Ellipse

This article is about the geometric figure. For other uses,
see Ellipse (disambiguation).
“Elliptical” redirects here. For the exercise machine, see
Elliptical trainer.
In mathematics, an ellipse is a curve on a plane surround-
An ellipse obtained as the intersection of a cone with an inclined
plane.
point on the curve. As such, it is a generalization of a cir-
cle, which is a special type of an ellipse that has both focal
points at the same location. The shape of an ellipse (how
'elongated' it is) is represented by its eccentricity, which
for an ellipse can be any number from 0 (the limiting case
of a circle) to arbitrarily close to but less than 1.
Ellipses are the closed type of conic section: a plane
curve that results from the intersection of a cone by a
plane. (See figure to the right.) Ellipses have many sim-
ilarities with the other two forms of conic sections: the
parabolas and the hyperbolas, both of which are open and
unbounded. The cross section of a cylinder is an ellipse if
it is sufficiently far from parallel to the axis of the cylin-
der.
Analytically, an ellipse can also be defined as the set of
points such that the ratio of the distance of each point
on the curve from a given point (called a focus or focal
point) to the distance from that same point on the curve
to a given line (called the directrix) is a constant, called
the eccentricity of the ellipse.
Ellipses are common in physics, astronomy and engi-
neering. For example, the orbits of the planets are el-
lipses with the Sun at one of the focal points. The same
is true for moons orbiting planets and all other systems
having two astronomical bodies. The shape of planets
and stars are often well described by ellipsoids. Ellipses
also arise as images of a circle under parallel projection
and the bounded cases of perspective projection, which
are simply intersections of the projective cone with the
plane of projection. It is also the simplest Lissajous fig-
ure, formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are
sinusoids with the same frequency. A similar effect leads
to elliptical polarization of light in optics.
The name, ἔλλειψις (élleipsis, “omission”), was given by
Apollonius of Perga in his Conics, emphasizing the con-
nection of the curve with “application of areas”.

1 Elements of an ellipse
See also: Features of conic sections
The rings of Saturn are circular, but when seen partially edge
Ellipses have two mutually perpendicular axes about
on, as in this image, they appear to be noncircular ellipses. In
which the ellipse is symmetric. These axes intersect at
addition, the planet itself is an ellipsoid, flatter at the poles than
the equator. Picture by ESO the center of the ellipse due to this symmetry. The larger
of these two axes, which corresponds to the largest dis-
ing two focal points such that a straight line drawn from tance between antipodal points on the ellipse, is called
one of the focal points to any point on the curve and then the major axis. (On the figure to the right it is repre-
back to the other focal point has the same length for every sented by the line segment between the point labeled −a

1
2 2 DRAWING ELLIPSES

b and the figure is a circle. As the eccentricity tends to-

PF1+PF2 = 2a e=f÷a
ward 1, the ellipse gets a more elongated shape. It tends
P towards a line segment (see below) if the two foci remain
a finite distance apart and a parabola if one focus is kept
−a −f C f a d
fixed as the other is allowed to move arbitrarily far away.
F1 F2 The eccentricity is also equal to the ratio of the distance
(such as the (blue) line PF2 ) from any particular point
on an ellipse to one of the foci to the perpendicular dis-
D
0<e<1 P e = PF ÷PD tance to the directrix from the same point (line PD), e =
−b 2
PF2 /PD.
The ellipse and some of its mathematical properties.

2 Drawing ellipses
and the point labeled a.) The smaller of these two axes,
and the smallest distance across the ellipse, is called the 2.1 Pins-and-string method
minor axis.[1] (On the figure to the right it is represented
by the line segment between the point labeled −b to the
point labeled b.)
The semi-major axis (denoted by a in the figure) and
the semi-minor axis (denoted by b in the figure) are one
half of the major and minor axes, respectively. These
are sometimes called (especially in technical fields) the
major and minor semi-axes,[2][3] the major and mi-
nor semiaxes,[4][5] or major radius and minor ra-
dius.[6][7][8][9]
The four points where these axes cross the ellipse are the
vertices and are marked as a, −a, b, and −b. In addition
to being at the largest and smallest distance from the cen-
ter, these points are where the curvature of the ellipse is
maximum and minimum.[10]
Drawing an ellipse with two pins, a loop, and a pen.
The two foci (plural of focus and the term focal points
is also used) of an ellipse are two special points F1 and The characterization of an ellipse as the locus of points
F2 on the ellipse’s major axis that are equidistant from the so that sum of the distances to the foci is constant leads
center point. The sum of the distances from any point P to a method of drawing one using two drawing pins, a
on the ellipse to those two foci is constant and equal to length of string, and a pencil.[11] In this method, pins are
the major axis (PF1 + PF2 = 2a). (On the figure to the pushed into the paper at two points which will become
right this corresponds to the sum of the two green lines the ellipse’s foci. A string tied at each end to the two pins
equaling the length of the major axis that goes from −a and the tip of a pen is used to pull the loop taut so as
to a.) to form a triangle. The tip of the pen will then trace an
The distance to the focal point from the center of the el- ellipse if it is moved while keeping the string taut. Using
lipse is sometimes called the linear eccentricity, f, of two pegs and a rope, this procedure is traditionally used
the ellipse. Here it is denoted by f, but it is often denoted by gardeners to outline an elliptical flower bed; thus it is
by c. Due to the Pythagorean theorem and the definition called the gardener’s ellipse.[12]
of the ellipse explained in the previous paragraph: f 2 =
a2 −b2 .
2.2 Trammel method
A second equivalent method of constructing an ellipse us-
ing a directrix is shown on the plot as the three blue lines. An ellipse can also be drawn using a ruler, a set square,
(See the Directrix section of this article for more infor- and a pencil:
mation about this method). The dashed blue line is the
directrix of the ellipse shown. Draw two perpendicular lines M,N on the pa-
The eccentricity of an ellipse, usually denoted by ε or per; these will be the major (M) and minor
e, is the ratio of the distance between the two foci, to the (N) axes of the ellipse. Mark three points A,
length of the major axis or e = 2f/2a = f/a. For an ellipse B, C on the ruler. A->C being the length of
the eccentricity is between 0 and 1 (0 < e < 1). When the the semi-major axis and B->C the length of
eccentricity is 0 the foci coincide with the center point the semi-minor axis. With one hand, move the
 3

ruler on the paper, turning and sliding it so as

to keep point A always on line N, and B on line
M. With the other hand, keep the pencil’s tip on
the paper, following point C of the ruler. The
tip will trace out an ellipse.

