Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422 – 436

www.elsevier.com/locate/rse

Mapping mine wastes and analyzing areas affected by selenium-rich

water runoff in southeast Idaho using AVIRIS
imagery and digital elevation data
John C. Mars *, James K. Crowley
US Geological Survey, National Center—MS 954, Reston, VA 20192, USA
Received 23 January 2002; received in revised form 19 August 2002; accepted 24 August 2002

Abstract

Remotely sensed hyperspectral and digital elevation data from southeastern Idaho are combined in a new method to assess mine waste
contamination. Waste rock from phosphorite mining in the area contains selenium, cadmium, vanadium, and other metals. Toxic
concentrations of selenium have been found in plants and soils near some mine waste dumps. Eighteen mine waste dumps and five vegetation
cover types in the southeast Idaho phosphate district were mapped by using Airborne Visible-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)
imagery and field data. The interaction of surface water runoff with mine waste was assessed by registering the AVIRIS results to digital
elevation data, enabling determinations of (1) mine dump morphologies, (2) catchment watershed areas above each mine dump, (3) flow
directions from the dumps, (4) stream gradients, and (5) the extent of downstream wetlands available for selenium absorption.
Watersheds with the most severe selenium contamination, such as the South Maybe Canyon watershed, are associated with mine dumps
that have large catchment watershed areas, high stream gradients, a paucity of downstream wetlands, and dump forms that tend to obstruct
stream flow. Watersheds associated with low concentrations of dissolved selenium, such as Angus Creek, have mine dumps with small
catchment watershed areas, low stream gradients, abundant wetlands vegetation, and less obstructing dump morphologies.
D 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Selenium; Phosphoria; Mead Peak Member; Dinwoody; Park City; Remote sensing; Phosphate; Phosphorite; Mine waste; Hyperspectral; Digital
elevation model; AVIRIS

1. Introduction
The Permian Meade Peak Member of the Phosphoria
Formation in southeastern Idaho has been extensively sur-
face mined for phosphorite for over 50 years. Waste rock
from phosphorite mining contains trace amounts of sele-
nium, cadmium, vanadium, and other elements. Selenium
concentrations in the hundreds of parts per million have
been found in soils, plants, and seeps in close proximity to
some mine waste dumps. Mortality of livestock due to
selenosis poisoning has been linked to the contamination
of water and vegetation by mine waste (Piper et al., 2000).
Mapping mine waste and evaluating associated environ-
mental concerns is a difficult problem because of the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jmars@usgs.gov (J.C. Mars).
extensive area affected (Fig. 1), the large size of individual
mines, and the large total volume of mine waste.
Over the last 10 years, chemical studies of mine waste,
soil, rock, surface water, and plants have focused mainly
on two localities, the South Maybe Canyon and the
Wooley Valley Unit 4 mine dumps (Fig. 1). Vegetation
growing on both dump surfaces contains elevated selenium
concentrations of 100 –500 ppm. Selenosis poisoning of
livestock has been reported near Maybe Canyon Creek, a
stream that flows from the base of the South Maybe
Canyon mine dump. However, no selenosis poisoning of
livestock has been reported downstream of Angus Creek, a
stream that flows from Wooley Valley Unit 4 dump.
Various studies of surface water samples report average
selenium concentrations ranging from of 751.0 to 955.0
Ag/l from Maybe Canyon Creek compared to average
selenium concentrations ranging from only 2.0 to 4.0 Ag/
l for water samples from Angus Creek (Amacher, 1994;
Montgomery-Watson, 1998, 1999, 2001; Piper et al.,

0034-4257/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 3 4 - 4 2 5 7 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 3 2 - 3
 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436 423

Fig. 1. Location of study area, mine dumps, and AVIRIS image. A letter indicates the locations of each dump. The letters correspond to the mine dump names
on Table 1 and are included in Figs. 5 and 6 that illustrate more details on elevation contours, extent of dumps, and drainages. WV4 is the Wooley Valley Unit 4
mine dump and SMC is the South Maybe Canyon mine dump.

2000). Field mapping of the mine dumps also indicates
that the South Maybe Canyon dump is somewhat smaller
than the Wooley Valley Unit 4 mine dump (Table 1). Thus,
selenium contamination is not a simple function of dump
size, but instead is complexly linked to local hydrologic,
and perhaps, biologic factors. For example, previous work-
ers have found that selenium is readily absorbed by
organic mat associated with wetlands (Weres, Bowman,
Goldstein, Smith, & Tsao, 1990), and field observations
show a greater abundance of wetland vegetation in the
Angus Creek watershed. But wetland vegetation is just one
of many possible factors influencing selenium dispersal.
Additional water runoff and vegetation attributes may be
involved, and each of the large mine waste piles in
southeast Idaho is likely to have somewhat different
characteristics.
To gain a better understanding of the selenium problem,
we used imagery from NASA’s Airborne Visible-Infrared
Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) to remotely map mine
waste dumps, wetlands vegetation, and other local vegeta-
tion cover types. This information was analyzed in con-
junction with digital elevation (DEM) data to determine
catchment watershed areas for each dump, and to estimate
water runoff potential for mine dumps of various morphol-
ogies. Results of the hyperspectral and DEM analyses were
then related to selenium contamination near each mine
424 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436

