveness

Evaluation will help employers or supervisors determine the amount of learning achieved and
whether an employee’s performance has improved on the job. Among the methods of evaluating
training are[4]:

 (1) Student opinion. Questionnaires or informal discussions with

employees can help employers determine the relevance and
appropriateness of the training program

 (2) Supervisors’ observations. Supervisors are in good positions to observe

an employee’s performance both before and after the training and note
improvements or changes

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  (3) Workplace improvements. The ultimate success of a training program
may be changes throughout the workplace that result in reduced injury or
accident rates

 (4) Formal assessments. Practical and written exams also assist in

evaluating understanding of training material. For example, for a lift-truck
operator, a written and a practical exam would identify areas of training
that may need to be revisited. Furthermore administering a pre-test and
post-test will establish a knowledge base line or reference point to
measure training effectiveness.

o G. Improving the Program

As evaluations are reviewed, it may be evident the training was not adequate and that the
employees did not reach the expected level of knowledge and skill. As the program is evaluated,
the trainer should ask[4]:

 (1) If a job analysis was conducted, was it accurate?

 (2) Was any critical feature of the job overlooked?

 (3) Were the important gaps in knowledge and skill included?

 (4) Was material already known by the employees intentionally omitted?

 (5) Were the instructional objectives presented clearly and concretely?

 (6) Did the objectives state the level of acceptable performance that was
expected of employees?

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  (7) Did the learning activity simulate the actual job?

 (8) Was the learning activity appropriate for the kinds of knowledge and
skills required on the job?

 (9) When the training was presented, was the organization of the material
and its meaning made clear?

 (10) Were the employees motivated to learn?

 (11) Were the employees allowed to participate actively in the training

process?

 (12) Was the employer’s evaluation of the program thorough?

Computer and video training

Computers and videos can be a great addition to a company's safety training program. As stand
alone resources, they may not be adequate in meeting OSHA's training requirements as they are
not site specific. Computer-based training can help meet the following training challenges[5]

 Training employees in remote sites

 Employees who become bored with the same safety training

 Safety managers lack of time and resources to effectively train employees

 Providing a means of documenting and tracking student progress

 Lowering trainer fees or travel costs

 A self-paced, relaxed learning environment

Substandard practices/acts

1. Operating equipment without authority

2. Failure to warn
3. Failure to secure

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4. Operating at improper speed
5. Making safety devices inoperable
6. Removing safety devices
7. Using defective equipment
8. Using equipment improperly
9. Failing to use personal protective equipment
10. Improper loading
11. Improper placement
12. Improper lifting
13. Improper position for task
14. Servicing equipmnet in operation
15. Horseplay
16. Under influence of alcohol/drugs

Substandard conditions

1. Inadequate guards or barriers

2. Inadequate or improper protective equipment
3. Defective tools, equipment or materials
4. Congestion or restricted action
5. Inadequate warning system
6. Fire and explosion hazards
7. Poor housekeeping, disorderly workplace
8. Hazardous environmental conditions
9. Noise exposures
10. Radiation exposures
11. High or low temperature exposures
12. Inadequate or excessive illumination
13. Inadequate ventilation

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Personal factors

1. Inadequate capability
- Physical/physiological
- Mental/psychological
2. Lack of knowledge
3. Lack of skill
4. Stress
- Physical/physiological
- Mental/psychologica
5. Improper motivation
Job factors

1. Inadequate leadership and/or supervision

2. Inadequate engineering
3. Inadequate purchasing
4. Inadequate maintenance
5. Inadequate tools, equipment, materials
6. Inadequate work standards
7. Wear and tear
8. Abuse or misuse

Personal factors Job factors

1. Inadequate capability
- Physical/physiological
- Mental/psychological
2. Lack of knowledge

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3. Lack of skill
4. Stress
- Physical/physiological
- Mental/psychologica
5. Improper motivation
1. Inadequate leadership and/or supervision
2. Inadequate engineering
3. Inadequate purchasing
4. Inadequate maintenance
5. Inadequate tools, equipment, materials
6. Inadequate work standards
7. Wear and tear
8. Abuse or misuse

