Waste Biomass Valor

DOI 10.1007/s12649-016-9645-7

ORIGINAL PAPER

Co-composting of Municipal Sewage Sludge and Landscaping

Waste: A Pilot Scale Study
Zulnaim Dzulkurnain1 • Mohd Ali Hassan1,2 • Mohd Rafein Zakaria1,3 •
Puteri Edaroyati Megat Wahab4 • Muhamad Yusuf Hasan2,5 • Yoshihito Shirai6

Received: 6 January 2016 / Accepted: 28 July 2016

Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016

Abstract Compost with nutrient-rich organic matter can
be produced from renewable biomass materials such as
municipal sewage sludge, landscaping waste and others. In
this study, co-composting of municipal sewage sludge and
landscaping waste as a soil amendment using 10 m3 pilot
scale bioreactor system was tested. The temperature, oxy-
gen level, moisture content and pH were monitored
throughout the composting process. Proximate and ultimate
analyses of the compost were determined for nutrient
availability. The matured compost produced has nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium content of 3.01, 0.27 and
0.68 %, respectively, which made it suitable for the growth
of ornamental plants. The SolvitaÒ compost maturity kit
& Mohd Ali Hassan
alihas@upm.edu.my
1
Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of
Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
3
Laboratory of Biopolymer and Derivatives, Institute of
Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
4
Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia
5
Section of BioEngineering Technology, Universiti Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Chemical and
BioEngineering Technology, Vendor City, Taboh Naning,
78000 Alor Gajah, Melaka, Malaysia
6
Department of Biological Functions and Engineering,
Graduate School of Life Science and System Engineering,
Kyushu Institute of Technology, 2-4 Hibikino, Wakamatsu-
ku, Kitakyushu-shi, Fukuoka-ken 808-0916, Japan
gave an index result of 7, which indicated that the product
was matured. Pathogenicity test of the compost confirmed
that coliforms and Escherichia coli were eliminated within
15 days of composting at the thermophilic stage, making
the compost safe to be used in the natural environment.
Keywords Bioreactor composting
Compost

Biofertiliser
Municipal sewage sludge
Landscaping
waste
Introduction
Compost is a product that is produced from the degradation
of organic materials under controlled conditions by bio-
logical treatment [1, 2]. Compost can be produced from
various types of biomass, including municipal solid waste,
agricultural waste and others with the addition of bulking
agents or amendments. Composting process has many
advantages including sanitation of the product produced,
mass and bulk reduction of the biomass, and the decrease
of carbon to nitrogen ratio at the end of the process [1, 3].
Adequately stabilised and matured compost is beneficial
for agricultural applications and the growth of ornamental
plants.
Municipal sewage sludge is still a significant environ-
mental problem in the world with regards to human health
and environmental pollution. In Malaysia alone, it is esti-
mated that 3.2 million cubic metres of domestic sludge are
produced annually [4]. Municipal sewage sludge is a waste
from the wastewater treatment that is rich in macro and
micronutrients comprising of organic and inorganic mate-
rials as well as trace elements that are essential for plant
growth [5]. The common practice in some of European
countries to eliminate municipal sewage sludge by burning