Ellipse construction applying the parallelogram method

3 Mathematical definitions and

properties

3.1 In Euclidean geometry

Trammel of Archimedes (ellipsograph) animation
3.1.1 Definition
The trammel of Archimedes, or ellipsograph, is a me-
chanical device that implements this principle. The ruler In Euclidean geometry, the ellipse is usually defined as
is replaced by a rod with a pencil holder (point C) at one the bounded case of a conic section, or as the set of points
end, and two adjustable side pins (points A and B) that such that the sum of the distances to two fixed points (the
slide into two perpendicular slots cut into a metal plate.[13] foci) is constant. The ellipse can also be defined as the set
The mechanism can be used with a router to cut ellipses of points such that the distance from any point in that set
from board material. The mechanism is also used in a toy to a given point in the plane (a focus) is a constant positive
called the “nothing grinder”. fraction less than 1 (the eccentricity) of the perpendicular
distance of the point in the set to a given line (called the
directrix). Yet another equivalent definition of the ellipse
is that it is the set of points that are equidistant from one
2.3 Parallelogram method point in the plane (a focus) and a particular circle, the
directrix circle (whose center is the other focus).
In the parallelogram method, an ellipse is constructed The equivalence of these definitions can be proved using
point by point using equally spaced points on two hor- the Dandelin spheres.
izontal lines and equally spaced points on two vertical
lines. It is based on Steiner’s theorem on the generation
of conic sections. Similar methods exist for the parabola
and hyperbola. 3.1.2 Equations

The equation of an ellipse whose major and minor axes

( )2 ( )2
coincide with the Cartesian axes is xa + yb = 1.
2.4 Approximations to ellipses This can be explained as follows:
If we let
An ellipse of low eccentricity can be represented reason-
ably accurately by a circle with its centre offset. To draw
the orbit with a pair of compasses the centre of the circle
should be offset from the focus by an amount equal to x = a cos θ.
the eccentricity multiplied by the radius.
And
4 3 MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS AND PROPERTIES

3.1.4 Eccentricity
y = b sin θ.
The eccentricity of the ellipse (commonly denoted as ei-
Then by plotting x and y values for all angles of θ between ther e or ε ) is
0 and 2π results in an ellipse (e.g. at θ = 0, x = a, y = 0
and at θ = π/2, y = b, x = 0). √
√ ( )2
Squaring both equations gives: a2 − b2 b
e=ε= = 1− = f /a
a2 a

x2 = a2 cos2 θ. (where again a and b are one-half of the ellipse’s major

and minor axes respectively, and f is the focal distance)
And
or, as expressed
√ in terms using the flattening factor g =
1 − ab = 1 − 1 − e2 ,
y 2 = b2 sin2 θ.
Dividing these two equations by a2 and b2 respectively √
e = g(2 − g).
gives:
Other formulas for the eccentricity of an ellipse are listed
2 in the article on eccentricity of conic sections. Formulas
x 2
= cos θ. for the eccentricity of an ellipse that is expressed in the
a2
more general quadratic form are described in the article
And dedicated to conic sections.

y2 3.1.5 Directrix
= sin2 θ.
b2
Adding these two equations together gives:
0<e<1

x2 y2
+ = cos2 θ + sin2 θ.
a2 b2 C f a d
Applying the Pythagorean identity to the right hand side
gives:

D
x2 y2 P e = PF÷PD
+ = 1.
a2 b2
This means any noncircular ellipse is a compressed (or
stretched) circle. If a circle is treated like an ellipse, then
Each focus F of the ellipse is associated with a line paral-
the area of the ellipse would be proportional to the lengthlel to the minor axis called a directrix. Refer to the illus-
of either axis (i.e. doubling the length of an axis in a tration on the right, in which the ellipse is centered at the
circular ellipse would create an ellipse with double the origin. The distance from any point P on the ellipse to
area of the original circle). the focus F is a constant fraction of that point’s perpen-
dicular distance to the directrix, resulting in the equality
3.1.3 Focus e = PF/PD. The ratio of these two distances is the eccen-
tricity of the ellipse. This property (which can be proved
The distance from the center C to either focus is f = ae, using the Dandelin spheres) can be taken as another def-
which can be expressed in terms of the major and minor inition of the ellipse.
radii: Besides the well-known ratio e = f/a, where f is the dis-
tance from the center to the focus and a is the distance
from the center to a vertex (most sharply curved point
√
f = a −b .2 2 of the ellipse), it is also true that e = a/d, where d is the
distance from the center to the directrix.
The sum of the distances from any point P = P(x,y) on
the ellipse to those two foci is constant and equal to the
major axis (proof): 3.1.6 Circular directrix

√ √ The ellipse can also be defined as the set of points that

P F1 +P F2 = (x + f )2 + y 2 + (x − f )2 + y 2 = 2a are equidistant from one focus and a circle, the directrix
3.1 In Euclidean geometry 5

circle, that is centered on the other focus. The radius of

the directrix circle equals the ellipse’s major axis, so the ∫ a √
focus and the entire ellipse are inside the directrix circle. Aellipse = 2b 1 − x2 /a2 dx
−a
∫ a √
b
= 2 a2 − x2 dx.
a −a
3.1.7 Ellipse as hypotrochoid
The second integral is the area of a circle of radius a ,
i.e., πa2 ; thus we have:

b
Aellipse = Acircle = πab.
a
The area formula can also be proven in terms of polar co-
ordinates using the coordinate transformation T(r, θ) =
(ra cos θ, rb sin θ).
Any point inside the ellipse with x-intercept a and y-
intercept b can be defined in terms of r and θ , where
0 ⩽ r ⩽ 1 and 0 ⩽ θ ⩽ 2π .
To define the area differential in such coordinates we
use the Jacobian matrix of the coordinate transformation
times dr dθ :

( ∂T ∂T
)
dAellipse = det dr dθ
( ∂r ∂θ
)
a cos θ −ra sin θ
= det dr dθ
An ellipse (in red) as a special case of the hypotrochoid with R b sin θ rb cos θ
= 2r. = abr dr dθ.