Table 1
A list of all mine dumps mapped by AVIRIS and physical parameters for each dump
Mine dump Catchment Surface area Mine dump Affected streams Stream Riparian Distance Stream AVG. Se.
watershed of mine dump morphology type surface area from stream gradient up Con. Surface
area (km2) (km2) mapped 1 km source to to 1 km Water-Creek
from source pastureland from mine (Ag/l)
(m2) (km) dump source
(m/km)
A Wooley Valley 1.93 0.91 UCVF (1)Angus Creek P 28512 5.04 35 3.33
unit 4
B Wooley Valley 1.755 0.30 UCVF (2) no name; I 23652 0.00 10 3.70
unit 1 (3) Little Black-Foot
C Wooley Valley 1.54 0.30 UCVF (4) no name, I, P 4536 1.73 23 1.75
unit 3 Angus Creek
D South Maybe 5.14 0.64 LCVF (5) Maybe P 6156 2.71 53 954.55
Canyon Dump Canyon Creek
E North Maybe 0.53 0.31 UCVF (6) East Mill P 324 3.35 51 400.00
Canyon Dump Creek
F West Maybe 1.31 1.31 USRD (7) no-name I 0 0.82 162 no data
Canyon Dump
G North Champ 0.31 0.31 M (8) Goodheart I 3240 0.00 3 10.65
Mine Dump Creek
H West Champ 0.37 0.37 M (9) Dry Canyon I 9396 0.00 1 no data
Mine Dump Creek
I East Champ 0.83 0.83 M Goodheart Creek I 5832 0.00 9 6.34
Mine Dump
J North Mountain 0.33 0.05 UCVF none na na na na na
Fuel Mine Dump
K South Mountain 2.94 0.36 LSRD (10) no-name I 324 1.62 56 no data
Fuel Mine Dump
L East Mountain 9.36 1.45 LSRD (11) no-name I 648 0.00 14 no data
Fuel Mine Dump
M West Mountain 0.16 1.30 UCVF none na na na na na
Fuel Mine Dump
N Enoch Valley- 2.63 1.25 UCVF (12) Rasmussen I 324 0.00 28 0.67
Rasmussen Dump Creek E. Fork
O North Dry Valley 0.57 0.57 M (13) Dry Valley P 20412 0.00 7 24.72
Mine Dump Creek
P South Dry Valley 4.34 0.60 LSRD (14) no-name, I, P 16200 0.00 10 24.72
Mine Dumps Dry Valley Creek
Q Lanes Creek 0.85 0.12 LSRD none na na na na na
Mine Dump
R Georgetown 2.99 0.33 LUSRD (15) no-name I 12363 >6.8 193 na
Mine Dumps
S and plant dump 28.08 0.54 LSRD (16) Georgetown P 0 >6.8 26 17.00
included Creek
The locations of each dump are indicated by a letter that corresponds to the same letter on either Fig. 5 or Fig. 6. The location of each affected stream is
similarly indicated by a number that corresponds to the same number on either Fig. 5 or Fig. 6. Average selenium concentrations from Amacher (1994) and
Montgomery-Watson (1998, 1999, 2001).
Abbreviations: UCVF, Upper Cross-Valley Fill; LCVF, Lower Cross-Valley Fill; USRD, Upper Side-Ridge Dump; LSRD, Lower Side-Ridge Dump; LUSRD,
Lower and Upper Side-Ridge Dumps; M, Mound; I, Intermittent; P, Perennial.