Elements in a safety program

1. Leadership and administration
2. Management training
3. Planned inspection
4. Task analysis and procedures
5. Accident/incident investigation
6. Task observations
7. Emergency preparedness
8. Organisational rules
9. Accident/incident analysis
10. Employee training
11. Personal protective equipment
12. Health control
13. Program evaluation system
14. Engineering controls
15. Personal communications
16. Group meetings

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17. General promotion
18. Hiring and placement
19. Purchasing controls
20. Off-the-job safety

Managers and Supervisors

Responsible for:

• Consulting with employees (within their identified functions of management) on all matters
relating to health and safety and for bringing to the attention of the DSA or HOD any matter
that they are unable to deal with.
• To ensure that safety and health factors are fully taken into account when organising systems of
work within the Department.
• For ensuring that employees understand the University health and safety policy and the
associated rules relating to their work.

d. Individual Responsibilities

To take reasonable care for the health and safety of themselves and of other persons who may be
affected by their acts or omissions at work.
To co-operate with management to enable the employer to carry out his legal duties or any
requirements as may be imposed.

DANGEROUS AND HIGHLY TOXIC MATERIALS

The effect of chemical substances on human body and safety precautions are closely related.
Chemicals substances affect the body by ingestion, inhalation and absorption through skin
contact.

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INGESTION:
It occurs accidentally during handling of chemicals. Contaminated hands and
dirty vessels used for eating and drinking are most common routes of ingestion. Accidental
swallowing of chemicals in the laboratory is also possible. If it is in light dose, then the
detoxicating effect the liver exerts, has a protective effect in such cases. When massive
doses are taken, it can lead to fatalities in case of absence of immediate medical action.

INHALATION:
It is a common route for entry of dangerous chemicals. The air we breathe
may contain dusts, fumes, gases or vapours. These impurities affect the lung directly while
others are absorbed in the blood stream through lungs.

DUSTS:
Consists of finely divided solids which may settle down only with great
difficulty. During inhalation, a large amount of larger dust particles are entrapped in the
nose and bronchial tubes and the rest go up to lungs. This causes respiratory diseases on
continued exposure.

FUMES:
Strictly consist of condensed solid particles in air, though the term is
used loosely for condensed vapours or sublimated vapours too.

GASES:
Remain gaseous at ambient temperature in the atmosphere in the
atmosphere. Gases of different types are miscible and enter chemical reactions too.

ABSORPTION:
This can be a source of entry of harmful solids and liquids into the body. This
is by absorption through the skin into the vital parts of the body.

DUSTS AND FUMES:

INERT DUSTS: Carbon dust is present in plants manufacturing and using

carbon black and graphite products. Carbon dust causes blackening of lung tissues.
Silicate powder is widely used as fillers in chemical
industries. Fuller’s earth is also widely used in refining operations. Both these dusts causes

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discomfort. Good ventilation and handling in closed systems can be useful in controlling
these dusts.
HARMFUL DUSTS: Silica dust is used in rubber, refractories and in
abrasives. On breathing, it stimulates the production of fibrous tissues in lungs, which in
course of time interfere the passage of air to lungs, causing shortness of breath and leading
to tuberculosis. In cases, where the usage of silica dust is unavoidable, proper ventilation
and protection for respiratory systems should be followed.
Vanadium dust is present as catalysts and also in fuel
oils and is also used in alloys, pigments and electroplating. Uranium is a vital raw material
in nuclear industries. All these cause inflammation of the lungs.
Chromate dusts are used in chromate industries and
are associated with lung cancer.

