02 Floyod Chap1 3

07/ago/2017 FIGURE 1-1 Graph of an analog quantity (temperature versus time).
Digital Fundamentals Most natural quantities that we see are analog and vary continuously.
Analog systems can generally handle higher power than digital systems.
ELEVENTH EDITION
CHAPTER 1
Introductory
Concepts
Digital Fundamentals, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. Digital Fundamentals, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Thomas L. Floyd All Rights Reserved Thomas L. Floyd All Rights Reserved
FIGURE 1-2 Sampled-value representation (quantization) of the analog quantity in Figure 1–1. Each value
FIGURE 1-4 Basic block diagram of a CD player. Only one channel is shown.
represented by a dot can be digitized by representing it as a digital code that consists of a series of 1s and 0s.
Many systems use a mix of analog and digital electronics to take

advantage of each technology. A typical CD player accepts digital data
from the CD drive and converts it to an analog signal for amplification.
Digital systems can process, store, and transmit data more efficiently but
can only assign discrete values to each point.
Digital electronics uses circuits that
have two states, which are • Digital waveforms change between the LOW and HIGH levels.
represented by two different voltage • A positive going pulse is one that goes from a normally LOW
levels called HIGH and LOW. The logic level to a HIGH level and then back again.
voltages represent numbers in the
binary system. • Digital waveforms are made up of a series of pulses.
In binary, a single number is

called a bit (for binary digit). A
bit can have the value of either
a 0 or a 1, depending on if the
voltage is HIGH or LOW.
FIGURE 1-7 Ideal pulses.
FIGURE 1-6 Logic level ranges of voltage for a digital circuit.
Actual pulses are not ideal but are described by the rise time, fall
FIGURE 1-9 Examples of digital waveforms.
time, amplitude, and other characteristics.
In addition to frequency and period, repetitive pulse waveforms are

described by the amplitude (A), pulse width (tW) and duty cycle. Duty
cycle is the ratio of tW to T.
Volts
Pulse
width
Amplitude (A)
(tW)
Time
FIGURE 1-8 Nonideal pulse characteristics. Period, T
Periodic pulse waveforms are composed of pulses that repeats
in a fixed interval called the period. The frequency is the rate Digital Fundamentals
it repeats and is measured in hertz.
ELEVENTH EDITION
1 1
f = T=
T f
CHAPTER 3
The clock is a basic timing signal that is an example of a periodic
wave.
Logic Gates
What is the period of a repetitive wave if f = 3.2 GHz?
1 1
T= = = 313 ns
f 3.2 GHz
The Inverter The Inverter

A X
FIGURE 3-1 Standard logic symbols for the inverter (ANSI/IEEE Std. 91-1984/Std. 91a-1991).
The inverter performs the Boolean NOT operation. When the

input is LOW, the output is HIGH; when the input is HIGH, the
output is LOW.
Input Output
A X
LOW (0) HIGH (1)
HIGH (1) LOW(0)
The NOT operation (complement) is shown with an overbar.

Thus, the Boolean expression for an inverter is X = A.
The Inverter The AND gate
A X
FIGURE 3-8 Standard logic symbols for the AND gate showing two inputs (ANSI/IEEE Std. 91-1984/Std. 91a-
1991).
Example waveforms:
A
X
A group of inverters can be used to form the 1’s complement of a

binary number:
Binary number
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
1’s complement
The AND gate The AND gate

A X
FIGURE 3-10 Example of AND gate operation with a timing diagram showing input and output relationships.
B
The AND gate produces a HIGH output when all inputs are
HIGH; otherwise, the output is LOW. For a 2-input gate,
the truth table is
Inputs Output
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
The AND operation is usually shown with a dot between the

variables but it may be implied (no dot). Thus, the AND
operation is written as X = A . B or X = AB
The AND gate A X The AND gate
B
Example waveforms: Waveform for X ?
A
B
The AND operation is used in computer programming as a

selective mask. If you want to retain certain bits of a binary
number but reset the other bits to 0, you could set a mask
with 1’s in the position of the retained bits. X
If the binary number 10100011 is ANDed with the mask

00001111, what is the result? 00000011
FIGURE 3-13
The AND gate The OR gate

A X A ≥1 X
B B
The OR gate produces a HIGH output if any input is HIGH; if

FIGURE 3-15 Boolean expressions for AND gates with two, three, and four inputs.
all inputs are LOW, the output is LOW. For a 2-input gate,
the truth table is
Inputs Output
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
The OR operation is shown with a plus sign (+) between the

variables. Thus, the OR operation is written as X = A + B.
The OR gate A X The OR gate
B
Example waveforms:
A
B
The OR operation can be used in computer programming to set certain

bits of a binary number to 1.
ASCII letters have a 1 in the bit 5 position for lower case letters and a
0 in this position for capitals. (Bit positions are numbered from right to
left starting with 0.) What will be the result if you OR an ASCII letter with
the 8-bit mask 00100000?
The resulting letter will be lower case. FIGURE 3-23
The OR gate The NAND gate A X A & X

