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Energy 32 (2007) 755–759

www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

An investigation of mismatch losses in solar photovoltaic cell networks

N.D. Kaushikaa,, Anil K. Raib
a
Bharati Vidyapeeth School of Multidisciplinary Research, B.V. College of Engineering, A-4 Paschim Vihar, New Delhi 110063, India
b
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz-Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
Received 12 August 2005

Abstract

Solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays in field conditions deliver lower power than the array rating. In this paper, the sensitivity of solar cell
parameters in the variation of available power from the array is investigated. The parameters characteristic of aging and fresh cells used
in prototype field systems have been used for computation of reduction in the available power. It is found that in series string the
fractional power loss would increase from 2% to 12% with aging of solar cells. However, this fractional power loss may be reduced to
0.4–2.4% by an appropriate series-paralleling.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Solar photovoltaic; Cell characteristics; Mismatch power loss

1. Introduction 2. Mismatch losses in solar PV arrays

In solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays solar cells are
connected in series and parallel in the network to match
the required voltage and current requirements. An un-
desirable and important feature of the solar PV arrays that
has emerged from the field experience is that their output
power ratings based on name plate rating of modules are
universally higher than those observed in field conditions
even when the operating conditions were close to standard
test conditions (STC) [1]. The feature of delivering power
lower than the array ratings in the field conditions is often
referred to as mismatch loss. Several authors (e.g., [2–5])
have investigated the lowering of available power in solar
PV arrays and found it to be due to small variations in cell
characteristics. In this paper, we investigate the effect of
aging of solar cells on the reduction in available power.
This investigation is based on real-life data of ensemble of
fresh and aging solar cells and is intended to enable the
sizing of solar PV system in such a way that it can deliver
power to the given load without failure for longer duration
[6–8].
Corresponding author. Tel.: +9111 25278444; fax: +91 11 25275436.
E-mail address: ndkaushika@yahoo.com (N.D. Kaushika).
The mismatch losses in solar PV arrays can be due to a
variety of reasons as follows [9–11].
2.1. Manufacturer’s tolerances in cell characteristics
Physical differences between cells or cell-processing
material may arise during normal processing and different
cells may have slightly different characteristic parameters.
Consequently, in an array the output power of the
combination is less than the sum of maximum output
power of constituents. This power loss may tend to
enhance with time due to degradations resulting from
aging.
2.2. Environmental stresses
The environmental stresses in solar PV array include the
partial or full opening of a string due to cell cracking
(provoked by hail impact) or otherwise. This not only gives
rise to mismatch loss but also could result in excessive
heating of the regions of power dissipation, which in turn
can lead to solder melting and damage the encapsulant.

0360-5442/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2006.06.017
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
756 N.D. Kaushika, A.K. Rai / Energy 32 (2007) 755–759

Nomenclature N number of blocks in series

Pmax cell maximum power
A diode ideality factor Rs series resistance for a solar cell (O)
C cell-characteristics parameter related to fill- Rsh shunt resistance for a solar cell (O)
factor T total number of cells in the network
e electronic charge ¼ 1.6022  1019 (Coulomb) Tc operating temperature of a solar cell (K)
E [DP] expected value of fractional power loss V cell voltage
ff fill factor Vmax cell max-power voltage
I cell current Vmax average cell voltage at maximum power
Imax cell max-power current Voc open-circuit voltage of the cell
I0 diode saturation current of a solar cell sI standard deviation in cell max-power current
Iph light-generated current of a solar cell sV standard deviation in cell max-power voltage
Imax average cell current at maximum power sZ coefficient of variation of cell max-power
Isc short-circuit current of the cell current
K Boltzman’s constant ¼ 1.3854  1023 (J k1) sx coefficient of variation of cell max-power
L number of cell in series in a string voltage
M number of parallel string in a series block s2Z variance of cell max-power current
s2x variance of cell max-power voltage

The regions of excessive heating are referred to as hot spots 3. Formulations of fractional power loss in solar PV arrays
[11,12].
The general I–V curve diode model may be expressed in
2.3. Shadow problem terms of light generated current as follows [1]:
   
eðV þ IRS Þ V þ IRS
In the field, solar cells arrays are subject to shadows from I ¼ I ph  I 0 exp 1  . (1)
AKT c Rsh
both predictable sources as well as from such unpredictable
sources as bird droppings or fallen leaves. The percentage Let V 0 ¼ V þ IRS and I 0 ¼ I þ V 0 =Rsh
    
