CASTING

Parameter Formula Description

Pattern Size Pattern Size=Casting Size + Allowances -ve only for shake allowance

Permeability Number, P.N V=Volume of air = 2000cm3

Net Buoyancy Force Acting on core, B.F
Pouring time, t
H=Height of sand specimen
p= air Pressure g/cm3
P.N = T=Time in minutes for complete air to pass through
A= cross sectional Area of sand specimen
B.F= Vg(ɳ-d) if d =kg/m3 V=volume of core in mould cavity
d=density of core
B.F= V(ɳ-d) if d=N/m3 ɳ=density of molten metal
1. Grey cast Iron, mass lessthan 450 kg K = Fluidity of Iron in inches/40
T = average section thickness, mm
t= seconds W = mass of the casting, kg

2. Grey Cast Iron, mass greater than 450kg Casting mass Pouring time in seconds
20kg 6 to 10
100kg 15 to 30
t= 100000kg 60 to 180

3. Steel Castings
t=
 4. Shell moulded ductile Iron K1 = 2.080 for thinner sections
= 2.670 foe sections 10 to 25 mm thick
t=
= 2.970 for heavier sections
5. Copper Alloy castings K2 is a constant given by
Top gating 1.30
t=
Bottom gating 1.80
Brass 1.90
Tin Bronze 2.80
6. Intricately shaped Thin walled castings mass W’ = mass of the castings with gates and risers, kg
upto 450kg K3 = a constant as given below
T(mm) K3
t=
1.5 to 2.5 1.62
2.5 to 3.5 1.68
3.5 to 8.0 1.85
8.0 to 15.0 2.20
7. For castings above 450kg and upto 1000kg K4 is a constant given by
t= T(mm) K4
Upto 10 1.00
10 to 20 1.35
20 to 40 1.50
Above 40 1.70
Choke Area, A W – Castiing mass, kg
A= t – pouring time, s
d – mass density of the molten metal, kg/mm3
g – acceleration due to gravity, mm/s2
H – effective metal head (sprue height), mm
C – efficiency factor which is a function of the gating system
Effective Sprue heads H Top gate, H = h h – height of sprue
Bottom gate, H = h – (c/2) p – height of mould cavity in cope
Parting gate, H = h – (p2/2c) c – total height of mould cavity
P.T for bottom gating system P.T1=[V/(A* Vavg) ] V – volume, A=Area, Vavg= Vmax/2

P.T for top gating system P.T2=(V/A*Vmax) Vmax=sqrt(2ght), ht=height of sprue

For parting gating system P.T= P.T1+P.T2

Heat to be removed for solidification Q=V ɳ [CP(TP-TF)+L] V=Volume ɳ=density

Tp=molten metal temp
Cp=specific heat L=latent heat
Heat transfer rate, q K=thermal conductivity
=thermal diffusivity
q=

K=mould constant
Solidification time
T= K*(M)2 M=V/AS V=Volume

Riser design VR=3VSC VR=Riser volume

Vsc=shrinkage volume
WELDING
Flame density
F.D=

V-I characteristics V=input voltage

for power source
V =VO-I(V0/IS) VO=open circuit voltage
I=input current
Is=short circuit current
a,b are constants
Arc characteristics Va=a+bL L=optimum arc length

Power required For finding a,b values made

P=(a+bL)(VO-a-bL)*(IS/VO) V=Va

Qa max=max allowable heat

accumulation
DUTY CYCLE
DUTY CYCLE= Qa=heat accumulation
Qd= heat dissipation
Arc on time=

Rest time =

No. of electrodes
required
n=

Total welding time

Total welding time=
LATHE
 Forging
Condition Volume before = Volume after Do,ho=initial dia and height
Do2ho= Df2hf Df,hf=final dia and height

Forging force Af=final cross-section area

F=σyAf(1+ )
Rf=final radius
μ=co-efficient of friction
σy=yeild stress
Min forging force Ao = Initial Cross-sectional area
Fmin=

Required forging force ɳ=efficiency of forging

F=

Energy required for forging n=no of blows

W=weight of hammer
E=2*W*H*n H=height from which hammer is falling
Work done during forging F=forging force
W=F*(HO-HF) HO=initial height
Hf= final height
 Sheet metal operations

Punching Punch size=Blank size Clearance=0.0032t mm

Diesize = Punch size+(2 * clearance)
=ultimate shear stress

Blanking Diesize = blank size Clearance=0.0032t mm

Punch size = diesize - (2 * clearance)

Punching Force,P P = L x t x τ (for Contours) L = perimeter of cut, mm D = Hole diameter, mm

P = π x D x t x τ (for round Holes) t = stock thickness, mm τ = shear strength, Mpa

The punching force for holes which d = diameter of punch, mm

are smaller than stock thickness may
s = tensile strength of stock, MPa
be estimated as

Maximum shear force when shear is p = penetration of punch as a fraction

applied to the punch or the die
t1 = shear on the punch or die, mm

Load estimation Shear force = u*AS AS=Sheared area

u=ultimate shear stress

If Shear produced to reduce I=shear produced

force,Then reduced force is
k=penetration
F=
t=thickness
Minimum size of hole produced =compressive stress allowable

Dmin= shear stress

t=thickness
Percentage utilisation of sheet

%U=

The maximum length of the punch E is modulus of elasticity

Work done W.D = Pmax x K x t (if shear on tool is zero) K = percentage of penetration required to cause rapture
Pmax = Maximum punch force
t = material thickness
Deep drawing
 when d/r is between 15 and 20
D=Required blank size
d=dia of cub
h=depth of cup
r=corner radius
when d/r >20

when d/r <10

Shallow drawing h/d<0.5

Deep drawing h/d>0.5

For finding blank size One side surface area of blank = one side surface area of component

Load estimation D=Dia of blank

t=thickness
P=лdtσy( - k)
σy= yield stress
k=constant for considering friction 0.6 to 0.7

Optimum blank holder BHF=1/3 * Drawing load

force

Draw ratio
DR =

Draw reduction ratio

DRR=

Deep drawing with Ironing, d – diameter of finished shell

the blank size D
h – height of the finished shell
T – bottom thickness

Bending B=width of sheet or component

Bending force=(cbt2σy)/w T=thickness σy=yield stress