Word Classes

(a) CLOSED CLASSES

preposition - of, at, in, without, in spite of pronoun - he, they, anybody, one, which
determiner - the, a, that, every, some conjunction -and, that, when, although
modal verb -can, must, will, could primary verb -be, have, do

(b) OPEN CLASSES

noun - John, room, answer, play adjective - happy, steady, new, large, round
full verb -search, grow, play adverb - steadily, completely, really

To these may be added two lesser categories

(c) numerals -one, two, three; first, second, third

(d) interjections - oh, ah, ugh,

Three positions of Adjectives

(a) PREDIATIVE – This information is useful
(b) ATTRIBUTIVE - useful information
(a) POSTPOSITIVE – something useful

Compound indefinite pronouns and adverbs ending in –body, -one, -thing, -where can
be modified only postpositively.

Anyone (who is) intelligent can do it

We need to do something (that is) important
We are not going anywhere very exciting

Adverbials: Units realizing adverbial functions

1) Adverb phrase, i.e. phrases with adverbs as head or sole realization:We’ll stay there
2) Noun Phrases (less common): Peter was playing last week
3) Prepositional phrases: Peter was playing with great skill
4) Finite verb clause: Peter was playing although he was very tired
5) Non-finite verb clauses in which the verb is
(a) infinitive Peter was playing to win
(b) –ing participle Wishing to encourage him, they praised Tom
(c) -ed participle If urged by our friends, we will stay

6) Verbless clauses: Peter was playing unaware of the danger

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 Simple Sentences

A SIMPLE SENTENCE has one independent clause.

TYPES OF SIMPLE SENTENCES

(1) SVA Mary is in the house.

(2) SVC Mary is kind/a nurse.
(3) SVO Somebody caught the ball.
(4) SVOA I put the plate on the table.
(5) SVOC We have proved him wrong/a fool.
(6) SVOO She gives me expensive presents.
(7) SV The child laughed.
SUBJECT (S), VERB (V), OBJECT (0), COMPLEMENT (C), and ADVERBIAL (A).

1. Someone [S] was laughing [V] loudly [A] in the next room [A].
2. My brother [S] usually [A] enjoys [V] parties [0] very much [A].
3. In 1945 [A] the country [S] became [V] totally independent [C].
4. I [S] have been [V] in the garden [A] all the time [A] since lunch [A].
5. Mary [S] gave [V] the visitor [0] a glass of milk [O].
6. Most people [S] consider [V] these books [0] rather expensive [C], actually[A]
7. You [S] must put [V] all the toys [O] upstairs [A] immediately [A].

Exercise

Analyze the following simple sentences to find out their type (SV, SVC, SVO, etc.)

1. Life is mysterious.
2. The bomb exploded.
3. He sat on a stool.
4. The newspapers called him a brave man.
5. His friends put his books in the national library.
6. It killed him.
7. The government gave his wife a pension.
8. The project will feature low-floor streetcars.
9. The judge found Mr Smith a thoroughly dishonest witness.
10. Mr Topham is in his office.
11. The jury overturned the finding of a provisional court.
12. The police have arrested a suspect.
13. A psychiatrist gave the man an anti-depressant drug.
14. Most of the inspectors are retired police officers.
15. The prime minister sat down.
16. The unarmed police officers seized ten tons of illegal drugs.

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 Clauses

Finite, Non-finite, and Verbless Clauses

Finite Clauses: a clause whose V element is a finite verb phrase

 John has visited New York
 Because John is working, he…………

Non-finite Clause: a clause whose V element is a non-finite verb phrase

 Having seen the pictures, he…………

Verbless Clauses: a clause containing no V element (but otherwise generally

analyzable in terms of one or more clause elements)

 Although always helpful, he……….

 John, then in New York, was……….
Non-finite Clauses

(i) Infinitive with to

without subject: The best thing would be to tell everybody

with subject: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody

(ii) Infinitive without to

without subject: All I did was hit him on the head

with subject Rather than John do it, I’d prefer to give the job to Mary

(iii) –ing participle

without subject: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat

with subject: Her aunt having left the room, I declared my passionate love for…

(iv) –ed participle

without subject: Covered with confusion, I left the room

with subject: We left the room and went home, the job finished

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 Compound Sentences

A COMPOUND SENTENCE has at least two independent clauses joined by

A. a Coordinating Conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so),

B. a Conjunctive Adverb (e.g. however, therefore), or

C. a Semicolon alone.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a Compound

Sentence and requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction

 Compound Sentences with Coordinating Conjunctions

 She did not cheat on the test, for it was not the right thing to do.
 I think I will buy the red car, or I will lease the blue one.
 I really want to go to work, but I am too sick to drive.
 I am counting my calories, yet I really want dessert.
 He ran out of money, so he had to stop playing poker.
 They got there early, and they got really good seats.
 Everyone was busy, so I went to the movie alone.
 I would have gotten the promotion, but my attendance wasn’t good enough.
 Should we start class now, or should we wait for everyone to get here?
 It was getting dark, and we weren’t there yet.
 Cats are good pets, for they are clean and are not noisy.
 We have never been to Asia, nor have we visited Africa.