GASES AND VAPOUR:

SIMPLE ASPHYXIANTS: These gases cause reduction of oxygen by

displacing it to a level where it does not support life and cause suffocation. (eg)N2, CO2,
OH4, C2H6, C9H8, C4H10, C2H4, C9H6 and C2H2. In such cases, we have to make use
of respiratory protective systems and good ventilation is important.
CHEMICAL ASPHYXIANTS: CO damages the oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood causing permanent brain damage or even death. Cyanides (Hydro cyanic acid,
organic and inorganic cyanide compounds.) damage the mechanism of transmission of
oxygen from hemoglobin to the cell. Though death is rapid, the victim does not show
asphyxiation.
PULMONARY IRRITANTS: This affect the lungs in addition to cause
irritation to upper respiratory. (eg) chlorine, phosgene, nitrous oxides, sulphur trioxide,
ozone, bromine, fluorine and dimethyl sulphate.
UPPER RESPIRATORY IRRITANTS: These irritate the upper respiratory
passages and the eyes. Lungs may not affected if the victim is able to escape quickly as the
irritation is severe even at low concentrations. (eg) Ammonia, Formaldehyde, SO2,
aldehydes, styrene, methyl acetate formate and furfural.

TOXIC CHEMICALS:

LEAD, MANGANESE AND MERCURY DUSTS:

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 Lead is one of the oldest known poisons whose effect is exerted on blood, bowels and
nervous system. It causes anemia, colic and constipation and by entering the nervous system
paralyses muscles of the hand and foot. In severe cases it leads to depression.
Inhalation of mercury vapour or absorption of mercury through the skin gives rise to skin
irritation. It’s effects are excessive salivation, gum inflammation and loss of teeth. The
nervous system is also affects leading depressions, irritation and loss of confidence.

Manganese poisoning develops slowly and affects the brain causing tremor of hands,
salivation etc.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM POISONS: Vapour of certain chemicals produce a

narcotic effect on the body and also produce other side effects. Alcohols have a narcotic
effect which is maximum with methyl alcohol and decreases with decreased volatility of
succeeding alcohols. Petroleum hydrocarbons are mostly aliphatic compounds, produce
narcotic effects which are more pronounced in the case of lower boiling fractions. Toluene
and xylene are known to have narcotic effects.
Halogenated hydrocarbons are an important class of toxic substances. The following are:
(1) CHLOROFORM: cause narcotic action, also liver damage and bad effects on the
lungs.
(2) CARBON TETRA CHLORIDE: dangerous narcotic, can damage liver and kidney.
On heating it gives rise to phosgene, which can affect the lungs.
(3) TETRA CHLORO ETHANE: damages the liver producing all characteristics of
jaundice. Kidneys may also be damaged.
(4) CHLORINATED AROMATICS: These are poisonous for nervous systems.
(5) CARBON-DI-SULPHIDE: : in production of rayon and is a narcotic poison causing
harm when inhaled in some small doses for a longer periods. The effect on the brain is
to cause excitement, depression, fatigue, loss of memory, insanitary, muscular
weakness and loss of vision.
(6) HYDROGEN SULFIDE: causes headache, dizziness, and excitement.

BLOOD POISONING:

Benzene is an important raw material and a popular solvent in several applications. It has a
narcotic effect. If absorbed in small concentrations over a long period, it causes damage to the
bone marrow. In early stages, it shoes symptoms of fatigue, insomnia and weakness, while in
advanced cases it leads to hemorrhage from gums and under the skin.

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Aniline, nitro benzene, toluidines and xylidines. On absorption tend to combine with hemoglobin
and reduce the oxygen carrying capacity in the blood leading to deprivation of oxygen. Chloro
compounds of toluidines are known to cause bleeding from the bladder.

Phenol on absorption causes head ache, dizziness and respiratory paralysis in the initial stages,
while in advanced stages can cause diarrhea, kidney, liver damage and loss of apetite

Dinitro phenol and dinitro ortho cresol can cause jaundice like effects as well as cataract on
continued absorption.

Dyestuff intermediates such as benzidine, alpha and beta naphthyl amines enter through the skin
and cause bladder cancer over a long period of exposure to small doses.