power loss is much greater than the percentage of array 0 eV 0 V max
area, which is shadowed; for smaller arrays with few or no I ¼ I ph þ I 0  I 0 exp . (2)
AKT c V max
parallel connections, one leaf could cause the system
output to drop to a fraction of rated power, eventually Divide the above equation by I  max
0     
resulting in system failure. Shadowed cells in series with I I ph þ I 0 I0 eV 0 V max
illuminated cells block the current flow in entire series ¼   exp .
I
max I 
max I max AKT 
c V max
connection and tend to become reverse biased. Conse-
quently, hot spots are developed in the localized regions of Let a ¼ I ph þ I 0 =I  
max , b ¼ I 0 =I max and
shadowed cell, which can damage the encapsulation or eV 
max
C¼ .
crack the cell causing module failure. AKT c
Fault tolerance for the electrical mismatch has been
The above equation can be written as
investigated [13,14] for both terrestrial as well as satellite-  
born solar PV systems. The approach involves limiting of I0 V0
¼ a  b exp C  . (3)
component malfunctions by redundant circuit design. For I
max V max
example, series paralleling [15,16] in which a branch circuit This expression is similar to that of Bucciarelli’s model [2]
is divided into series blocks to reduce the effects of with parameters a, b and C. It is assumed to provide an
electrical mismatches. The electrical output of the sha- adequate expression of I–V curve near maximum power
dowed solar cell arrays can be considerably improved if point. The parameter C can be matched with the curvature
each row of parallel cell strings (series blocks) is shunted by of I–V curve in the neighbourhood of maximum power
a diode [17–19]. In conventional modules made in Japan, point. It can also be expressed in terms of cell fill factor.
US, Europe and India the bypass diodes are integrated into Thus in Bucciarelli’s model series and parallel resistances
the modules to mitigate the effects of above mentioned end up encapsulated in the parameter C.
losses. For example, in India a module of 36 cells Furthermore, by definition we know that the fill factor
connected in a string consists of bypass diode across the [9] is given by
string. More recently several other interconnection schemes
have been proposed and tested; see for example [20] and the Pmax V max I max
ff ¼ ¼ . (4)
references therein. I sc V oc I sc V oc
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The fill factor in terms of C can be written as [2] given by [2]

 
Cþ2 2 1
Pmax V max I max C2 E ½DP ¼ sZ 1  . (6)
ff ¼ ¼ ¼ . (5) 2 L
I sc V oc I sc V oc ð1 þ C Þ½C þ ln ð1 þ C Þ
The fractional power loss due to mismatch for M solar cells
Eq. (5) is an implicit relation; it may be used to evaluate C connected in parallel operating at common voltage is given
as a function of ff. Some typical values are given in Table 1. by [2]
The fractional power loss due to mismatch for L solar  
cells connected in series operating at common current is Cþ2 2 1
E ½DP ¼ sx 1  . (7)
2 M
Now consider a network of N series blocks of M parallel
Table 1
Fill factor and cell characteristics
sub strings and each sub string having L cells in series as
shown in Fig. 1. The fractional power loss due to mismatch
S. No. Fill factor C is given by [2]
     
1 0.3 1 Cþ2 2 1 2 2 N
2 0.4 1.72 E ½DP ¼ sZ 1   sZ  s x ðM  1Þ , (8)
2 T T
3 0.5 2.85
4 0.58 4.22 where T ¼ LMN.
5 0.67 6.83
6 0.7 8.13
From these formulations it may be noted that mismatch
7 0.75 11.8 losses in both the series and parallel arrays are a sensitive
function of the fill-factor, variance in distribution of
maximum power parameters of solar cell ensemble and
total number of cells connected in the network.

1 M
4. Computational results and discussion

1 The formulations of mismatch losses are valid if the

1
deviations, in cell max-power current and voltages, from
2 the mean values for the ensemble of cells used in the
network are small (limited to a few percent of their mean
values). In the present investigation, we have considered
L the monocrystalline solar cells manufactured by Central
Electronics Limited (CEL), New Delhi which has been
manufacturing silicon solar cell for about three decades.
Upon our request they supplied to us the data for Voc, Isc,
ff and maximum power parameters of constituent cells of
two modules each made from an ensemble of 36 cells
2
manufactured by them. Two years earlier CEL had
supplied to us yet another ensemble of cells that at the
time of this investigation are representative of aging cells
with impaired performance resulting from erosion at the
top layer of the cell. These cells have been synonymously
referred to aging or soiled cells in the present work. The
variance and coefficient of variance (CV) of maximum
power parameters of the ensembles are given in Table 2.
The standard deviation is found to be 2.5% of mean value
1 2 M for Imax for the fresh cells. The values of CV are derived
from the following relationships:
N
sI
sZ ¼ . (9)
I
max

Similarly, sx of the distribution of max-power voltage is

given by
sV
Fig. 1. Network of N series blocks of M parallel substrings and each sx ¼ . (10)
substring having L cells in series. Vmax
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758 N.D. Kaushika, A.K. Rai / Energy 32 (2007) 755–759