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 Compound Sentences with a Semicolon
 Joe made the sugar cookies; Susan decorated them.
 The sky is clear; the stars are twinkling.
 The waves were crashing on the shore; it was a lovely sight.
 There were white out conditions in the town; subsequently, the roads were
impassable.
 Check back tomorrow; I will see if the book has arrived.
 He said he was not there yesterday; however, many people saw him there.
 I am happy to take your donation; any amount will be greatly appreciated.

Complex Sentences

A COMPLEX SENTENCE has one or more Dependent Clauses (headed by a

subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun) joined to an Independent Clause.

 Dependent clauses may work like adverbs, adjectives, or nouns in complex

sentences.

Eg. When the cat was on the mat, the dog was on the log.

The dependent clause here is ‘when the cat was on the mat’

Compound-Complex Sentences

In addition to compound and complex sentences there is another category, the

compound-complex sentence. These sentences, which are not particularly important
froma theoretical point of view, are simply ‘combinations’ of compound and complex.

Eg. When the cat was on the mat, the dog was on the log, and, at the same time, the
rat was in the hat.
This sentence is compound because it contains two independent clauses

when the cat was on the mat, the dog was on the log
and
and, at the same time, the rat was in the hat

The sentence is also complex, however, because the first of the two independent
clauses contains the dependent clause

when the cat was on the mat

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Exercise

Decide whether the following sentences are simple, compound or complex. Mark
‘SIMP’, ‘CMPD’, or ‘CPLX’ in the space provided.

1. I am not surprised by the dramatic increase in complaints by the public against

the service provided by banks. __________

2. Anti-government guerillas in Uganda have abducted a British ecologist and

several other people in an attack on a remote game lodge. __________

3. American troops in Somalia went on high alert after a Marine was killed in an
ambush of a night patrol near Mogadishu airport. __________

4. Two Japanese video game giants, Nintendo and Sega Enterprises, said games
sold in Japan from next month would start carrying labels warning of the risk of
epileptic fits. __________

5. The software the two companies sell in Europe and the US already carries such
warnings. __________

6. In the Gaza Strip, the Israeli army killed three Palestinians in a clash with stone
throwers, according to the Israeli army. __________

7. The power struggle in Zaire between President Mobutu Sese Seko and his arch
enemy, Prime Minister Etienne Tshisekedi, moved further towards confrontation
when the interim parliament said President Mobutu was guilty of high treason.
__________

8. French politician, René Pleven, whose career began in 1940 when he joined
General de Gaulle’s Free French in London and who then went on to become
prime minister of the Fourth Republic twice, has died, aged 92. __________

9. More than 50 people drowned when the Polish rail ferry Jan Heweliusz capsized
in churning seas and winds of up to 100 mph in the Baltic off the German coast.
__________

10. Mrs Bhutto was surprised by the appointment but called it a ‘positive step’.
__________

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Transformation of Sentences

Simple Complex Compound

to so that and /or

We read to learn We read so that we can learn We read and we learn
Inspite of/Despite Though/Although but
Despite being poor he is Though he is poor he is honest. He is poor but he is honest.
honest.
Verb+ing Since/As and so
Being punished he wept. As he was punished, he wept. He was punished and so he
wept.
enough/too ….to so…..that(negative) very…..and
He is too weak to walk. He is so weak that he cannot He is very weak and he cannot
walk. walk.
Without If/In case or
Without reading you will fail. If you do not read you will fail Read or fail/you will fail.
at the time when and
He woke up at the time of He woke up when it was raining. It was raining and he woke up.
raining
.

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ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

 Like a single-word adverb, an adverbial clause modifies a verb, adverb or adjective

(in the sentence's main clause) and answers one of these questions

where? why? how? when? to what degree?

under what condition ?

 An adverbial clause begins with a subordinating conjunction, which makes the

clause subordinate (dependent).

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Semantic roles of adverbial clauses
Clauses of Time

 Subordinators and structural types of clauses

 Adverbial finite clauses of time are introduced by one of the following

subordinators: after, as, before, once, since, till, until, when, n~henever, while,
whilst (esp BrE), now (that), as long as, so long as, as soon as, immediately
(informal, esp BrE), directly (informal, esp BrE) :

 Buy your ticket as soon as you reach the station.

 When I last saw you, you lived in Washington.
 My family, once they saw the mood I was in, left me completely alone.
 Drop by whenever you get the chance.
 All applications, when they are received before the deadline, are dealt with
promptly.
 While I was asleep, I dreamed about you.
 We came in just as it started to rain. As I drove away, I saw them waving goodbye.
 Wait until you're called. Since I saw her last, she has dyed her hair.