dump as measured by available data on surface water
selenium concentrations.
2. Site description and geologic setting
The study area lies within the Rocky Mountain Range
and Forest Region, and has a sub-humid climate with annual
precipitation of approximately 51 –64 cm (Austin, 1965).
The area comprises a series of northwest trending ridges and
valleys with base elevations of about 1900 m and topo-
graphic relief of about 450 m. Most of the valleys contain
low-lying pasturelands that support grasses and small
amounts of sagebrush. Areas near streams typically support
riparian vegetation such as willow trees and sedges. Sage-
brush and aspen trees occur at slightly higher elevations
along the valley borders. Upper ridge areas typically have
sagebrush cover on the southwestern slopes, and coniferous
forest cover (Lodgepole pine and Douglas fir) on the
northeastern slopes.
Pre-Eocene sedimentary rocks have been folded into a
series of plunging anticlines and synclines that trend
 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436
northwest (Mitchell & Bennett, 1979). Northwest to north-
east trending extensional faults postdate the folds. The
Permian Phosphoria Formation consists of phosphatic,
organic-rich mudstone, black chert, and dolomite (Herring
et al., 2000). The mined phosphorite ore beds are separated
by a thick section of phosphatic mudstone commonly
identified as the ‘‘center waste shale,’’ which contains up
to 500 ppm selenium, and makes up much of the mine
waste dump material (Herring et al., 2000). In addition,
mine dumps commonly contain rocks of the overlying
Triassic age Dinwoody Formation, and the underlying
Permian age Park City Formation. The basal part of the
Dinwoody Formation consists of brown-gray mudstone
and claystone, whereas the upper part of the Park City
Formation consists of limestone, dolomite, and clayey
limestone and dolomite.
3. Data and methods
3.1. Image calibration
Five segments of AVIRIS data were acquired from the
high-altitude NASA ER-2 aircraft during clear sky con-
ditions on September 7, 1999 (Fig. 1). AVIRIS records 224
channels of data in narrow, contiguous, spectral bandpasses
spanning the 0.4- to 2.5-Am wavelength region (Green et
al., 1998). An AVIRIS image covers a swath about 12-km
wide with a ground Instantaneous Field of View (gIFOV)
of approximately 20 m at sea level. Due to an average
elevation of 2100 m in the study area, the gIFOV and
swath were reduced to about 18 m and 11 km, respec-
tively.
The NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory calibrated the
AVIRIS data to radiance-at-sensor. We calibrated the data
to approximate surface reflectance by using the Atmos-
pheric Removal (ATREM) software (Gao, Heidebreicht, &
Goetz, 1992). A ‘‘spectral polishing’’ procedure (Empirical
Flat Field Optimal Reflectance Transformation—EFFORT)
(Boardman, 1998), and in situ spectral calibration were
subsequently performed to improve the reflectance cali-
bration (Clark, Swayze, Heidebreicht, Goetz, & Green,
1993). The in situ spectral calibration was based on field
spectral data collected at the Wooley Valley Unit 4 Dump
using an Analytical Spectral Devices portable spectrom-
eter at approximately 9:45 AM MDT on June 23, 1999.
These spectral measurements were averaged and re-
sampled to the AVIRIS wavelengths and spectral resolu-
tion using a Gaussian filter function and AVIRIS full-
width half-maximum waveform and band center values.
The resampled field spectrum was then divided by an
average AVIRIS spectrum extracted from the same image
location to produce a scaler spectrum. The ATREM and
EFFORT corrected data were subsequently multiplied by
the scaler spectrum to produce the final AVIRIS reflec-
tance dataset.
425
3.2. Definition and mapping of spectral units
Vegetation, lithologies, and mine waste were used to map
mine dumps. Training sites were selected in the field for
rock types, mine waste, and vegetation and were located on
the AVIRIS imagery. Spectra were then extracted from the
AVIRIS image training sites for use in mapping which are
defined in this paper as spectral units. Mixture-tuned match
filter (MTMF) was used to map all spectral units because of
the partial unmixing capability of the algorithm using image
spectra (Boardman, Kruse, & Green, 1995; Harsanyi &
Chang, 1994). Except for three lithologic spectral units,
MTMF correctly mapped >95% of sites that were field
checked and assessed in the AVIRIS image. The three
lithologic spectral units were correctly classified (>90%
accuracy on field checked sites and AVIRIS image) using
spectral angle mapper (SAM; Kruse et al., 1993). SAM is a
spectral shape-matching algorithm that treats spectra as
multi-dimensional vectors and calculates angles of similarity
between them. Mixture-tuned matched filter and SAM are
part of the Environment for Visualizing Images (ENVI)
software package (RSI, 2000).
To generate maps of the mine waste dumps we utilized
the spectral attributes of (1) exposed lithologies within
mines, (2) typical vegetation on mine dumps, and (3)
exposed mine dump material. Exposed lithologic units
within mines are useful for helping to delineate mine waste
dumps because the dumps are always situated in close
proximity to mines. Many mine waste dumps have been
seeded with wheat grass and alfalfa; thus, these vegetation
types situated adjacent to a mine typically indicate the
presence of a mine waste dump. Areas of wheat grass/alfalfa
that are not situated near a mine generally constitute
agricultural fields. In addition, mine waste dumps com-
monly contain bare patches of waste rock. Such areas are
spectrally distinctive and provide direct evidence of a mine
waste dump. Details of the identification of various spectral
units and the choice of mapping methods used in each case
are given below.
3.3. Lithologic spectral units
Four spectrally distinct lithologic units are exposed in
the foot and/or hanging walls of the phosphorite mines:
carbonate rocks, clayey carbonate rocks, micaceous –calca-
reous mudstone, and phosphatic mudstone (Fig. 2). The
carbonate rock spectral unit consists of limestone and
dolomite and has a strong absorption feature centered near
2.33 Am (Fig. 2). The clayey carbonate rock and mica-
ceous –calcareous mudstone spectral units exhibit absorp-
tion features of somewhat variable relative intensities due
to muscovite (2.20 and 2.35 Am absorption features),
smectite clay (2.20 Am absorption feature), dolomite
(2.31 Am absorption feature), and calcite (2.33 Am absorp-
tion feature) (Fig. 2). Due to high organic content (5% –
10% total organic carbon; Herring et al., 2000) and
426 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436