123

in the incinerator, not disposing into the landfill since the
spreading of sewage sludge material on land was banned
[6]. This action was taken due to the limitation of organic
matter content of the sludge itself which may pollute the
environmental if not treated properly. In Malaysia,
municipal sewage sludge needs to be dealt with first using
chemical and biological treatment before being transported
to the landfill. Therefore, one of the alternative methods to
solve the problems of municipal sewage sludge disposal is
composting, which reduces the mass, destroys the weed
seeds, provides sufficient sanitation effect and produces a
valuable end-product. Moreover, composting is the most
popular way for treating solid organic wastes by converting
them into relatively stable products for fertilizer or soil
amendment usage.
Amendment agent is a carbon-based material that adds
structure or bulk to the pile for an effective composting
process. A common amendment agent used is a land-
scaping waste. Examples of landscaping waste are fallen
leaves, grass clippings, herbaceous pruning, branches,
brush, garden material, weeds, tree trunks and others. In
Malaysia, about 18 % of the total solid waste generated
comprises of landscaping waste [7]. Landscaping waste
was not entirely utilized practically in Malaysia and is
usually disposed in the landfills. Landscaping waste has
been used as a bulking agent or amendment in the com-
posting process to produce a good product that is suit-
able for the natural environment, which also helps to
lighten the burden to the municipalities to dispose of it.
Besides that, the usage of bulking agent or amendment
during co-composting can shorten the maturing duration
and the thermophilic condition will eliminate or reduce
the pathogenic microorganisms in the compost [8] There
were several reports on the usage of the bulking agent
while composting in small and large-scale bioreactor
systems [9, 10]. However, reports on co-composting of
municipal sewage sludge with landscaping waste as an
amendment in bioreactor system on a pilot scale to
achieve thermophilic stage with the elimination of
pathogens were still limited.
The most common composting process was the open
windrow system where the process takes place on the open
ground or under shelter. However, windrow composting
requires longer operating time compared to other methods,
with the incomplete destruction of pathogenic microor-
ganisms due to the lower temperature at the surface of the
windrow, leading to unsanitary and low quality product
[11]. According to Garcia et al. [12], the stabilization of
municipal sewage sludge was vital due to the potential
phytotoxic or pathogenic substances present in their natural
form.
Application of stabilization of sewage sludge may
introduced to the hazardous and pathogen potential threats
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Waste Biomass Valor
to human beings and the environment. In order to reduce
those potentials, the small-scale or windrow composting of
sewage sludge has become one of the solutions for stabi-
lized the sludge. The study of the usage of small-scale or
windrow composting of sewage sludge has been widely
reported by numerous authors [13–16]. However, there are
very few reports on the treating of sewage sludge by the
bioreactor composting system. Issues rises when deals with
the usage of bioreactor when there were significant dif-
ferent in terms of the process and heterogeneity. Different
wastes have certain characteristics that need to be studied
in terms of rate of degradability, process factors limita-
tions, and degree of completion. Issues of compost com-
pletion measurement still have yet to be standardized due
to its complexity. Therefore, rigorous studies of compost
process in pilot scale have to be done in order to serve the
basis of full-scale operations. The objective of the present
study was to investigate the effectiveness of pilot-scale co-
composting of municipal sewage sludge and landscaping
waste to produce compost that can achieve thermophilic
condition for the elimination of pathogenic microorgan-
isms within the perspective of appropriate compost quality
for the safe use.
Materials and Methods
Preparation of Raw Materials
The mixed municipal sewage sludge was collected from
the disposal tank of Indah Water Konsortium (IWK)
wastewater treatment plant in the form of solid cake and
partially dried to 80–85 % moisture content prior to the
composting process. The proximate and ultimate analysis
of the raw material and mixed municipal sewage sludge
plus sewage sludge were shown in Table 1. The land-
scaping waste was collected from Taman Pertanian
Universiti, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and Per-
badanan Putrajaya, Malaysia. The fresh landscaping waste
was chopped into smaller pieces (2–5 cm) using wood
chipper (SIMA Taiwan, model FC-6500). The chipped
landscaping waste was placed and segregated on the
cement floor under shelter roof and partially dried to
50–60 % of moisture content prior to the composting
process.
Bioreactor Set-Up and Co-composting Process
The co-composting of municipal sewage sludge and land-
scaping waste were performed at the Biorefinery Pilot
Plant, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Malaysia
using 10 m3 pilot-scale bioreactor system as described by
Wan Razali et al. [17] with slight modification. The block
Waste Biomass Valor

Table 1 Proximate and ultimate analysis for raw material and compost in bioreactor composting
Parameter Landscaping wastes Sewage sludge Bioreactor system USEPA SIRIM [35]
[22]
Initial Final