CONTROL OF DISEASES DUE TO CHEMICAL EFFECTS:

1. Educating the workers of hazards and keeping managers and supervisory staff
informed of upto date developments.
2. Informing the medical profession about the hazards of the industrial process to help
them diagnose the worker’s ailment and detect the onset of poisoning early enough.
3. Replacement of dangerous chemicals by less dangerous ones.
4. Changing the process to enable elimination of a dangerous raw material or
intermediate.
5. Automatic and fully enclosed handling to avoid spillage, dusts in handling, transport,
packing etc.
6. Providing effective ventilation to avoid hazards of dusts, fumes, vapours etc. besides
natural ventilation, artificial ventilation and exhaust ventilation are used effectively.
7. Using wet methods to avoid dusts in handling and grinding.
8. Implementing housekeeping and cleanliness.
9. Instituting work permit systems to enable work to be done with full precautions
against anticipated hazards.
10. Providing means of personal protection with appropriate equipment for specific
precautions for head, eyes, face, body, hands, feet etc. as well as respiratory
protection for carrying out work involving chemical hazards due to handling acids,
alkalis etc.
11. Providing wasing and first aid facilities to suit the specific chemicals handled.
12. Having a schedule of medical check of the blood, urine, stools, lungs, skin etc. to
detect onset of symptoms of poisoning.

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 HIGHLY RADIO-ACTIVE MATEIALS.

ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN INCASE OF FIRES:

Fire fighting equipments should be used. Avoid contacts with leaking or damaged
packages. Move undamaged packages if any without risk. In small fires, use carbon-di-oxide or
dry chemicals. On large fires, flooding amounts of water should be used.

ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN INCASE OF SPILLS:

Avoid contact with leaking or damaged packages and placing them in metal containers.
Shut off liquid leak or use absorbent materials for containing leakage. Entries to the hazardous
area should be stopped for a minimum possible time. In case of radio-active corrosive materials,
dilute the spill with large amounts of water.

In case of radioactive pyrophoric materials, gather the spilled material using shovel and
place under water or mineral oil in metal containers as soon as possible to prevent self-ignition.

In case of corrosive radioactive materials, attempt to plug releases from container opening
using wooden plugs or freeze leakage by cooling with water stream at point of opening or
pressurized co2 can also be used for freezing the leakage. Use water spray to reduce vapours.

HIGH PRESSURE OPERATIONS

The term pressure is taken to be any pressure above atmospheric pressure. Application of high
pressure in industries has become common feature. Pressures upto 1000 atmospheres are now in
large scale use in chemical industries.

Uses of high pressure in industries are classified under the following heads.

1. Production or maintenance of a liquid phase. (eg) liquefaction of air, oxygen, liquid phase
cracking of petroleum hydrocarbons.
2. Storage of gases. Transportation and use of gases in high pressure cylinders.
3. Compaction of powers, briquettes, extrusions and related pressing operation of solids.
4. Separation of liquids from solids.(eg) pressing of vegetable oils from seeds.
5. Increasing gas solubility in liquids.(eg) scrubbing of gases like CO, CO2 by liquids.
6. Increase of chemical reaction rates. (eg) petroleum refining operations.
7. Shifting chemical equilibrium.(eg) synthesis of ammonia, methyl alcohol.