We now integrate over the ellipse to find the area:

The ellipse is a special case of the hypotrochoid when R
= 2r.
∫∫ ∫∫ ∫ 2π ∫ 1
Aellipse = dAellipse = abr dr dθ = ab r dr dθ = a
ellipse ellipse 0 0
3.1.8 Area
3.1.9 Circumference
The area Aellipse enclosed by an ellipse is:
The circumference C of an ellipse is:

Aellipse = πab
C = 4aE(e)
where a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes where again a is the length of the semi-major axis and e is
(1 ⁄2 of the ellipse’s major and minor axes), respectively. the eccentricity and where the function E is the complete
An ellipse defined implicitly by Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 = 1 elliptic integral of the second kind (the arc length of an
has area √4AC−B 2π
2
. ellipse, in general, has no closed-form solution in terms of
elementary functions and the elliptic integrals were mo-
The area formula πab is intuitive: start with a circle of tivated by this problem). This may be evaluated directly
radius b (so its area is πb2 ) and stretch it by a factor a/b using the Carlson symmetric form.[14] This gives a suc-
to make an ellipse. This intuitively justifies the area by the cinct and rapidly converging method for evaluating the
same factor: πb2 (a/b) = πab. However, a more rigorous circumference.[15]
proof requires integration as follows:
2 2 The exact infinite series is:
For the ellipse in standard form, xa2 + yb2 = 1 , and hence
√
y = ± a b a−b
2 2 2 x2
2 , with horizontal intercepts at ± a, the [ ( )2 ( )2 4 ( )2 6 ]
area Aellipse can be computed as twice the integral of the C = 2πa 1 − 1 e2 − 1 · 3 e
−
1·3·5 e
− ···
positive square root: 2 2·4 3 2·4·6 5
6 3 MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS AND PROPERTIES

or 3.2 Projective geometry

[ ] In a projective geometry defined over a field, a conic

∞ (
∑ )2
(2n − 1)!! e2n section can be defined as the set of all points of inter-
C = 2πa 1 − , section between corresponding lines of two pencils of
n=1
2n n! 2n − 1
lines in a plane which are related by a projective, but not
where n!! is the double factorial. Unfortunately, this perspective, map (see Steiner’s theorem). By projective
series converges rather slowly; however, by expanding duality, a conic section can also be defined as the envelope
in terms of h = (a − b)2 /(a + b)2 , Ivory[16] and of all lines that connect corresponding points of two lines
Bessel[17] derived an expression which converges much which are related by a projective, but not perspective,
more rapidly, map.
In a pappian projective plane (one defined over a field),
[ ∞ ( )2 ]
all conic sections are equivalent to each other, and the
∑ (2n − 1)!! hn different types of conic sections are determined by how
C = π(a + b) 1 + .
n=1
2 n n! (2n − 1) 2 they intersect the line at infinity, denoted by Ω. An el-
lipse is a conic section which does not intersect this line.
Ramanujan gives two good approximations for the cir- A parabola is a conic section that is tangent to Ω, and a
cumference in §16 of;[18] they are hyperbola is one that crosses Ω twice.[20] Since an ellipse
does not intersect the line at infinity, it properly belongs
[ √ ] [ to√the affine plane determined ] by removing the line at in-
C ≈ π 3(a + b) − (3a + b)(a + 3b) = π 3(a + b) −finity10ab and +all3(a
of 2its+points
b2 ) from the projective plane.

and
3.2.1 Affine space
( )
3h An ellipse is also the result of projecting a circle, sphere,
C ≈ π (a + b) 1 + √ . or ellipse in a three dimensional affine space onto a plane
10 + 4 − 3h
(flat), by parallel lines. This is a special case of conical
The errors in these approximations, which were “obtained (perspective) projection of any of those geometric ob-
empirically”, are of order h3 and h5 , respectively. jects in the affine space from a point O onto a plane P,
More generally, the arc length of a portion of the circum- when the point O lies in the plane at infinity of the affine
ference, as a function of the angle subtended, is given by space. In the setting of pappian projective planes, the
an incomplete elliptic integral. image of an ellipse by any affine map (a projective map
which leaves the line at infinity invariant) is an ellipse,
See also: Meridian arc § Meridian distance on the and, more generally, the image of an ellipse by any pro-
ellipsoid jective map M such that the line M −1 (Ω) does not touch
or cross the ellipse is an ellipse.
The inverse function, the angle subtended as a function of
the arc length, is given by the elliptic functions.
3.3 In analytic geometry
3.1.10 Chords 3.3.1 General ellipse

The midpoints of a set of parallel chords of an ellipse are In analytic geometry, the ellipse is defined as the set
collinear.[19]:p.147 of points (X, Y ) of the Cartesian plane that, in non-
degenerate cases, satisfy the implicit equation[21][22]
Latus rectum The chords of an ellipse which are
perpendicular to the major axis and pass through one of
its foci are called the latera recta of the ellipse. The length AX 2 + BXY + CY 2 + DX + EY + F = 0
of each latus rectum is 2b2 /a.
provided B 2 − 4AC < 0.
( 2 2
)− 32 To distinguish the degenerate cases from the non-
Curvature The curvature is a21b2 xa4 + yb4 . A degenerate case, let ∆ be the determinant
local normal to the ellipse bisects the angle ∠F1 P F2
shown in the figure above. This is evident graphically
 
in the parallelogram method of construction, and can be  A B/2 D/2

proven analytically, for example by using the parametric B/2 C E/2

form in canonical position, as given below. D/2 E/2 F 
3.4 In trigonometry 7

that is,
(x − Xc )2 (y − Yc )2
( ) a2
+
b2
=1
B2 BED CD2 AE 2
∆ = AC − F+ − −
4 4 4 4 Moreover, any canonical ellipse can be obtained by scal-
ing the unit circle of R2 , defined by the equation
Then the ellipse is a non-degenerate real ellipse if and
only if C∆ < 0. If C∆ > 0, we have an imaginary ellipse,
and if ∆ = 0, we have a point ellipse.[23]:p.63
X2 + Y 2 = 1
The general equation’s coefficients can be obtained from
known semi-major axis a , semi-minor axis b , center co- by factors a and b along the two axes.
ordinates (xc , yc ) and rotation angle Θ using the follow- For an ellipse in canonical form, we have
ing formulae:

√ √
2 2 2 2 Y = ±b 1 − (X/a)2 = ± (a2 − X 2 )(1 − e2 )
A = a (sinΘ) + b (cosΘ)
The distances from a point (X, Y ) on the ellipse to the
B = 2(b2 − a2 )sinΘcosΘ
left and right foci are a + eX and a − eX , respectively.
C = a2 (cosΘ)2 + b2 (sinΘ)2
D = −2Axc − Byc
3.4 In trigonometry
E = −Bxc − 2Cyc
F = Ax2c + Bxc yc + Cyc2 − a2 b2 3.4.1 General parametric form

These expressions can be derived from the canonical An ellipse in general position can be expressed
equation (see next section) by substituting the coordinates parametrically as the path of a point (X(t), Y (t)) , where
with expressions for rotation and translation of the coor-
dinate system:
X(t) = Xc + a cos t cos φ − b sin t sin φ
x2can 2
ycan Y (t) = Yc + a cos t sin φ + b sin t cos φ
+ =1
a2 b2
as the parameter t varies from 0 to 2π. Here (Xc , Yc ) is
xcan = (x − xc )cosΘ + (y − yc )sinΘ the center of the ellipse, and φ is the angle between the
ycan = −(x − xc )sinΘ + (y − yc )cosΘ X -axis and the major axis of the ellipse.

3.3.2 Canonical form 3.4.2 Parametric form in canonical position

Let a > b . Through change of coordinates (a rotation of For an ellipse in canonical position (center at origin, ma-
axes and a translation) the general ellipse can be described jor axis along the X-axis), the equation simplifies to
by the canonical implicit equation

X(t) = a cos t
x2 y2
+ =1 Y (t) = b sin t
a2 b2
Here (x, y) are the point coordinates in the canonical Note that the parameter t (called the eccentric anomaly
system, whose origin is the center (Xc , Yc ) of the el- in astronomy) is not the angle of (X(t), Y (t)) with the
lipse, whose x -axis is the unit vector (Xa , Ya ) coincid- X-axis.
ing with the major axis, and whose y -axis is the per- For a given point on an ellipse, formulae connecting the
pendicular vector (−Ya , Xa ) coinciding with the minor tangential angle ϕ , the polar angle from the ellipse center
axis. That is, x = Xa (X − Xc ) + Ya (Y − Yc ) and θ , and the parametric angle t [24] are:[25][26][27][28]
y = −Ya (X − Xc ) + Xa (Y − Yc ) .
In this system, the center is the origin (0, 0) and the foci
a tan θ tan θ
are (−ea, 0) and (+ea, 0) . − cot ϕ = tan t = = ,
b (1 − g) 2 1 − e2
Any ellipse can be obtained by rotation and translation of
a canonical ellipse with the proper semi-diameters. The b √ − tan θ a
− tan t = cot ϕ = (1 − e2 ) cot ϕ = (1−g) cot ϕ = √ =−
expression of an ellipse centered at (Xc , Yc ) is a (1 − e2 ) b
8 3 MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS AND PROPERTIES

A F1 θ C F2 B

d1 d2

Polar coordinates centered at focus.

a(1 − e2 )
r(θ) =
Parametric equation for the ellipse (red) in canonical position. 1 ± e cos θ
The eccentric anomaly t is the angle of the blue line with the X-
axis. where the sign in the denominator is negative if the refer-
ence direction θ = 0 points towards the center (as illus-
P trated on the right), and positive if that direction points
away from the center.

r In the slightly more general case of an ellipse with one fo-

cus at the origin and the other focus at angular coordinate
θ
A F1 F2 B ϕ , the polar form is
C
d1 d2
a(1 − e2 )
r= .
1 − e cos(θ − ϕ)

The angle θ in these formulas is called the true anomaly

of the point. The numerator a(1 − e2 ) of these formulas
Polar coordinates centered at the center. is the semi-latus rectum of the ellipse, usually denoted l
. It is the distance from a focus of the ellipse to the ellipse
3.4.3 Polar form relative to center itself, measured along a line perpendicular to the major
axis.
In polar coordinates, with the origin at the center of the
ellipse and with the angular coordinate θ measured from
the major axis, the ellipse’s equation is
Semi-latus rectum
ab Major axis
r(θ) = √
(b cos θ)2 + (a sin θ)2
Minor axis

3.4.4 Reflexive property

When a ray of light originating from one focus reflects off Semi-latus rectum.
the inner surface of an ellipse, it always passes through the
other focus.