pH 5.7 ± 0.2 7.3 ± 0.1 6.3 ± 0.1 7.4 ± 0.2 5.0–8.5 n.a.
Moisture content (%) 65.0 ± 3.1 84.4 ± 0.2 77.0 ± 1.0 68.9 ± 1.1 30–60 \30 % (final
product)
Major nutrient
C (%) 37.3 ± 2.6 30.4 ± 0.3 44.3 ± 0.8 29.2 ± 3.8 n.a. n.a.
N (%) 1.8 ± 0.1 5.8 ± 0.1 2.5 ± 0.1 3.0 ± 0.8 n.a. [1.5
NH4 (%) 0.1 0.2 ± 0.1 0.1 ± 0.1 0.1 n.a. n.a.
NO3 (%) 0.2 0.3 ± 0.1 0.9 ± 0.2 0.5 n.a. n.a.
C:N (%) 21 ± 2 5±1 18 ± 2 10 ± 1 n.a. \25:1
Sulphur, S (%) 0.6 1.4 0.1 ± 0.1 0.1 ± 0.1 n.a. n.a.
Sodium, Na (ppm) 273.1 ± 23.6 624.5 ± 10.0 395.4 ± 6.4 328.7 ± 53.0 n.a. n.a.
Phosphorus, P (%) 0.1 ± 0.01 1.7 ± 0.1 0.4 ± 0.1 0.3 ± 0.2 n.a. n.a.
Potassium, K (%) 0.3 ± 0.1 0.3 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1 0.7 ± 0.2 n.a. n.a.
Magnesium, Mg (%) 0.1 ± 0.01 0.3 ± 0.1 0.4 ± 0.1 0.3 ± 0.2 n.a. n.a.
Calcium, Ca (%) 1.3 ± 0.01 1.2 ± 0.1 2.3 ± 0.4 1.8 ± 0.4 n.a. n.a.
Boron, B (%) 27.7 ± 0.4 21.6 ± 0.4 14.3 ± 2.7 7.5 ± 2.8 n.a. n.a.
Copper, Cu (ppm) 8.9 ± 1.4 76.6 ± 3.7 17.2 ± 2.5 34.6 ± 19.1 1500 n.a.
Zinc, Zn (ppm) 17.0 ± 5.0 754.1 ± 27.2 181.6 ± 1.6 282.9 ± 112.4 2800 n.a.
Iron, Fe (ppm) 3581 ± 1458.1 25,017 ± 1888.0 21,192 ± 664.7 48,117 ± 6229.6 n.a. n.a.
Aluminium, Al (ppm) 5264.5 ± 1769.7 12,591 ± 537.4 6669.2 ± 600.1 12,834.1 ± 1304.4 n.a. n.a.
Manganese, Mn (ppm) 34.1 ± 1.2 236.3 ± 13.7 182.4 ± 2.1 521.1 ± 129.8 n.a. n.a.
Heavy metal
Arsenic, As (ppm) n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 41 50
Cadmium, Cd (ppm) n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 39 5
Cobalt, Co (ppm) n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.a. n.a.
Chromium, Cr (ppm) 46.6 ± 10.5 26.5 ± 0.4 17.7 ± 2.7 39.7 ± 5.4 n.a. 200
Molybdenum, Mo (ppm) n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 75 n.a.
Nickel, Ni (ppm) 2.1 ± 0.1 15.4 ± 0.6 8.5 ± 0.2 17.9 ± 5.0 420 150
n.a. not available, n.d. not detected, USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, SIRIM Standards and Industrial Research Institute of
Malaysia

design of the 10 m3 pilot-scale bioreactor system
(3.0 W 9 3.0 L 9 8.0 H metres) for co-composting pro-
cess was shown in Fig. 1a. The ratio of sewage sludge and
landscaping waste for the initial composting process was
set at 1:1 wet basis (84.4 ± 0.2 % moisture content of
sewage sludge and 65.0 ± 3.1 % moisture content of
landscaping waste). Ratio 1:1 was selected as sewage
sludge acted as the major feedstock for composting process
whereas landscaping waste acted as an amendment mate-
rial for the process, which means more sewage sludge are
been treated as been reported by Zhu et al. [18]. Intermit-
tent mixing by screw type impeller installed in the biore-
actor to provide a homogenous mixture of both materials.
Six temperature probes were installed at the surrounding of
bioreactor system (position 1, 2 and 3 at different sites;
0.59 m from each sampling point) to monitor the process
temperature (Fig. 1b). The increase of temperature process
was kept by the insulation of the bioreactor through the
composting period.
Initial moisture content of the composting process was
adjusted within 60–70 % by tap water addition. Additional
tap water was added into the composting mixture during
co-composting process when the moisture content level
was below 50 %. Moisture content was measured by dry-
ing the samples at 105 °C using moisture analyser (AND
MX-50, USA). Initial mixed sample of compost was cal-
culated based on Cundiff and Mankin calculation [19].
Tap-water was pumped into the bioreactor periodically as
required in order to control the moisture content. Aeration
was provided intermittently at a flow rate of 1.7 m3/min
manually and was regulated by O2-probe at several biore-
actor sampling positions (Fig. 1b). Mixing and aeration