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 High pressure reaction vessels are called autoclaves. They permit storage and reactions of
gases and liquids or both. Autoclaves are operated only in places such that nobody can be
injured if something go wrong with the equipment. The qeuipment is equipped with safety
valves, pressure gauges, safety vent and inspection holes well sealed during operation.
Personnel concerned with the operation should be familiar with the contents. Pressure and
temperature at which the equipment is operated and tested, maximum admissible pressure and
temperature, material of construction of the vessel and its working volume.
Gas cylinders are generally used for storing gases under pressure. These cylinders should
be distinguished clearly by coloured band or paints and name of the gas clearly written. The
pressure regulator is also painted in the same colour. They are handled always vertically and
stored in a cool place. The metal cap is placed in position to prevent injury to the pin valve,
whn the cylinder is not in use.
Cylinders with poisonous gases or flammable gases should be kept in specified places and
should be checked for any possible leaks with soap solution. The cylinder should always be
operated through the pressure regulator. The valve should be opened gradually and slowly.
Important safety rules to prevent high pressure hazards:
1. Pressure gauges should be free of air inside the tube. The gauges should be installed
above eye level. They should not be allowed to corrode.
2. Flammable gases at high pressures on rubbing against the wall of metallic pipes cause
static electricity discharge. Good earthing is essential.
3. Direct fired vessels should not be emptied suddenly. They are cooled by the fluid
running in slow velocities.
4. Two safety valves should be provided with one of them operating at slightly lower
pressures.
5. Bursting of ruptured disc vessels cause sudden high temperatures and may ignite
flammable gases. Sufficient venting is necessary.
6. High pressure equipments should be confined in special rooms having thick walls. The
high pressure gases must be quickly ventilated to the topmost point of the buildings
when any pressure release takes place.
7. Any leak developed may cause explosion or fire. Hence they must be repaired quickly
by slow release of pressure first and then carry out repair works.
8. Oils should never be used as lubricants when oxygen is stored.
9. Regulator inspection, hydraulic testing at 1.5 times the working pressure should be
carried out..
10. Too rapid rise in pressure should be avoided.
11. Joints should not be tightened under pressure.

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12. All high pressure areas should be marked clearly and any unauthorized entry should be
prohibited.

UNIT – I PART – B- QUESTION

ELEMENTS OF SAFETY PROCESS

Effective Safety and Health Programs

 It has been found that effective management of worker safety and health programs
 Reduce the extent and severity of work related injuries and illness
 Improves employee morale and productivity
 Reduce workers compensation costs

Common characteristics of Exemplary work places

 Use of organised systematic methods to

 Assign responsibility to managers, supervisors and employees
 Inspect regularly for and control hazards
 Orient and train all employees to eliminate or avoid hazards
 An effective program which includes provisions for systematic identification, evaluation
and prevention or control of hazards. It goes beyond specific requirements of the law to
address all hazards.
 Written program
 “In writing” less important than its effectiveness
 As size and complexity of worksite or process increares, so does need for written
guidance

MAJOR ELEMENTS

An effective Occupational safety and health program will enclude the following your
elements

 Management commitment and employee involvement

 Worksite Analysis
 Hazard prevention and control
 Safety and health training

(i) Management commitment and employee involvement

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Ø Management commitment and employee involvement are complementary

Ø Management committee provides the motivating force and resources for organizing and
controlling activities with in an organization
Ø Employee involvement provides the means through which workers develop and express
their own commitment to ------- protection

Recommended Actions

 State clearly a worksite safety and health policy

 Establish and commenieate a clear goal end objective for the safety & health program
 Provide visible top management involvement in implementing the program
 Encourage employee involvement in the program and in decisions that affect their safety
and health

For Example

Inspection or hazard analysis learns, developing oir revision safe work rules, training new
hires or co-workers, assisting in accident investication)

 Assign and communicate responsibility for all aspects of the program

 Provide adequate outhority and resource to responsible parties
 Hold managers, supervisors and employees accountable for meeting their responsibilities
 Review program operations at leart annually to evaluate, identify deficiencies and revise
an needed

(ii) Worksite Analysis

Worksite Analysis involves a variety of worksite examinations, to identify not only

existing hazards, but also conditions and operations where changes might occur to create
hazards. Effective management actively analyzes the work and worksite to anticipate and prevent
harmful occurrences

Recommended Actions

So that all hazards are identified

- Conduct comprehensive baseline and periodic surveys for safety and health
- Analyze planned and new facilities processes, materials and equipment
- Perform routine job hazard analyses
- Provide for regular site safety and health inspections
- Provide a reliable system for employs, without year of reprisal, to notify management
about apparent hazardour conditions and to receive timely and appropriate responses
- Provide for investigation of accidents and “near miss” incidents, so that their cause
and means for prevention are identified