3.4.6 General polar form

3.4.5 Polar form relative to focus
The following equation on the polar coordinates (r, θ)
If instead we use polar coordinates with the origin at one describes a general ellipse with semidiameters a and b,
focus, with the angular coordinate θ = 0 still measured centered at a point (r0 , θ0 ), with the a axis rotated by φ
from the major axis, the ellipse’s equation is relative to the polar axis:
4.2 Planetary orbits 9

prolate spheroid), this property will hold for all rays out of
the source. Alternatively, a cylindrical mirror with ellip-
P (θ) + Q(θ)
r(θ) = tical cross-section can be used to focus light from a linear
R(θ) fluorescent lamp along a line of the paper; such mirrors
where are used in some document scanners.
Sound waves are reflected in a similar way, so in a large
elliptical room a person standing at one focus can hear a
[( 2 ) ( 2 ) ]
P (θ) = r0 b − a cos (θ + θ0 − 2φ) + a + b cos (θ
2 2 person
− θ0standing
) at the other focus remarkably well. The
effect is even more evident under a vaulted roof shaped
√ √ as a section of a prolate spheroid. Such a room is called a
Q(θ) = 2ab R(θ) − 2r02 sin2 (θ − θ0 )
whisper chamber. The same effect can be demonstrated
( 2 )
R(θ) = b − a cos(2θ − 2φ) + a + b
2 2 2 with two reflectors shaped like the end caps of such a
spheroid, placed facing each other at the proper distance.
Examples are the National Statuary Hall at the United
3.4.7 Angular eccentricity States Capitol (where John Quincy Adams is said to have
used this property for eavesdropping on political matters);
The angular eccentricity α is the angle whose sine is the the Mormon Tabernacle at Temple Square in Salt Lake
eccentricity e; that is, City, Utah; at an exhibit on sound at the Museum of Sci-
ence and Industry in Chicago; in front of the University
(√ ) of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Foellinger Auditorium;
( )
b a − b and also at a side chamber of the Palace of Charles V, in
α = sin−1 (e) = cos−1 = 2 tan−1 ; the Alhambra.
a a+b

3.5 Degrees of freedom 4.2 Planetary orbits

An ellipse in the plane has five degrees of freedom (the
same as a general conic section), defining its position, ori-
entation, shape, and scale. In comparison, circles have
only three degrees of freedom (position and scale), while
parabolae have four. Said another way, the set of all
ellipses in the plane, with any natural metric (such as
the Hausdorff distance) is a five-dimensional manifold.
These degrees can be identified with, for example, the
coefficients A,B,C,D,E of the implicit equation, or with
the coefficients X , Y , φ, a, b of the general parametric
form.
4 Ellipses in physics
4.1 Elliptical reflectors and acoustics
If the water’s surface is disturbed at one focus of an el-
liptical water tank, the circular waves created by that dis-
turbance, after being reflected by the walls, will converge
simultaneously to a single point — the second focus. This
is a consequence of the total travel length being the same
along any wall-bouncing path between the two foci.
Similarly, if a light source is placed at one focus of an
elliptic mirror, all light rays on the plane of the ellipse
are reflected to the second focus. Since no other smooth
curve has such a property, it can be used as an alterna-
tive definition of an ellipse. (In the special case of a cir-
cle with a source at its center all light would be reflected
back to the center.) If the ellipse is rotated along its ma-
jor axis to produce an ellipsoidal mirror (specifically, a
Main article: Elliptic orbit
In the 17th century, Johannes Kepler discovered that the
orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are
ellipses with the Sun at one focus, in his first law of plan-
etary motion. Later, Isaac Newton explained this as a
corollary of his law of universal gravitation.
More generally, in the gravitational two-body problem, if
the two bodies are bound to each other (i.e., the total en-
ergy is negative), their orbits are similar ellipses with the
common barycenter being one of the foci of each ellipse.
The other focus of either ellipse has no known physical
significance. Interestingly, the orbit of either body in the
reference frame of the other is also an ellipse, with the
other body at one focus.
Keplerian elliptical orbits are the result of any radially
directed attraction force whose strength is inversely pro-
portional to the square of the distance. Thus, in principle,
the motion of two oppositely charged particles in empty
space would also be an ellipse. (However, this conclu-
sion ignores losses due to electromagnetic radiation and
quantum effects, which become significant when the par-
ticles are moving at high speed.)
For elliptical orbits, useful relations involving the eccen-
tricity e are:
ra − rp ra − rp
e= =
ra + rp 2a
ra = (1 + e)a
10
rp = (1 − e)a
where
• ra is the radius at apoapsis (the farthest distance)
• rp is the radius at periapsis (the closest distance)
• a is the length of the semi-major axis
Also, in terms of ra and rp , the semi-major axis a is their
arithmetic mean, the semi-minor axis b is their geometric
mean, and the semi-latus rectum l is their harmonic mean.
In other words,
ra + rp
a=
2
√ cylinder-shaped reflectors have been used to direct
b = 2 ra · rp
2 2ra rp
l= 1 1 = the second focal axis).[31]
ra + rp
ra + rp
4.3 Harmonic oscillators
The general solution for a harmonic oscillator in two or
more dimensions is also an ellipse. Such is the case, for
instance, of a long pendulum that is free to move in two
dimensions; of a mass attached to a fixed point by a per-
fectly elastic spring; or of any object that moves under in-
fluence of an attractive force that is directly proportional
to its distance from a fixed attractor. Unlike Keplerian
orbits, however, these “harmonic orbits” have the center
of attraction at the geometric center of the ellipse, and
have fairly simple equations of motion.
4.4 Phase visualization
In electronics, the relative phase of two sinusoidal sig- jointly elliptically distributed then all portfolios can be
nals can be compared by feeding them to the vertical and characterized completely by their mean and variance —
horizontal inputs of an oscilloscope. If the display is an that is, any two portfolios with identical mean and vari-
ellipse, rather than a straight line, the two signals are out ance of portfolio return have identical distributions of
of phase.
4.5 Elliptical gears
Two non-circular gears with the same elliptical outline,
each pivoting around one focus and positioned at the
proper angle, will turn smoothly while maintaining con-
tact at all times. Alternatively, they can be connected by
a link chain or timing belt, or in the case of a bicycle the
main chainring may be elliptical, or an ovoid similar to
an ellipse in form. Such elliptical gears may be used in
mechanical equipment to produce variable angular speed
or torque from a constant rotation of the driving axle, or
in the case of a bicycle to allow a varying crank rotation
speed with inversely varying mechanical advantage.
6 ELLIPSES IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Elliptical bicycle gears make it easier for the chain to slide
off the cog when changing gears.[29]
An example gear application would be a device that winds
thread onto a conical bobbin on a spinning machine. The
bobbin would need to wind faster when the thread is near
the apex than when it is near the base.[30]
4.6 Optics
• In a material that is optically anisotropic
(birefringent), the refractive index depends on
the direction of the light. The dependency can be
described by an index ellipsoid. (If the material is
optically isotropic, this ellipsoid is a sphere.)
• In lamp-pumped solid-state lasers, elliptical
light from the pump lamp (coaxial with one ellipse
focal axis) to the active medium rod (coaxial with
• In laser-plasma produced EUV light sources used in
microchip lithography, EUV light is generated by
plasma positioned in the primary focus of an ellip-
soid mirror and is collected in the secondary focus
at the input of the lithography machine.[32]
5 Ellipses in statistics and finance
In statistics, a bivariate random vector (X, Y) is jointly el-
liptically distributed if its iso-density contours — loci of
equal values of the density function — are ellipses. The
concept extends to an arbitrary number of elements of the
random vector, in which case in general the iso-density
contours are ellipsoids. A special case is the multivariate
normal distribution. The elliptical distributions are im-
portant in finance because if rates of return on assets are
portfolio return.[33][34]
6 Ellipses in computer graphics
Drawing an ellipse as a graphics primitive is common
in standard display libraries, such as the MacIntosh
QuickDraw API, and Direct2D on Windows. Jack Bre-
senham at IBM is most famous for the invention of 2D
drawing primitives, including line and circle drawing,
using only fast integer operations such as addition and
branch on carry bit. M. L. V. Pitteway extended Bresen-
ham’s algorithm for lines to conics in 1967.[35] Another
efficient generalization to draw ellipses was invented in
1984 by Jerry Van Aken.[36]