123
 Waste Biomass Valor

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the bioreactor system: a bioreactor system layout; b sampling points located on the bioreactor

was done for an hour every day for first week, followed by Sampling and Analysis Method
an hour for every 2 days interval. The composting process
was monitored for 45 days and the analyses were per- Monitoring and sampling were performed every day. The
formed according to the explanation below. samples were collected from six different sampling ports and

123
Waste Biomass Valor
mixed up with a total weight of 1 kg to ensure homogeneity
prior to analysis. The samples were analysed in triplicates.
Monitoring of temperature, oxygen content, moisture con-
tent and pH were performed as reported by Ahmad et al. [20].
Temperature and oxygen level were analysed at certain depth
of the 6 different sampling points using a Digital Tempera-
ture-Oxygen probe meter model DMS-30LCD-1-5
(DATEL, USA). Five g of mixed samples was dried at
temperature of 105 °C for the moisture content determina-
tion, until all the moisture content within the samples was
evaporated using a moisture analyser (AND MX-50, USA).
pH level was determined by diluting sample with distilled
water (1:8 w/v) and measured using pH meter (DELTA 320,
Mettler Toledo, USA). These analyses were performed
throughout the composting process.
Two grams of dried compost sample were burned and
oxidised at temperature of 1000 °C for carbon and nitrogen
content using CHNS/O analyzer (Leeco CHNS932, USA),
same has been reported by Hock et al. [21]. Meanwhile, the
trace elements and heavy metals analyses of the compost-
ing material were determined using Inductively Coupled
Plasma (ICP)-OES (Perkin Elmer, USA) based on the ash
content provided from digestion method.
Compost maturity test was conducted by using standard
method of SolvitaÒ compost maturity kit (Woods EndÒ
Research Laboratory, Inc., Mt Vernon, Maine) for carbon
dioxide evolution and ammonia emission tests by following
manufacturer‘s instruction (Guide to SolvitaÒ testing for
compost maturity index). Before loading the samples into the
SolvitaÒ jars up to the fill line, the samples were allowed to
equilibrate at 25 °C in partially closed bags. SolvitaÒ CO2
and NH3 test gel-paddles were carefully inserted into the
compost without touching the gels after tearing the packs.
The sample jars were then closed tightly thereafter. After 4 h
of incubation at 25 °C, the observed gel colour was changed
to determine SolvitaÒ CO2 and NH3 kit values and matched
with the colour on charts supplied with the kit. The gel colour
change was used to determine SolvitaÒ kit CO2 values on a
scale of 1–8 and NH3 values on a scale of 1–5. Finally, the
two values were used to determine the SolvitaÒ maturity
index on a scale of 1–8 which then represents the maturity
level of the compost samples.
Analysis of pathogenic microorganisms (total plate
count, coliform, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus,
Salmonella sp., Bacillus cereus, yeast and mold) were
carried out based on Bacteriological Analytical Manual
(BAM) under standard method of U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) [22]. For total plate count, the
method used referred to FDA-BAM Chapter 3, coliform
and E. coli detection using method FDA-BAM Chapter 4,
presence of Salmonella spp. was detected using FDA-BAM
Chapter 5. FDA-BAM Chapter 12 method was used for S.
aureus presences. B. cereus as well as yeast and mold were
determined within the samples by using FDA-BAM
Chapters 14 and 18 respectively.
Results and Discussion
Co-composting Process in 10 m3 Pilot-Scale
Bioreactor System
Table 1 shows the physicochemical characteristic of raw
materials, initial and final compost during the composting
process such as temperature, oxygen level, moisture con-
tent and pH in this study compared to other studies. In
comparison to research that been conducted using windrow
system in treating biomass, the use of bioreactor system
was crucial in order to achieve the maximum performance
of the composting process. The control environment pro-
vided an advantage for the composting process to support
bacterial growth and biodegrades the lignocellulosic bio-
mass. All the parameters monitored in this study were
within the range of normal composting process and com-
parable with other studies [13, 16, 23].
Temperature
The temperature profile was the crucial parameter for a
successful composting process [8, 23]. Liang et al. [3]
reported that the temperature range between 52 and 60 °C
were optimal for composting process. Temperature profile of
composting process has a good indication of active degra-
dation of microorganism throughout the composting period.
In this study, the temperatures were recorded between 32 and
60 °C throughout the composting process, with 15 days at
50–60 °C, at thermophilic stage (Fig. 2). The thermophilic
condition has to be achieved to ensure the destruction of
pathogenic microorganisms. The bioreactor system used for
composting process must be maintained at a minimum
operating temperature of 55 °C for at least 3 days for the
production of pathogen-free compost [24]. In other studies,
the composting temperature of biosolids and green waste
were maintained at about 50–65 °C for 23 days was proven
having active microbial degradation activity and eliminated
the pathogenic microorganism [16, 23]. With the increasing
of temperature during composting process, it was reported to
shorten the composting period [11] and the destruction of
pathogenic microorganisms, producing compost that con-
sidered safe to be used [25].
Moisture Content
As shown in Table 1, the other critical controlled parameter
used in this study was moisture content, which was recorded
between 62 and 68 % (Fig. 2). Liang et al. [3] reported that
123