Fig. 2. Lithologic, mine waste, and vegetation spectral units. Each spectrum displayed is an average of all mapped spectra for each spectral unit. Due to
atmospheric noise, parts of each spectrum were ommited and replaced with a dotted line for clarity.

moderate to high thermal maturity (Claypool, Love, & phosphatic mudstone contains clay (2.20 Am absorption
Maughan, 1978), the albedo of the phosphatic mudstone feature) and small amounts of calcite (2.33 Am absorption
spectral unit was about 16% lower than the albedo of the feature) the high organic content and thermal maturity
other three lithologic spectral units (Fig. 2). Although the subdues their spectral absorption features.
 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436
To map the lithologic spectral units a vegetation mask
was first used to constrain the spectral mapping to areas
with minimal vegetation cover. The mask was constructed
by using the sum of band ratios 1.10:0.66 Am and
0.508:1.325 Am. The MTMF procedure was then utilized
to try and map the four lithologic spectral units. However,
the carbonate, clayey carbonate, and micaceous mudstone
spectral units contained mineral absorption bands that the
MTMF interpreted incorrectly to represent linear mixtures
between the units. More accurate maps of these three
lithologic spectral units were obtained by using SAM,
limited to the 2.0- to 2.4-Am wavelength region. The
phosphatic mudstone lithologic spectral unit, which does
not contain strong mineral absorption features, but has a
distinctive overall spectral shape, was accurately mapped by
using the MTMF procedure over the full 0.4 – 2.4-Am
spectral range.
3.4. Mine-waste spectral units
Two mine-waste spectral units were defined representing
both the bare and vegetated dumps (Fig. 2). The bare dump
spectral unit consists mostly of phosphatic mudstone, some
limestone, dolomite, and calcareous micaceous mudstone,
and up to 5% vegetation. Spectral features are subdued
because of the high content of organic matter in this mud-
stone (5– 10% total organic carbon; Herring et al., 2000).
However, the spectral unit does show weak 2.20-, 2.33- and
2.35-Am absorption features probably due to the presence of
calcite and muscovite (Fig. 2). The vegetated dump spectral
unit consists of at least 70% vegetation and less than 30%
dump material.
Because the mine waste spectral units occur in mixtures
with ordinary vegetation and other image materials, a partial
spectral unmixing procedure was necessary to distinguish
their spectral characteristics. The MTMF algorithm applied
over the full 0.4- to 2.4-Am spectral range was effective for
mapping both mine waste spectral units.
3.5. Vegetation-land cover spectral units
Besides the mine waste vegetation, five additional veg-
etation-land cover spectral units were defined, both to
enable mapping of wetlands that may play a role in reducing
selenium transport, and to characterize other land cover
types potentially affected by mine waste contamination.
Training areas of each vegetation-land cover type were
observed in the field and located on the image. The
vegetation-land cover spectral units are (1) sagebrush domi-
nated slopes, (2) grass dominated pastureland, (3) riparian
vegetation along wetlands and streams, (4) aspen forests on
lower ridge slopes, and (5) coniferous forests of Lodgepole
Pine and Douglas Fir on higher ridges and on north-facing
slopes (Fig. 2). The MTMF algorithm applied over the full
0.4- to 2.4-Am spectral range appeared to produce accurate
vegetation mapping results. This was verified by examina-
427
tion of false color composite imagery, and by field obser-
vations.
3.6. GIS techniques
AVIRIS-based mine waste and vegetation maps were
registered using 57 UTM coordinates taken from a regis-
tered Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) image. USGS 7.5-
min DEM data and the AVIRIS mapping results were
imported into a raster GIS program (Idrisi) in order to
analyze catchment watershed areas and runoff flow lines
for the various mine dumps. A ‘‘catchment watershed area’’
is defined as the part of a watershed that channels surface
water onto a mine dump plus the surface area of the dump
itself. Precipitation within the catchment watershed area
flows onto and potentially into and through the dump.
The Idrisi watershed algorithm superimposes each mapped
mine dump on the DEM and maps catchment watershed
pixels up-elevation from the mine dump boundary to the
boundary of the watershed. ‘‘Runoff flow lines’’ are com-
puter-generated lines that define the most likely water flow
paths based on the topographic data.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Mapping of mine waste
A combination of mine waste and lithologic spectral
units defines mine waste dumps. At Wooley Valley and
Maybe Canyon, mine waste dumps are mapped as mottled
patterns of vegetation and bare dump spectral units adja-
cent to mapped lithologic spectral units (Figs. 3 and 4). In
contrast, a field to the east of Wooley Valley Unit 4 dump
and an area northwest of the Dry Valley Mine Dumps (Fig.
4) are spectrally similar to the vegetated mine dump unit.
The absence of associated lithologic and bare mine waste
spectral units, however, is an indication that the areas are
agricultural fields of wheat grass or alfalfa. Some pixels
classified as lithologic spectral units are most probably
mine waste on some of the mine dumps (Figs. 3 and 4).
The bare mine waste spectral unit consists of a mixture of
all the lithologic units. If part of the mine waste consists
primarily of one lithology, it will be erroneously mapped
as a lithologic spectral unit. Some of the larger mine
access roads in the area are mapped as a combination of
mine waste and lithologic spectral units (Fig. 3). These
roads are typically constructed of mine waste material and