Table 2 0.14
Coefficient of variation for cell max-power current and max-power voltage
of fresh and aged cells 0.12 C V (fresh cell) =
0.000027
Category sZ2 sx2 sZ sx

Fractional power loss

0.1 C V =0.0036
5 6 3
Fresh cell 2.7  10 6  10 5.2  10 2.45  103 C V =0.0072
Aged cell 3.36  103 3.24  104 0.058 0.018
0.08 C V =0.0108

C V = 0.0144
0.06
C V = 0.018
C V (aging cell) =
0.04
12 0.022

10 0.02
Cell characteristics

8 0
0 10 20 30 40
6 Number of cells connected in series L
(a) corresponding to M =1
4
0.03
Varian. (fresh cell)
2 = 0.000006
0.025 Varian. = 0.0007
0
Fractional power loss

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Varian. = 0.0014

0.02
Fill-factor Varian. = 0.0021

Fig. 2. Fill factor vs. cell characteristics. 0.015 Varian. = 0.0027

Varian. = 0.0034
The fill factor, in general varies from 0.5 to 0.75 for the 0.01
monocrystalline silicon solar cells. For example, for the Varian. = 0.0041

cells manufactured by CEL in India, it ranges from
0.70–0.75. The fill factor was found to deteriorate to a
value as low as 0.30 as a result of aging of cells. Fig. 2
portrays the variation of cell characteristic parameter C
with the fill factor; it shows that C lies in the range 8–11 for
the ensemble of fresh cells.
It may be noted from Table 2, that the CV, is larger for
Imax (fresh as well as aging cells) than the CV for Vmax; by a
factor of 2.12 and 3.22, respectively, for fresh and aging
cells. Computational results of fractional power loss as a
function of the number of cells and the variance of the
distribution of maximum power parameters are illustrated
in Fig. 3a and b. Both series and parallel interconnection
schemes have been considered. Variance in Imax, sZ2 is
relevant in series connection and the variance in Vmax, sx2
is relevant in parallel combination hence considered
accordingly. The CV for Imax has greater impact on power
loss in series string than CV for Vmax has for parallel string.
However, comparing Fig. 3a and b for the same values of
CV, the fractional power loss is observed to be the same.
For example, in Fig. 3b for a CV of 0.0048 the fraction
power loss is about 0.025–0.0275. From Fig. 3a, for CV of
0.0048 the corresponding fractional power losses lie in
range of 0.02–0.04. The effect of series paralleling on the
fractional power loss of network is investigated in Fig. 4.
We have considered an ensemble of 144 (T ¼ 144) fresh
cells for the computation of factional power loss for N
series blocks of M parallel strings each having L cells given
by L ¼ T=MN. Results show that the fractional power loss
0.005 Varian. (aging cell)
= 0.0048
0
0 10 20 30 40
Number of cells connected
(b) in parallel
Fig. 3. (a) Fractional power loss vs. number of cells connected in series for
different CV for cell max-power current. (b) Fractional power loss vs.
number of cells connected in parallel for different CV for cell max-power
voltage.
tends to be lower for larger number of series blocks and
higher values of M (number of parallel strings). For
example, for M ¼ 1 there is no variation with increase in
N. Furthermore, for N ¼ 1 the fractional power loss is due
to paralleling and hence due to CV of Vmax whose range of
variation is very small. To illustrate the point let us
consider a module made up of a series string of 36 cells. It
will have T ¼ 36, N ¼ 1, M ¼ 1 and L ¼ 36;
DP ¼ 0.00016. Now if it is series-paralleled with N ¼ 4,
M ¼ 3, L ¼ 3, the fractional power losses will reduce to
DP ¼ 0.00011. Furthermore, since the fractional power
loss for fresh cells is so low for any value of M, it would be
more interesting to see the results foe aged cells in terms of
lumped parameter C, where the difference in arrangements
might make a more important difference. The variation of
fractional power loss as a function of cell’s lumped
characteristic parameter, C is investigated in Fig. 5. It
shows that aging cells are more sensitive to C and hence to
fill factor.
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N.D. Kaushika, A.K. Rai / Energy 32 (2007) 755–759 759

0.00018 However, it can be reduced by an appropriate series

paralleling arrangement. For example, for the ensemble of
0.00016
solar cells used in the present work the fractional power
0.00014
loss of 12% resulting from the aging (soiling) can be
counterbalanced by series paralleling in an array oversized
Fractional power loss

0.00012 by 2.4%. This in turn is expected to enable the solar PV

system sizing in such a way that it can deliver power to the
0.0001 given load without failure for longer duration.
0.00008
M=1
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