Fig. 2 Physicochemical
characterization of co-
composting process of
municipal sewage sludge and
landscaping waste
the minimal requirement for rapid microbial activity was at
50 % moisture level and should be controlled at range of
30–60 % of moisture content for better microbial activities.
The results obtained in this study indicates that by adding the
landscaping wastes as the bulking agent into the composting
of municipal sewage sludge, it helps to improve the water-
holding capacity by retaining the water within the compost
itself to maximize the microorganism activity. Liang et al.
[3] also reported that the moisture content gives significant
influence compared to the temperature of incubation on the
aerobic microorganism activity of biosolid blends. There-
fore, the optimal moisture content was necessary to increase
the rate of decomposition by microorganisms, depending on
what biomass that been used as feedstock for composting. In
contrast low moisture content will lower the microbial
activity during the decomposition process, thus giving
physically stable but biologically unstable composts
[26, 27]. Issues on anaerobic conditions from water logging
interrupted the composting process due to the high level of
moisture content within compost [28]. On the other hand, the
particle aggregation, porosity and volume of free air space
which limit the essential oxygen transfer interfered the
composting process when too high moisture content present
within composting process [26]. It has been stated that the
optimum range of moisture content for the composting
process was between 40 and 60 %, depending on the struc-
ture and water-holding capacities of materials used as
bulking agents [29].
Oxygen Level
The presence of oxygen at sufficient level was also one of
the factors that should be maintained in the composting
process using both windrow and bioreactor system to
123
Waste Biomass Valor
ensure adequate oxygen supply. Low oxygen concentra-
tion in the composting process will inhibit the aerobic
processes whereas high oxygen level leads to the decrease
of composting temperature [8]. In this study, the oxygen
level was maintained in the range of 4–19 % throughout
the composting period by air supply with aeration system
manually at aeration point as described in Fig. 2. Four
percent of oxygen level recorded was resulted from the
thermophilic stage of composting process, supported by
the fact that higher temperature can be achieved with the
decreasing of oxygen concentration. Low concentration of
oxygen level during day 15th to 18th have been reported
due to the mixing and aeration process was stopped for
maintaining the thermophilic phase for ensuring the
destruction of pathogenic microorganisms. Studies con-
ducted by Rodrı́guez et al. [8] concluded that 10 % of
oxygen concentration was selected as the best oxygen
concentration for composting process. Aeration process
required if the ratio of carbon dioxide concentration too
high compared to the oxygen concentration. The average
O2 plus CO2 concentration inside the compost was about
20 %, with the varies ratio range of O2 concentration from
15 to 20.8 %, and CO2 concentration from 0.8 to 5.8 %
[29]. Khalil et al. [30] found that aeration was required to
provide oxygen to aerobic microorganisms and in order to
control compost temperature and remove by-products
(water, CO2 and CH4) from the composting process.
Insufficient oxygen supply to the system, the process will
become anaerobic and produce undesirable odors,
including the rotten-egg smell of hydrogen sulfide gas
[31]. No such smell was detected in the present study
which indicates the successful control of composting of
sewage sludge and landscaping waste at controlled envi-
ronmental condition.
Waste Biomass Valor