are also subject to dust and spillage from ore haulage
trucks. The roads are another potential source of selenium
contamination, although the associated waste volumes are
relatively low.
All of the large mine dumps present in the study area (a
total of 18) were identified from the AVIRIS mapping
results (Figs. 5 and 6; Table 1). To evaluate the AVIRIS
mapping accuracy we compared our interpreted mine dump
428 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436
Fig. 3. AVIRIS image of the Wooley Valley Mine with lithologic and mine waste spectral units, and interpreted mine dumps mapped in black lines.
areas to digital maps of the dumps compiled from field data
(Causey & Moyle, 2001). New mine dumps at Rasmussen
Ridge, Enoch Valley and the two southern mine dumps at
Dry Valley mine were excluded from the accuracy assess-
ment because these dumps were still under construction at
the time of the AVIRIS overflight. In a pixel-by-pixel
comparison to the digital map the AVIRIS analysis correctly
mapped 76% of the mine dump pixels. A substantial
fraction (at least 10%) of the AVIRIS mapping error is
due to minor misregistration between the image and the map
caused by instability in the AVIRIS aircraft platform. An in-
flight GPS dataset would correct this anomaly but was not
available at the time these AVIRIS data were collected.
Other problems with the AVIRIS mapping results in-
volved veneers of mine waste on steep talus slopes adjacent
to dumps, or in areas affected by ore spillage. For example,
field checking showed that the southern boundary of the
West Maybe Canyon dump was considerably less extensive
than shown in Fig. 4. In this case, AVIRIS detected a thin
veneer of talus that included mine waste material. Field
observations determined the correct extent of the southern
boundary of the West Maybe Canyon dump (F, Fig. 5).
Similar areas mapped by AVIRIS where there are thin
veneers of phosphate ore or mine wastes over the country
rocks include ore loading areas, haul roads, and areas of ore
spillage. Thus, some field checking of results is critical to
determine the accuracy of the remote mapping technique,
and to adjust the AVIRIS-interpreted mine dump boundaries.
On the other hand, there were no major errors of omission,
i.e., cases where large contiguous areas of mine waste were
not detected by AVIRIS.
4.2. Mine dump morphological classification
Early in the study it became evident that mine dump
morphology could be an important factor in selenium
mobilization and transport. Large amounts of water infil-
trating a dump are likely to mobilize greater amounts of
selenium, potentially leading to high concentrations of
selenium downstream. A morphological classification of
dumps was therefore developed based on different dump
forms, topographic positions, and relative amounts of sur-
face water infiltration (Fig. 7).
Lower cross-valley fill dumps have the greatest potential
for surface water infiltration (Fig. 7). A lower cross-valley
fill dump situated at the mouth or lower reach of a valley
acts like a dam to restrict surface water runoff. The runoff
waters infiltrate through the dump and typically emerge as
 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436
Fig. 4. AVIRIS image of the Maybe Canyon Mine with lithologic and mine waste spectral units, and interpreted mine dumps mapped in black lines.
seeps from the base of the dump (Fig. 7). The South Maybe
Canyon mine dump is an example of a lower cross-valley
fill (D, Fig. 5; Table 1).
Upper cross-valley fill dumps fill the upper parts of
valleys. In this case, there is less catchment watershed area,
and the runoff onto the dump and associated water infiltra-
tion is derived mainly from the surface of the dump itself
(Fig. 7). Examples of upper cross-valley fill dumps are
Wooley Valley Unit 4 and North Maybe Canyon mine
dumps (A, E, Fig. 5; Table 1).
Lower side-ridge dumps are situated on lower ridge
slopes, and the catchment watershed area extends from the
dump to the top of the ridge. Catchment watershed areas
above lower side-ridge dumps commonly are quite steep
and, during storms, surface water flows down, over, and
around the dumps (Fig. 7). However, because lower side
ridge dumps do not fill across stream valleys, they are less
likely to impact perennial streams. The South Mountain
Fuel mine dump is an example of a lower side-ridge dump
(K, Fig. 6; Table 1).
Upper side-ridge dumps are situated near the tops of
ridges and do not have extensive catchment watershed areas
above them. Most of the surface water infiltration occurs
when precipitation falls directly on the dump and the
429
catchment watershed area is approximately the same as
the dump surface area (Fig. 7). The West Maybe Canyon
mine dump is an example of an upper side-ride dump (F,
Fig. 5; Table 1).
Mound dumps are situated in broad valleys or on level
terrain (Fig. 7). Most of the surface water that infiltrates a
mound dump is from precipitation that falls directly on the
dump surface. Although there may be a large catchment
watershed area above a mound dump, most of the surface
runoff flows around the perimeter of the mound. Therefore,
the catchment watershed area is defined as being equal to
the dump surface area. The North Dry Valley mine dump is
classified as a mound dump (O, Fig. 5; Table 1).
Large amounts of surface water infiltration are likely to
be associated with lower cross-valley fill dumps. Moderate
surface water infiltration may be associated with upper
cross-valley and lower side-ridge dumps, and minimal sur-
face water infiltration is likely to be associated with mound
and upper-side ridge dumps.
4.3. Watershed analysis
The mapped mine waste areas and vegetation land-cover
classes from Wooley Valley Unit 4 dump (WV4) and South
430 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436