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 - Analyse injury and illness trends overtime, so that patterns with common cause can
be identified and prevented

(iii) Hazard prevention and control

- Triggered by a determination that a hazard or potential hazard exists

- Where feaible, prevent hazards by effective design of job or job site.
- Where elimination is not possible, control hazards to prevent unsafe and unhealthful
exposure
- Elimination or control must be accomplished in a timely manner

Recommended Actions

- Establish procedures for timely correction or control of hazards, including

- Engineering techniques, where feasible and appropriate procedures for safework
which are understood and followed as a result of training positive rainforcement,
correction of unsafe performances and enforcement
- Provision of personal protetive equipment
- Administrative controls
- Provide for facility and equipment maintenance
- Plan and prepare for emergencies
- Training and drills as needed
- Establish a medical program
- First aid on site
- Physician and emergency care nearby

(iv) Safety and Healthy Training

Ø Addresses the safety and health responsibilies of all personnel, whether salaried or hourly
Ø Most effective when incorporated into other training about performance requirements and
job practices
Ø Complexicity depends on size and compllexity of worksite and nature of hazards

Recommended Actions

Ø Ensure that all employers understand the hazards to which they may be exposed and how
to prevent harm to themselves and others from exposure to these hazards
Ø Ensure that supervisors carry out their safety and health responsibilities including
Ø Analyzing the work under their supervision to identify unrecognised potential hazarde
Ø Maintaining physical protections in work areas
Ø Reinforcing employee training through continual performance feedback and if needed
enforcement of safe work practices
Ø Ensure that managers understand their safety and health responsibilities such as described
under the management commitment and employee involvement element of the
guidelines.

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SAFETY AWARNESS & TRAINING AT VARIOUS LEVEL

Training of employees in safety has been traditionally recommended as a means for

improving safety performance. Investigation into most of the accidents which take place on the
shop floor- irresfective of whether thay arise out of unsafe physical working conditions
prevailing or actions of persons reveal underlying causes which relate to inadequacy or lack of
training. In sharp contrast, success of stories of industrial units with good safety performance
give evidence of planned training efforts.

BENEFITS FROM GOOD TRAINING EFFORTS IN SAFETY.

 Training activities indirectly demostrate company’s interest in employees. This leads to

good human relations at work
 Gaining knowledge and skill helps to improve perceptions and hence improve safety
performance
 Training rever the time spent by the supervisor to instruct and correct
 Training helps personalise the attitude of persons and is one of the best practical means
available to the managers for effective communication with groups.

The analysis also identifies the training requirements in safety in the organisations

Level Training Needs

Helper - Need for safety at work, hazards
connected with this work, ways to
safeguard
Operator - Need for safety, safety requirements
of his job, his responsibilities
Supervisor - Hazards in the operation supervised
and the technical skills to identify
and prevent them
- Human relations and
communication skills
Managers - Responsibility for safety
- Company’s policy and direction
- Techniques to identify and control
hazards
- Human relations and
communication

At higher management level also, knowledge on safety is needed, but this is confined to a
good concept of occupational safety and health in the prevailing social context and broad under
standing of the principles to be followed.

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 To meets the training needs it will be necessary to plan and implement a compretensive
programme for training covering different levels

Assessment of Training Needs

The first step in developing a programme for training with a view improving safety
performance is an objective assesment of training needs. In the first method the concept that
“Safety training is a must for each and every one” is the key.

The second method also starts with a few standard training is concerned is well taken
care of. In both the caues above, the breaking of ice, as for as safety training is concerned, is
well taken care of . If the programmes are satisfactory conducted, and generally accepted, even a
specific demand for training which paves ways to scientific selection process later can result.

There are of course more objectives methods which can be used to access the training
needs and select persons for training. They are,

(i) Based on man power planning

A compretensive data on manpower planning can be quite helpful. This analysis can yield
objective conclurions as to who needs what type of training andin what priority.