pH Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio

pH level acted as one of useful indicator to ensure that the
composting process progress well or not, as the composting
changes the material and their pH indicates the decompo-
sition of organic materials occurred [32]. The result
obtained in this work was in the range from 6.3 to 7.4
(Table 1). The decrease in pH level (pH 6.3) caused by the
ammonium loss throughout the volatilization and nitrifi-
cation accompanied by the release of simple organic acids
by biooxidation phase which temporarily lower the pH
during early stages of composting (Fig. 2) [9]. On top of
that, the ammonia production from nitrogenous compound
may raise the pH of the composting process [32].
According to Golueke [2], the optimum pH range for the
growth of the most bacteria was between 6.0 and 7.5 and
for fungi between 5.5 and 8.0. Too acidic or alkaline
environments inhibited the microorganism activity in the
composting process, which can lead to the presence of
unpleasant smell due to the incomplete degradation pro-
cess. Aerobic microorganisms were most likely to survive
within this range in order to maintain their activities
[13, 16, 23].
Initial and Final Analysis
Table 2 shows the proximate and ultimate analyses for the
raw material and compost from bioreactor composting.
Nutrients such as carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P) and potassium (K) were the primary elements required
by the microorganisms involved in the composting process
[32]. The primary elements necessary for the growth and
reproductive of plants were N, P and K. Therefore, their
concentration were also influenced by the quality of com-
post produced.
Technically, most of the organic materials contain high
concentration of nutrients and elements that can be used by
microorganisms. Therefore, it was important to provide
carbon and nitrogen in appropriate proportions which can
be referred as C:N ratio to provide sufficient nutrient for
microbial growth. According to Rynk et al. [32], one of the
index to evaluate the maturation of the composting process
was the C:N ratio of the product. In the present work, it was
found that the N content increased gradually from 2.5 to
3.0 % while C content decreased from 44.3 to 29.2 %
throughout the composting period. The results obtained
showed that the initial C:N ratio of compost was found to
be 18 and gradually reduced to the final ratio of 10 after
45 days of composting process probably due to the
degradation of organic materials by microorganism and the
reduction of the carbon content up to 30 % from the initial
value was recorded.
The reduction of carbon content from the composting
process was most likely from the landscaping waste
material where it consisted of the lignocellulosic compo-
nents. As parts of lignocellulosic materials, the active
microorganism usually degraded cellulose and hemicellu-
lose earlier in the thermophilic stage. As for lignin which
have a complex structure, the degradation was occurred
later [17]. In order to accelerate the degradation of lignin,
the mechanical turning process (by screw impeller) was
performed in the present work. Due to high N content
(5.8 %) of raw sewage sludge, C:N ratio of the compost
reduced greatly from its initial value. According to
Belyaeva et al. [23], the sewage sludge undergoes the
mineralization and subsequent processes of ammonification
or nitrification of organic nitrogen present within it,
resulted in the high accumulation of NO3-–N in the

Table 2 Comparison of the physicochemical characteristics of composting process using bioreactor composting system with other studies
Total duration Duration of Types of biomass Capacity Temperature Oxygen level Moisture pH References
of composting thermophilic used (°C) content
process (day) stage (day) (%)

28 14 Municipal solid 150 kg 22–70 0.1–1.5 l per min – – Lu et al.

waste and columnar [13]
sewage sludge vessel
100 23 Barley straw and 100 L closed 28–65 0.5–1 l min-1 kg VS-1 65–80 7.1–8.2 Villaseñor
anaerobically- rotary drum et al.
digested reactor [16]
sewage sludge
60 23 Municipal green 250 L plastic 28–50 Turned every 7 days 60–70 5.3–7.2 Belyaeva
waste and composting et al.
biosolid bin [21]
45 15 Sewage sludge 10 m3 closed 32–60 4–19 % 62–68 6.3–7.4 This study
and landscaping bioreactor
waste