Fig. 5. A contour map compiled from a USGS 30-m-resolution digital elevation model, USGS digital line graphs and AVIRIS data, illustrating AVIRIS mapped
mine dumps, intermittent and perennial steams, and outline of AVIRIS image. Letters and numbers on the map identify specific mine dumps and drainages
listed on Table 1. Area in map corresponds to the northern part of the AVIRIS flight line in Fig. 1. Map grid is Universal Transverse Mercator on WGS 1984
datum.
 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436 431

Fig. 6. A contour map compiled from a USGS 30-m-resolution digital elevation model, USGS digital line graphs, and AVIRIS data, illustrating AVIRIS
mapped mine dumps, intermittent and perennial steams, and outline of AVIRIS image. Letters and numbers on the map identify specific mine dumps and
drainages listed on Table 1. Area in map corresponds to the southern part of the AVIRIS flight line in Fig. 1. The label ‘‘plant waste’’ indicates the location of
the plant dump at the Georgetown Mine plant. Map grid is Universal Transverse Mercator on WGS 1984 datum.
432 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436
Fig. 7. Morphological classification of mine dumps. Grey areas represent catchment watershed area. Dotted areas represent surfaces of mine dumps.
Maybe Canyon mine dump (SMC) were registered to a
DEM in order to analyze and compare water runoff direc-
tions, riparian vegetation, and affected downstream areas.
On the basis of hyperspectral mapping, the surface area of
the WV4 dump is 0.91 km2 and the surface area of the SMC
dump is 0.64 km2 (Figs. 3 and 4). Both dumps are situated
in valleys; however, there is an important difference in
setting. The WV4 dump fills the upper part of Wooley
Valley (upper cross-valley fill), whereas the SMC dump is
located in the central to lower part of Maybe Canyon (lower
cross-valley fill) (A, D, respectively, Fig. 5; Fig. 7; Table 1).
Thus, while the WV4 dump has an upstream or ‘‘catch-
ment’’ watershed area of 1.93 km2 (Fig. 8), the upstream
area of the watershed above the SMC dump is significantly
greater (5.14 km2; Fig. 9).
Runoff flow lines for the WV4 dump indicate northwest
and southeast flow directions (Fig. 8). The southeast out-
flow is an intermittent stream channel for which there is no
water chemistry information. The primary outflow from
WV4 is along the northwest flow line, Angus Creek, which
is fed by mine seeps at the northwest end of the WV4 dump
and a spring northeast of the dump. Vegetation maps super-
imposed on the Angus creek flow lines indicate that water
from the WV4 dump flows through a pasture to the north-
east of Wooley Valley (Fig. 8). From the seeps at the base of
the WV4 dump, to the point where the stream enters the
pasture, 57,672 m2 of riparian vegetation was mapped by
AVIRIS. Biologic and geochemical studies indicate sele-
nium concentrations in plants and water at the base of WV4
dump range from tens to hundreds of ppm (Piper et al.,
2000). However, at the point where Angus Creek flows into
the pasture, average selenium concentrations in the water
are less than 4.0 Ag/l (Montgomery-Watson, 1998, 1999,
2001; Piper et al., 2000). The marked decline in surface
water selenium concentrations points to the effectiveness of
wetlands vegetation for fixing selenium.
Maybe Canyon Creek flows northwest from the base of
the SMC dump, swings to the southwest, and then back to
the northwest upon entering Dry Valley (Fig. 9). Horses
pastured in Dry Valley next to Maybe Canyon Creek had to
be destroyed due to selenium poisoning, and water samples
taken in May 1992 and October 1993 had an average
selenium concentration of 955 Ag/l (Amacher, 1994). Veg-
etation maps superimposed on the runoff flow lines of the
DEM show the pasture where the horses were poisoned
(Fig. 9). Along the stream course from the base of the SMC
dump to this horse pasture, only 8242 m2 of riparian
vegetation is mapped by AVIRIS. Thus, Maybe Canyon
 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436
Fig. 8. DEM of Wooley Valley illustrating catchment watersheds, mine dumps, computer generated channel flow lines, direction of surface water flow, and
riparian vegetation.
Creek below the SMC dump contains about one-fifth as
much riparian vegetation as Angus Creek below the WV4
dump, suggesting that there is much less organic mat
available for selenium absorption in the lower part of Maybe
Canyon Creek. In addition, the larger watershed area asso-