B B
The NAND gate produces a LOW output when all inputs are
HIGH; otherwise, the output is HIGH. For a 2-input gate, the
FIGURE 3-24 Boolean expressions for OR gates with two, three, and four inputs. truth table is
Inputs Output
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
The NAND operation is shown with a dot between the

variables and an overbar covering them. Thus, the NAND
operation is written as X = A .B (alternatively, X = AB)
The NAND gate A The NAND gate
B
Example waveforms: The output waveform X is LOW only when all three input waveforms are
HIGH as shown in the timing diagram.
A
B
The NAND gate is particularly useful because it is a “universal” gate

– all other basic gates can be constructed from NAND gates.
A 2-input NAND gate with both inputs connected together is

equivalent to which gate ?
FIGURE 3-29
The NOR gate The NOR gate A X

A X A ≥1 X B
B B
Example waveforms:
The NOR gate produces a LOW output if any input is HIGH; if
all inputs are HIGH, the output is LOW. For a 2-input gate, the A
truth table is
B
Inputs Output
A B X X
0 0 1
0 1 0 The NOR operation will produce a LOW if any input is HIGH.
1 0 0
1 1 0 +5.0 V
When is the LED is ON for the circuit shown?
330 W
The NOR operation is shown with a plus sign (+) between

The LED will be on when any A
the variables and an overbar covering them. Thus, the NOR B
C
X
of the four inputs are HIGH.
operation is written as X = A + B. D
The NOR gate De Morgan’s Theorem
FIGURE 3-38 Standard symbols representing the two equivalent operations of a NOR gate.
FIGURE 3-37
FIGURE 3-30 ANSI/IEEE standard symbols representing the two equivalent operations of a NAND gate.
The XOR gate The XOR gate A X

A X A =1 X
B
B B
Example waveforms:
The XOR gate produces a HIGH output only when both
inputs are at opposite logic levels. The truth table is A
Inputs Output B
A B X
X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1 Notice that the XOR gate will produce a HIGH only when exactly one
1 1 0 input is HIGH.
If the A and B waveforms are both inverted for the above waveforms,
The XOR operation is written as X = AB + AB. how is the output affected?
Alternatively, it can be written with a circled plus sign
between the variables as X = A + B. There is no change in the output.
The XNOR Gate
FIGURE 3-48
A X A =1 X
B B
The XNOR gate produces a HIGH output only when both

inputs are at the same logic level. The truth table is
Inputs Output
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
The XNOR operation shown as X = AB + AB. Alternatively,

the XNOR operation can be shown with a circled dot
between the variables. Thus, it can be shown as X = A . B.
FIGURE 3-75
TABLE 3–13 An XOR gate used to add two bits.
Transformações entre Transformações entre
Representações Lógicas Representações Lógicas
[John_R._Gregg]_Ones_and_Zeros_Understanding_Bool(BookZZ.org) [John_R._Gregg]_Ones_and_Zeros_Understanding_Bool(BookZZ.org)
Examine the conditions indicated in Figure 3–92, and identify the faulty gates.
Simplificação Lógica
• Lógica simplificada == hardware mais eficiente
§ Menor área de hardware
§ Menor o atraso da lógica
• Próximo conteúdo: simplificação lógica.

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07/ago/2017 FIGURE 1-1 Graph of an analog quantity (temperature versus time).

Many systems use a mix of analog and digital electronics to take

In binary, a single number is

FIGURE 1-7 Ideal pulses.

FIGURE 1-6 Logic level ranges of voltage for a digital circuit.

In addition to frequency and period, repetitive pulse waveforms are

The Inverter The Inverter

The inverter performs the Boolean NOT operation. When the

The NOT operation (complement) is shown with an overbar.

A group of inverters can be used to form the 1’s complement of a

The AND gate The AND gate

The AND operation is usually shown with a dot between the

Example waveforms: Waveform for X ?

The AND operation is used in computer programming as a

If the binary number 10100011 is ANDed with the mask

The AND gate The OR gate

The OR gate produces a HIGH output if any input is HIGH; if

The OR operation is shown with a plus sign (+) between the

The OR operation can be used in computer programming to set certain

The resulting letter will be lower case. FIGURE 3-23

The OR gate The NAND gate A X A & X

The NAND operation is shown with a dot between the

The NAND gate is particularly useful because it is a “universal” gate

A 2-input NAND gate with both inputs connected together is

The NOR gate The NOR gate A X

The NOR operation is shown with a plus sign (+) between

The XOR gate The XOR gate A X

The XNOR gate produces a HIGH output only when both

The XNOR operation shown as X = AB + AB. Alternatively,

TABLE 3–13 An XOR gate used to add two bits.

• Próximo conteúdo: simplificação lógica.

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