In 1970 Danny Cohen presented at the “Computer
Graphics 1970” conference in England a linear algorithm
for drawing ellipses and circles. In 1971, L. B. Smith pub-
lished similar algorithms for all conic sections and proved
them to have good properties.[37] These algorithms need
only a few multiplications and additions to calculate each
vector.
It is beneficial to use a parametric formulation in com-
puter graphics because the density of points is greatest
where there is the most curvature. Thus, the change in
slope between each successive point is small, reducing the
apparent “jaggedness” of the approximation.
6.1 Drawing with Bézier paths
Composite Bézier curves may also be used to draw an el-
lipse to sufficient accuracy, since any ellipse may be con-
strued as an affine transformation of a circle. The spline
methods used to draw a circle may be used to draw an el-
lipse, since the constituent Bézier curves will behave ap-
propriately under such transformations.
6.2 Drawing with three points of a paral-
lelogram
Rytz’s construction can be used to find the minor and ma-
jor axes and their angle of an ellipse from conjugate di-
ameters (which can be seen as three points of a paral-
lelogram). The method uses the conjugate diameters of
an ellipse to map the ellipse to an unit circle under affine
transformation and calculate the ellipse parameters from
that.
7 Line segment as a type of degen-
erate ellipse
A line segment is a degenerate ellipse with semi-minor
axis = 0 and eccentricity = 1, and with the focal points
at the ends.[38] Although the eccentricity is 1 this is not a
parabola. A radial elliptic trajectory is a non-trivial spe-
cial case of an elliptic orbit, where the ellipse is a line
segment.
8 Ellipses in optimization theory
It is sometimes useful to find the minimum bounding el-
lipse on a set of points. The ellipsoid method is quite
useful for attacking this problem.
11
9 See also
• Apollonius of Perga, the classical authority
• Cartesian oval, a generalization of the ellipse
• Circumconic and inconic
• Conic section
• Ellipsoid, a higher dimensional analog of an ellipse
• Elliptic coordinates, an orthogonal coordinate sys-
tem based on families of ellipses and hyperbolae
• Elliptic partial differential equation
• Elliptical distribution, in statistics
• Geodesics on an ellipsoid
• Great ellipse
• Hyperbola
• Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
• Matrix representation of conic sections
• n-ellipse, a generalization of the ellipse for n foci
• Oval
• Parabola
• Proofs involving the ellipse
• Rytz’s construction, a method for finding the ellipse
axes from conjugate diameters or a parallelogram
• Spheroid, the ellipsoid obtained by rotating an el-
lipse about its major or minor axis
• Steiner circumellipse, the unique ellipse circum-
scribing a triangle and sharing its centroid
• Steiner inellipse, the unique ellipse inscribed in a tri-
angle with tangencies at the sides’ midpoints
• Superellipse, a generalization of an ellipse that can
look more rectangular or more “pointy”
• True, eccentric, and mean anomaly
10 Notes
[1] The “major axis” and “minor axis” are sometimes called
the “transverse diameter” and “conjugate diameter"; see
Haswell, Charles Haynes (1920). Mechanics’ and Engi-
neers’ Pocket-book of Tables, Rules, and Formulas. Harper
& Brothers. This usage is now rare.
[2] Herschel, Sir John Frederick William (1842). A treatise
on astronomy. Lea & Blanchard. p. 256.
12
[3] Lankford, John (1997). History of Astronomy: An Ency-
clopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-8153-
0322-0.
[4] Prasolov, Viktor Vasilʹevich; Tikhomirov, Vladimir
Mikhaĭlovich (2001). Geometry. American Mathemati-
cal Society. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-8218-2038-4.
[5] Fenna, Donald (2007). Cartographic Science: A Com-
pendium of Map Projections, With Derivations. CRC
Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8493-8169-0.
[6] AutoCAD release 13 command reference. Autodesk, Inc.
1994. p. 216.
[7] Salomon, David (2006). Curves And Surfaces for Com-
puter Graphics. Birkhäuser. p. 365. ISBN 978-0-387-
24196-8.
[8] Kreith, Frank; Goswami, D. Yogi (2005). The CRC
Handbook Of Mechanical Engineering. CRC Press. pp.