123

composts. The rate of compost application on-field need to
take into account of the rate of nitrogen loading for sewage
sludge feedstock as the composting feedstock [33], due to
the presence of NO3- which are highly mobile and as an
environmental concern when compost were used in bulk
quantity. To support the increment of nitrogen content of
the compost produced, the usage of bioreactor by proper
mixing of screw impeller helped to prevent nitrogen loss
during volatilization process. Hubbe et al. [34] reported the
nitrogen loss could be reduced if the mechanical turning
was applied using standard operation and the composting
moisture content was maintained within the favorable
ranges for the microorganism activity. The increment of
nitrogen and loss of carbon content through composting
period leads to the reduction of C:N ratio (18 to 10 ratio).
The compost feedstock blended to provide a C:N ratio of
25:1 to 30:1 was an ideal for active composting, although
initial C:N ratio from 20:1 up to 40:1 consistently give
good composting results [32].
Maturity Test
Compost maturity test was conducted by using SolvitaÒ
compost maturity kit to ensure the product in the present
study was matured at completion stage. The values showed
index of 7, which indicates that the compost was matured.
Elements such as phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) were
essential to determine the quality of the compost. The final P
and K values for the compost were 0.3 and 0.7 % respec-
tively, which makes it suitable for plant growth. The values
of those elements were comparable with Haynes et al. [33]
and Eghball et al. [35]. Raw municipal sewage sludge used as
the composting feedstock contained 1.7 % of P content and
0.3 % of K content. Almost all of P content present in inor-
ganic form with lower P availability within raw sewage
sludge due to the water treatment plant used coagulation
substances such as Fe, Al, or Ca types [33]. Therefore, due to
the high risk of P loss in runoff after wastewater treatment,
the application of P content for planting trial should be very
high [35]. With 0.3 % of K content present within the raw
sewage sludge, generally this feedstock was considered to
have low of K content. The reason of having low K content is
due to its water solubility properties and it remained in the
effluent or aqueous fraction during the sludge dewatering
process [33]. As for the plant uptake, K content in sewage
sludge was assumed to be 100 % available for this purpose
and therefore, these resources can be used similar to com-
mercial K fertilizer [35].
Micronutrients
Micronutrients such as iron (Fe), aluminium (Al), man-
ganese (Mn) boron (B), chlorine (CI), copper (Cu) and
123
Waste Biomass Valor
molybdenum (Mo) were essential by the plant for the
normal growth. Sewage sludge usually contain all of these
secondary nutrients which essential for plant, but not all of
these micronutrients in sewage sludge were plant-available
[35]. The concentration of Fe, Al and Mn recorded high
concentration (25,017, 12,591, 236.3 ppm) from the raw
sewage sludge (Table 2). The presence of these micronu-
trients in excess amount was due to the wastewater treat-
ment that used coagulation substances (Fe, Al, or Ca) in
excessive concentration. Moreover, the content of these
nutrients (Fe, Al and Mn) almost doubled from the initial
concentration, due to the mineralization process of the
materials and also shrinking of the compost itself [11]. The
mineralization of the materials within the composting
process was due to the degradation process of microbial
activities, contributing to the increase in nutrient concen-
tration in the final product especially for NPK compounds.
All the nutrients reported were comparable to Stabnikova
et al. [36].
Heavy Metals
The final concentration of heavy metals such as chromium
(Cr) and nickel (Ni) detected in the composts were low
enough (39.7 and 17.9 ppm) for the safe use of compost for
soil application. Based on the data obtained, the compost
produced in this study meets the standards as been set by
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [24] and Standards
& Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (SIRIM) [37].
The safety issues regarding the uptake of heavy metals by
plant and subsequent accumulation of the food chain need
to be considered in the safe use of the compost [15].
Application of sewage sludge and compost from waste
materials for a long-term period on the topsoil should be
considered when there was a limitation by accumulation of
harmful heavy metals and pathogens [36]. In this study, the
absence of certain heavy metal elements such as arsenic
(As), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co) and molybdenum (Mo) in
the compost contributed to the product safety, comparable
to that reported by Stabnikova et al. [36]. Wong and Sel-
vam [15] suggested that the use of lime could be used as
the suitable material at the rate of not more than 1 % to
reduce the availability of heavy metals within the sewage
sludge composting,
Pathogenicity Test
Pathogenic analysis was carried out to monitor the presence
of pathogens in the final product compost. This analysis was
necessary to ensure that the compost was safe to be used with
no harmful effects to plants and human. Several pathogens
can be used as indicators for the safety of the compost and
also the health risk limitation which has usually present in the
Waste Biomass Valor

Table 3 Comparison of pathogenic microbiological test of compost with other studies

Sample Pathogenicity test for compost References
Total plate count Coliform Escherichia coli Staphylococcus Salmonella sp. Yeast and mold
(Cfu/g) (MPN/g) (MPN/g) aureus (MPN/g) (MPN/g) (Cfu/g)