ciated with SMC dump indicates that more surface water
flows through the dump compared to the WV4 dump,
potentially increasing selenium mobilization and transport.
Local stream gradients may also influence runoff and
related leaching of selenium. Higher stream gradients in-
crease stream velocity, possibly transporting selenium fur-
ther downstream before it has time to be absorbed and
immobilized. In addition, streams with higher velocities have
smaller amounts of organic-rich sediment needed to reduce
and fix selenium. SMC has a stream gradient of 53 m/km
over the first kilometer from the mine dump. Over the same
distance the WV4 dump has a stream gradient of 35 m/km.
4.4. Other AVIRIS-mapped mine dumps
The 16 other mine dumps mapped by AVIRIS have
significant differences in setting compared to the SMC
and WV4 dumps. Comparative data for all the dumps are
433
shown in Table 1. Water chemistry data are from Amacher
(1994) and Montgomery-Watson (2001).
4.5. North Maybe Canyon—a watershed with selenium
concentrations similar to Maybe Canyon Creek
The AVIRIS imagery and USGS 1:24,000 series topo-
graphic maps indicate that a mine dump designated here as
the North Maybe Canyon dump is situated in the upper part of
East Mill Creek (E, Fig. 5). This creek has the second highest
surface water selenium concentration in the study area (400
Ag/l, Table 1). There is only 324 m2 of riparian vegetation
mapped by AVIRIS over a 1-km distance from the dump.
Over the same distance the stream drops 51 m in elevation—
the second greatest perennial stream gradient in the study area
(Table 1). The upper cross-valley fill morphology and small
catchment watershed area (0.53 km2) suggests that there
should not be a large surface water supply to the dump.
However, field data indicate that there is a perennial seep at
the base of the dump. Elevated selenium levels in this case
may reflect a significant ground water component to the
inflow waters in addition to the high stream gradient, and low
amount of wetland vegetation at North Maybe Canyon dump.
434 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436
Fig. 9. DEM of the upper part of Dry Valley and Maybe Canyon illustrating catchment watersheds, mine dumps, computer-generated channel flow lines,
direction of surface water flow, and riparian vegetation.
4.6. Watersheds with intermediate selenium concentrations
Surface water samples from perennial streams near mine
dumps from the Dry Valley and Georgetown mines have
selenium concentrations much lower than samples from
South Maybe Canyon Creek, but nearly an order of magni-
tude higher than samples from Angus Creek (Table 1).
There are three dumps north of the Dry Valley mine (Fig.
4; O, P, Fig. 5). Two of the dumps nearest to Dry Valley
Mine are so close together that the total catchment water-
shed and mine dump surface areas were combined and
designated as the South Dry Valley mine dumps (Fig. 4;
P, Fig. 5; Table 1). These dumps plus the North Dry Valley
mine dump have a total catchment watershed area that is
similar to SMC. However, the mound and lower side-ridge
mine dump morphologies indicate that most of the surface
water flows around rather than through the dumps (13, 14,
O, P, Fig. 5; Table 1). Riparian vegetation density mapped
using AVIRIS in Dry Valley Creek below the Dry Valley
mine dumps is also quite high (20,412 m, Table 1). Based
on the dump morphologies, high riparian vegetation cover
and low stream gradient, selenium levels in Dry Valley
Creek were expected to be low and similar to Angus Creek.
The somewhat elevated selenium concentrations in Dry
Valley Creek probably reflect selenium contributions from
Maybe Canyon Creek, which joins Dry Valley Creek
approximately 1.8 km upstream from the Dry Valley mine
(5, 13, Fig. 5).
The Georgetown mine dumps are relatively small and are
scattered along a high ridge, resulting in a moderate catch-
ment watershed area of 2.99 km2 (R, Fig. 6; Table 1).
However, an ore processing plant is situated in the valley
below the Georgetown mine and includes processed waste
piles bordering Georgetown Creek (S, Fig. 6). The process-
ing plant wastes are classified as lower side-ridge dumps (S,
Fig. 6; Fig. 7) and the catchment watershed area above these
dumps is quite large (25 km2). Because the processing plant
wastes are likely to exert the most influence on selenium
concentrations in Georgetown Creek, the physical parame-
ters for the Georgetown mine dumps and the processing
plant waste dumps were combined (Table 1). The area