11–8. ISBN 978-0-8493-0866-6. Circles and Ellipses
(11.3.2)
[9] The Mathematical Association of America (1976), The
American Mathematical Monthly, vol. 83, page 207
[10] Gibson, C. G. (2001), Elementary Geometry of Differen-
tiable Curves: An Undergraduate Introduction, Cambridge
University Press, p. 127, ISBN 9780521011075.
[11] Besant 1907, p. 57
[12] Armengaud, Aîné (1853). “Ovals, Ellipses, Parabolas,
Volutes, etc. §53”. The Practical Draughtsman’s Book
of Industrial Design. Longman, Brown, Green, and Long-
mans. p. 16.
[13] Brown, Henry T. (1881). Five Hundred and Seven Me-
chanical Movements: Embracing All Those which are Most
Important in Dynamics, Hydraulics, Hydrostatics, Pneu-
matics, Steam Engines, Mill and Other Gearing, Presses,
Horology, and Miscellaneous Machinery; and Including
Many Movements Never Before Published, and Several
which Have Only Recently Come Into Use. Brown &
Brown. pp. 40–41 section 152.
[14] Carlson, B. C. (1995). “Numerical com-
putation of real or complex elliptic inte-
grals”. Numerical Algorithms 10 (1): 13–98.
arXiv:math/9409227. Bibcode:1995NuAlg..10...13C.
doi:10.1007/BF02198293.
[15] Python code for the circumference of an ellipse in terms of
the complete elliptic integral of the second kind, retrieved
2013-12-28
[16] Ivory, J. (1798). “A new series for the rectification of the
ellipsis”. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
4: 177–190. doi:10.1017/s0080456800030817.
[17] Bessel, F. W. (2010). “The calculation of longitude
and latitude from geodesic measurements (1825)". As-
tron. Nachr. 331 (8): 852–861. arXiv:0908.1824.
doi:10.1002/asna.201011352. English translation of As-
tron. Nachr. 4, 241–254 (1825).
10 NOTES
[18] Ramanujan, Srinivasa, (1914). “Modular Equations and
Approximations to π". Quart. J. Pure App. Math. 45:
350–372.
[19] Chakerian, G. D. “A Distorted View of Geometry.” Ch.
7 in Mathematical Plums (R. Honsberger, editor). Wash-
ington, DC: Mathematical Association of America, 1979.
[20] Meserve 1983, p. 159
[21] Larson, Ron; Hostetler, Robert P.; Falvo, David C.
(2006). “Chapter 10”. Precalculus with Limits. Cengage
Learning. p. 767. ISBN 0-618-66089-5.
[22] Young, Cynthia Y. (2010). “Chapter 9”. Precalculus.
John Wiley and Sons. p. 831. ISBN 0-471-75684-9.
[23] Lawrence, J. Dennis, A Catalog of Special Plane Curves,
Dover Publ., 1972.
[24] If the ellipse is illustrated as a meridional one for the earth,
the tangential angle is equal to geodetic latitude, the angle
θ is the geocentric latitude, and parametric angle t is a
parametric (or reduced) latitude of auxiliary circle
[25] Ellipse at MathWorld, derived from formula (58) and (60)
[26] clarifies problems with MathWorld formula (60)
[27] Auxiliary circle and various ellipse formulas
[28] Meeus, J. (1991). “Ch. 10: The Earth’s Globe”. As-
tronomical Algorithms. Willmann-Bell. p. 78. ISBN 0-
943396-35-2.
[29] David Drew. “Elliptical Gears”.
[30] Grant, George B. (1906). A treatise on gear wheels.
Philadelphia Gear Works. p. 72.
[31] http://www.rp-photonics.com/lamp_pumped_lasers.
html
[32] http://www.cymer.com/plasma_chamber_detail/
[33] Chamberlain, G. (February 1983). “A characterization of
the distributions that imply mean—Variance utility func-
tions”. Journal of Economic Theory 29 (1): 185–201.
doi:10.1016/0022-0531(83)90129-1.
[34] Owen, J.; Rabinovitch, R. (June 1983). “On the class of
elliptical distributions and their applications to the the-
ory of portfolio choice”. Journal of Finance 38: 745–
752. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6261.1983.tb02499.x. JSTOR
2328079.
[35] Pitteway, M.L.V. (1967). “Algorithm for drawing ellipses
or hyperbolae with a digital plotter”. The Computer Jour-
nal 10 (3): 282–9. doi:10.1093/comjnl/10.3.282.
[36] Van Aken, J.R. (September 1984). “An Efficient Ellipse-
Drawing Algorithm”. IEEE Computer Graphics and Appli-
cations 4 (9): 24–35. doi:10.1109/MCG.1984.275994.
[37] Smith, L.B. (1971). “Drawing ellipses, hyperbolae or
parabolae with a fixed number of points”. The Computer
Journal 14 (1): 81–86. doi:10.1093/comjnl/14.1.81.
[38] Seligman, Courtney (1993–2010). “Orbital Motions El-
lipses and Other Conic Sections”. Online Astronomy
eText.
 13