Initial – 2.32 9 108 – – 4.94 – Bazrafshan

et al. [14]
Final – 28,840 – – 0.16 –
– 2–24 – – Absent – Belyaeva
Cfu g-1 et al. [21]
Initial 3.64 ± 3.65 9 107 [1100 [1100 \3 Absent 1.74 ± 0.40 9 107 This study
6
Final 6.43 ± 3.28 9 10 23 \3 \3 Absent 3.27 ± 0.48 9 105
[1100—present; \ 3 or 23—absent
MPN most probable number, Cfu colony forming unit

sewage sludge [6]. Examples of the pathogenic microor- Table 4 Yield and preliminary cost for 5500 tonnes per annum of
ganism such as Salmonella, faecal streptococci, Enterovirus, compost production
helminths eggs, Escherichia coli, and Enterobacteria. Costs RM/annum RM/kg % of total cost
Table 3 shows the results of comparative pathogenicity
test of compost with other studies. The initial mixed raw Feedstock – – –
materials of municipal sewage sludge and landscaping waste Supplies 6440.00 – 0
were not safe to be used, due to high concentration of Utilities 621,740.00 0.11 47
pathogenic microorganisms as shown by total plate count, Labour 64,400.00 0.02 5
yeast and mold and also the presence of coliforms and E. coli. Quality analyses 9660.00 – 1
After 45 days of composting period, those pathogenic Maintenance 621,740.00 0.11 47
microorganisms (coliforms and E. coli) were absent due to Total cost 1323,970.00 0.24 100
elimination at the thermophilic stages that occurred for
15 days as reported earlier. Other analyses such as total plate including building for open windrow with roof, turner,
count, yeast and mold tests showed that the reduction in underground piping system perimeter drain and other
concentration after 45 days of composting period. High equipment such as loader, pump and packaging. The annual
temperature ([50 °C) due to the effective microorganism operation and maintenance cost is estimated to be RM
activity results in faster composting, shorter residence times 686,140.00, with 3 workers for the composting operation and
and partial pasteurisation of the compost causing death of diesel for machineries such as skid-loader, turner, and fork
many pathogens [23]. The reduction of the pathogenic lift. Maintenance cost is calculated as 47 % of the total
microorganism (faecal coliform, E. coli, total plate count, operating cost, same for the utilities cost for 5500 tonnes
yeast and mold) within compost can be seen clearly after production per annum. The unspecified costs that are not part
45 days of composting period. In order to prove that the final of the study are capital, depreciation and transportation cost,
compost was in good condition and ready to be used in the similar to that reported by Acevedo et al. [39]. These
environment, European Commission stated that E. coli and unspecified costs have been neglected due to the cost
Salmonella were used to define the ecological quality of effectiveness which may increase the total investment cost
compost with limitation of \103 MPN g-1 and absence in for whole project. Compared to the data obtained from Jugra
50 g respectively [6]. The absence of E. coli and Salmonella Palm Oil Mill in year 2006 [40], the company sold the
sp. in this study showed that the final compost was safe for compost to the customer at RM 600.00 per ton. In this study,
use, and was in agreement with previous studies [8, 14, 38]. we estimated the cost price for 1 ton of compost is RM
240.00. Therefore, the compost produced in this study is
Economic Analysis
cheaper compared to the market price.
The yield and preliminary cost for 5500 tonnes of compost
production per annum are as shown in Table 4. Compost Conclusion
production of 5500 tonnes was calculated based on the
generation of raw sewage sludge from IWK wastewater The co-composting of municipal sewage sludge and land-
treatment plant every day. RM 1.32 million is an estimation scaping waste in 10 m3 bioreactor composting system was
of the total operating cost for 5500 tonnes production successfully obtained. Good quality compost with N, P and

123

K content of 3.01, 0.27 and 0.68 % respectively, which
makes it suitable for the growth of ornamental plants.
Compost maturity test showed an index of 7 indicated that
the compost was matured. Thermophilic stage achieved in
the present study eliminated the pathogenic microorgan-
isms such as Salmonella sp., S. aureus, coliform and
E. coli. Thus, the compost generated was a pathogen-free
and safe for used in the natural environment.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Indah Water
Konsortium (IWK) Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia for the financial and technical
support of this study. The authors also thank Taman Pertanian
Universiti (TPU), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia and
Perbadanan Putrajaya, Malaysia for their support throughout this study.
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