downstream of the processing plant has a moderately low
 J.C. Mars, J.K. Crowley / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 422–436
amount of riparian vegetation (12,363 m2, Table 1). Sele-
nium concentrations of surface water samples taken from
Georgetown Creek are the fourth highest in the data set. The
elevated selenium concentrations are consistent with the
large catchment watershed area associated with the process-
ing plant and mine wastes, coupled with the limited riparian
vegetation along the creek (Table 1).
4.7. Watersheds with low selenium concentrations or no
data
Surface water samples from intermittent streams near
mine dumps of the Champ, Wooley Valley, and Enoch
Valley– Rasmussen Ridge mines contain low selenium con-
centrations similar to Angus Creek (Table 1). Most of these
dumps have catchment watershed areas similar in size or
smaller than the WV4, coupled with relatively benign dump
morphologies. Thus, surface water available for selenium
mobilization and transport should be relatively limited.
The Enoch Valley mine dump is an upper cross-valley fill
that has 35% more catchment watershed and surface mine
dump area than WV4 (Table 1). USGS 1:24,000 series
topographic sheets and AVIRIS imagery indicate that the
east fork of Rasmussen Creek flows through the eastern part
of the dump (N, Fig. 5). AVIRIS mapped 324 m2 of riparian
vegetation coverage for 1 km below the mine dump in
Rasmussen Creek. Despite the small amount of riparian
vegetation mapped by AVIRIS, surface water selenium
sample concentrations are just one-fifth those of Angus
Creek. The lower than expected selenium concentrations
may be related to the low stream gradient, or may reflect
unknown aspects of the dump internal construction or waste
composition.
A number of mine dumps mapped by AVIRIS and listed
in Table 1 do not have any surface water selenium data,
probably because all of the stream drainages involved are
intermittent. Combined AVIRIS and DEM data suggest that
two of the dumps, East Mountain Fuel and West Maybe
Canyon, may produce moderate to high amounts of dis-
solved selenium during episodes of heavy rain or snowmelt.
The East Mountain Fuel mine dump is a lower side ridge
dump that has a relatively large catchment watershed area
(9.36 km2; L, Fig. 6). Runoff from the East Mountain Fuel
dump should be monitored for selenium during periods of
high discharge. The potential for selenium transport from
the West Maybe Canyon mine dumps is also high because
the associated intermittent (F, Fig. 5) stream drainage has a
gradient almost three times greater than Maybe Canyon
Creek (Table 1).
5. Conclusions
Eighteen mine waste dumps and five vegetation land-
cover types in the southeast Idaho phosphate district were
identified and mapped using hyperspectral imagery and field
435
observations. Relative amounts and directions of surface
water flow associated with each mine dump were analyzed
using digital elevation data, and combined with information
on stream gradients and riparian vegetation cover. Variations
in selenium concentrations in surface water samples col-
lected in the southeast Idaho phosphate district appear to be
complexly linked to variations in the physical attributes of
local watersheds and mine dumps. These attributes include
dump morphology, catchment watershed areas associated
with individual dumps, stream gradients below dumps, and
riparian vegetation densities along outflow pathways. All of
these attributes can be quantified by using hyperspectral
imagery in conjunction with digital elevation data. How-
ever, additional attributes, such as actual dump volumes and
compositions, groundwater infiltration, or special engineer-
ing measures taken during mine dump construction, (e.g.,
water diversion structures, or impermeable surface treat-
ments to inhibit water infiltration), cannot be evaluated
without additional sources of information. The results pre-
sented in this study are also limited by the sparse data on
stream selenium concentrations—particularly the lack of
temporal information on selenium variations for all but a
few of the best-studied localities. Nevertheless, geospatial
data appear to have excellent potential for characterizing
mine dump physical settings, and for testing hypotheses
concerning the causes of selenium contamination. Eventu-
ally, such data should aid in developing mine waste reme-
diation strategies.
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