11 References
• Besant, W.H. (1907). “Chapter III. The Ellipse”.
Conic Sections. London: George Bell and Sons. p.
50.

• Coxeter, H.S.M. (1969). Introduction to Geometry

(2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 115–9.

• Meserve, Bruce E. (1983) [1959], Fundamental

Concepts of Geometry, Dover, ISBN 0-486-63415-9
• Miller, Charles D.; Lial, Margaret L.; Schneider,
David I. (1990). Fundamentals of College Algebra
(3rd ed.). Scott Foresman/Little. p. 381. ISBN 0-
673-38638-4.

12 External links
• Video: How to draw Ellipse on YouTube

• Apollonius’ Derivation of the Ellipse at

Convergence

• The Shape and History of The Ellipse in Washing-

ton, D.C. by Clark Kimberling

• Collection of animated ellipse demonstrations. El-

lipse, axes, semi-axes, area, perimeter, tangent, foci.

• Weisstein, Eric W., “Ellipse”, MathWorld.

• Weisstein, Eric W., “Ellipse as special case of
hypotrochoid", MathWorld.

• Ivanov, A.B. (2001), “Ellipse”, in Hazewinkel,

Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer,
ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
14 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text
• Ellipse Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipse?oldid=641476835 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Bryan Derksen,
Zundark, Tarquin, Ap, Andre Engels, Matusz, FvdP, Lir, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Norm, Eric119, CliffTaylor, Angela, Ojs, Mihai, AugPi,
BenKovitz, Raven in Orbit, Pizza Puzzle, RodC, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Dino, Doradus, Hyacinth, Saltine, Sabbut, Indefatigable,
Frazzydee, Sdedeo, Romanm, Wikibot, Guy Peters, Wile E. Heresiarch, Dina, Sushi, Snobot, Tosha, Giftlite, Jyril, Gene Ward Smith,
Harp, Herbee, Wwoods, Wikibob, Joe Kress, Leonard G., Guanaco, Yekrats, Jorge Stolfi, Ptk, AlistairMcMillan, Pne, Geomon, Cryp-
toDerk, LucasVB, Phe, Anythingyouwant, Maximaximax, Gauss, Pmanderson, NoPetrol, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Sonett72, Karl Dickman,
Oskar Sigvardsson, Perey, Rfl, Guanabot, Pie4all88, Ivan Bajlo, Jamadagni, Paul August, Bender235, Maaf, Zaslav, S.K., CanisRufus, El
C, Gershwinrb, Rslippert, Army1987, La goutte de pluie, Kjkolb, Tgr, Haham hanuka, Pearle, Mdd, Tsirel, Jumbuck, Oxyclean333,
Etxrge, Keenan Pepper, Sligocki, EvenT, Suruena, Egg, Oleg Alexandrov, Woohookitty, Linas, DonPMitchell, Hello5959us, Stradi-
variusTV, Kristaga, Damicatz, Silverleaftree, Waldir, BD2412, Qwertyus, Abstracte, Coneslayer, Rjwilmsi, Kinu, Viktor, NeonMerlin,
R.e.b., Mikm, MikeJ9919, EchoAlpha, Mathbot, Nivix, AJR, Revned, Fresheneesz, Gurubrahma, Imnotminkus, Md7t, Chobot, Krish-
navedala, DVdm, Ahpook, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Kafziel, NawlinWiki, Rick Norwood, DragonHawk, Astral, Nur Hamur,
Dhollm, Ospalh, Cheeser1, Bota47, Tachyon01, Arthur Rubin, Adilch, Reyk, MathsIsFun, Anclation, Ethan Mitchell, Bo Jacoby, Veinor,
Jsnx, SmackBot, RDBury, PaulWay, Incnis Mrsi, Unyoyega, Jagged 85, Kaimbridge, Elronxenu, Aksi great, KYN, Skizzik, Kurykh,
RDBrown, Telempe, AndrewBuck, SchfiftyThree, Piper2000ca, Colonies Chris, Gwenstacy, Sct72, Scwlong, Tamfang, RProgrammer,
RyanCu, Chcknwnm, SundarBot, Cybercobra, Dreadstar, Minipie8, Hgilbert, Wybot, Proinsias, Qmwne235, SashatoBot, Zchenyu, Uber-
Cryxic, JorisvS, Mgiganteus1, Jim.belk, Phancy Physicist, PseudoSudo, BillFlis, Hvn0413, Special-T, Jmgonzalez, Dicklyon, Markjdb,
KJS77, Pjrm, Quaeler, Hetar, Newone, CapitalR, Torrazzo, Kenkleinman, Mjohnrussell, Dave Runger, Daniel5127, George100, Vaughan
Pratt, Jackzhp, Crescentnebula, LotR, MarsRover, Myasuda, Badseed, Doctormatt, Captainm, Goldencako, Dr.enh, SteveMcCluskey,
Cinderblock63, MishaThal, Mikuszefski, Cwtyler, Siawase, Nick Number, Escarbot, EdJogg, AntiVandalBot, Ben pcc, John.d.page, The-
carrotdude, Pichote, Spencer, Huttarl, JAnDbot, 0smartbomb, Olaf, MSBOT, Magioladitis, Ferritecore, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, SineWave,
Catgut, Bcherkas, David Eppstein, Docduke, JaGa, Philg88, BaubiPacific, RaitisMath, MartinBot, Agricolae, Anaxial, Gcranston, R'n'B,
HEL, J.delanoy, RJBotting, SharkD, Salih, Katalaveno, Krishnachandranvn, Nwbeeson, Potatoswatter, Juliancolton, Eugeneus, Warlord-
wolf, Bcnof, Ross Fraser, Michael Angelkovich, VolkovBot, Onedognight, Nousernamesleft, TXiKiBoT, Dajwilkinson, Abc135246, Rei-
bot, Fangxujing, HarryAlffa, Young.malcolm, Don4of4, CanOfWorms, Postie77, Inductiveload, Deipnosopher, Kmhkmh, Auyloxuk,
Synthebot, Enviroboy, AlleborgoBot, Logan, Jwhosken, Dvidby0, SieBot, Ceroklis, Jauerback, Revent, Oda Mari, Cffk, Texnic, Oxy-
moron83, Anchor Link Bot, Dhexus, Sign Creator, AllHailZeppelin, RWSchwartz, Nic bor, Lindum, Athenean, DEMcAdams, MenoBot,
ClueBot, Zeptomoon, Rfrancis1954, Mild Bill Hiccup, Polyamorph, Boing! said Zebedee, Niceguyedc, Thegeneralguy, Piledhigherand-
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XLinkBot, DaL33T, WikHead, Addbot, Narayansg, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, Tcncv, Fgnievinski, TutterMouse, Paul
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nize, Sadalsuud, Fly by Night, Syncategoremata, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, ZéroBot, Josve05a, Ashishkhare663, Philtodd, Donner60,
Tim Zukas, Ddrakulic, , Matthewrbowker, Kérek kerék kerek, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Salequieter, Wcherowi, Invitrovani-
tas, Acrazydiamond, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, PeterMinin, Khrodos, HMSSolent, BG19bot, Mezzon, Carlos olalla, CitationCleanerBot,
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JeffAEdmonds, BScMScMD, Numbertruth, Cobalt174, Boazkaka, Ag2gaeh, Tentinator, Wamiq, Ginsuloft, Balljust, Elizabeth sunny,
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