(ii) Based on safety information

Information relating to safety activities and performance can provide useful information
regarding training needs. The record of first aid throus light on the type of accidents and the
persons involved. Correctly catogorized and logically analysed, this data can be a very useful
tool to assess the training needs.

(iii) Choice by Managers

This process can be made effective by the following additional measures

 Full participation and serious involvement of the managers is ensured by the chief
executive
 The managers get the benefit of a professional advice in his decisions either from within
the organisation or outside
 Information on safety, manpower planning and training modules are made available to
the managers
 Providing oppurtunity for the managers to consult each other
(iv) Data collection and Analysis
Another possible method is a professional survey of training needs. While the plan for training in
safety for the organisation is decided it would be desirable to clasify the needs in a convenient way some
heads under which the needs can be classified are.

Level of training (Rank) : 1. Managers and above

2. Asst. Managers and Dy. Managers

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Type of programme
Duration
Specific target groups
3. Supervisors
4. Jr. Supervisors
5. Skilled workmen
6. Unskilled workmen
: 1. General programme
2. Specialised programme for specific group
: 1. Long programme (more than 2 weeks)
2. Medium programmes ( 5 day to 2 week)
3. Short programme (Less than 5 days)
: New employees. Employees on transfer of
jobs. Employees in high age groups

Method of Instruction

Training involves transfer of knowledge skill or information. This can be actieved by means

 On the job instructions

 Lecture method
 Discussions
 Learning By doing
 Demonstratioin/ visits

SAFETY CONSCIOUSNESS IN INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

The concept of providing safe working conditions for the manage in industry is not limited to
making available safe plant and equipment. It include ensuring safe operations through safe method of
work, system and procedures

Machine Safety : Ensuring safety in the operation of machine and equipment

Layout, plant Design :- Ensuring layout, arrangements, hence keeping and general conditions of work
around the employees are basically safe and also conductive to safe working.

Working Environment : Ensuring physical work environment around the employee is not hazarders.
Exercise noise level, poor lighting, exposure to heat strees, poor ventilation and precence of toxic,
constitute poor work environment.

Work status Design : Work station design and providing tasks which fit the persures who perform them,
taking into account their physical and mental capabilities and limitations.

Major Hazard Control : Making process safe and free from chances of major hazards like fire explesion
and toxic releases and exercising effective control on process which may prove to be hazarders.

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 A recent review of plants indicate many differences in safety organisation and a wide variance of
outhority and interest from top management down through the organization.

The following paints should be considered first

(i) Safety must have top mgt approval, sanction and rupport
(ii) Responsibility for safety must rest with the rupervisory personal
(iii) Safety must be given equal important to other factors

We may clarify the safety organisation in three general types namely

Type ‘A’ firm

Type ‘B’ firm

Type ‘C’ firm

Type ‘A’ firm : Too small industry

No full time safety engineer. It will be carried out by functional head

Type ‘B’ firm Large firm. Seperate safety officers will be there to look after safety work. Here safety
progress depends on the ability of safety officers and attitude of top management.

Type ‘C’ firm : Safety is carried out by committees

It has the advantage of binary together the view points of the group and it will be be. Her than
individual. But the dis advantage is the fact that a committee is the weakest execution.

TOLERANCE LIMIT OF THE SOCIETY

Exposure limits have been established for a wide variety of chemicals sensitive individuals may
ruffer adverse effects at levels much better than the exposure limits.

JLV- JWA

Thresold limit value. Time weigted Average are exposure limits recommended by a committee of
the American conference of Governmental Industries Hygienists and are published yearly after review.
TLV- JWA is the level to which a worker may be exposed for an eight hours stift without suffering and
adverse effects.

TLV – STEL

Some substances have a short term exposure limit. The STEL is a 15 minutes exposure limit that
should not be exceeded even if the eight hours TLV remains within the limit.

TLV – C

A TLV with celling notation ‘C’ represents the conen should not be exceeded at any time. Ceiling
values are used for substances known to be for such are irritating gaces.

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