 Adverbial -ing clauses of time are introduced by one of the following subordinators:
once, till, until, when, whenever, while, whilst:

 He wrote his greatest novel while working on a freighter.

 Be careful when crossing streets.
 Once having made a promise, you should keep it.

 In addition, they are introduced by the prepositions after, before, on, and since
 They washed their hands before eating.
 Since coming here life has been much more pleasant.
 I took a bath after working in the garden all day.
 On becoming a member, you will receive a membership card and a badge.

 Adverbial -ed clauses of time are introduced by one of the following subordinators
that are also used with finite clauses: as soon as, once, till, until, when, whenever,
whilst (esp BrE) :
 Spinach is delicious when eaten raw.
 The dog stayed at the entrance until told to come in.
 Once seen, that painting will never be forgotten.
 He slept while stretched out on the floor.
 Whenever known, such facts should be reported.

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 Verbless clauses of time are introduced by the same subordinators as –ed clauses:
as soon as, once, till, until, when, whenever, while, whilst (esp BrE) :

 When in difficulty, consult the manual.

 Complete your work as soon as possible.
 While in Rome, be sure to see the Colosseum.

 To-infinitive clauses without a subordinator or a subject may have temporal

function, expressing the outcome of the situation:

 I rushed to the door, only to discover that it was locked and barred.
 He left, never to return.
 I awoke one morning to find the house in an uproar.
 She turned around, to find the car gone.
 The curtains parted, to reveal a market scene.
 He survived the disgrace, to become a respected citizen.

 Finally, -ing clauses without a subordinator or a subject may also express time
relationship:

 Returning to my village after thirty years, I met an old schoolteacher. ['

When/After I returned ]
 The stranger, having discarded his jacket, moved threateningly toward me.
[after he had discarded…….l

 As, as Iong as, so long as, while, and whilst always denote simultaneity when they
are used as temporal conjunctions. Temporal clauses introduced by the last four of
these subordinators are duration adverbials. As denotes merely simultaneity of two
situations:

 Just as she was about to speak, she was handed a note.

 As it grew dark, we could hear the hum of mosquitoes.

 For as long as and so Iong as, both clauses must be durative. Generally, these
subordinators imply that the situations begin and end at the same time:

 As long as I live here, I do it my way.

 He'll continue working so long as he has the strength.

 As soon as, immediately, directly, and once add the notion of proximity in time of
the two situations:

 As soon as l left, I burst out laughing. We'll eat once we finish preparing the
meal.

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 Immediately and directly particularly emphasize proximity:

 She returned immediately she heard the good news.

Clauses of Contingency

 The meaning of several subordinators that primarily express time, place, or

condition may be neutralized in certain contexts to convey a more abstract notion
of recurrent or habitual contingency: when, whenever, once; where, wherever; if.

When(ever) there’s smoke, there is fire.

Where(ver) Children are involved, divorces are particularly unpleasant.
If known, such facts have been reported.
Once conscious of an infringement of his rights, he always protested to his
manager

When(ever) necessary, send another copy.

Where(ver) in doubt, see me.
If possible, you should test all moving parts.

 Nonfinite and verbless clauses without a subordinator may also express recurrent
contingency:

 Driving at high speed, one may well miss direction signs.

 The sentence is ambiguous, taken out of context.
 Fresh from the oven, rolls are delicious.

Clauses of Place

 Adverbial clauses of place are introduced mainly by where or wherever. Where is

specific and wherever nonspecific. The clause may indicate position [l] or direction
[2]

 Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but blackened ruins. [l]
 They went wherever they could find work. ['to any place where'] [2]

 Several temporal subordinators may have primarily a place meaning in

descriptions of scenes, when the scenes are described dynamically in terms of
movement from one place to another:

 Take the right fork when the road splits into two.
 The river continues winding until it reaches a large lake.
 The building becomes narrower as it rises higher.
 The road stops just after it goes under a bridge.

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Conditional Clauses

 The central uses of conditional clauses express a DIRECT CONDITION. They

convey that the situation in the matrix clause is directly contingent on that of the
conditional clause. Put another way, the truth of the proposition in the matrix
clause is a consequence of the fulfillment of the condition in the conditional clause.
If and unless are the frequent conditional subordinators and the others are:
as long as, so long as, assuming (that), given (that) (formal), in case, in the event
that, just so (that) (informal), on condition (that), provided (that), providing (that),
supposing (that)

 If you put the baby down, she'll scream.

 The grass will grow more quickly if watered regularly.
 Unless otherwise instructed, you should leave by the back exit.
 If wet, the pipe won't give you a good smoke.
 It has little taste, unless hot.
 If you had ever listened to any of my lectures, you would have known the
answer.
 If any vehicle be found parked on these premises without written permission, it
shall be towed away at the expense of the vehicle's owner.
 Had I known, I would have written before.

Clauses of Concession

 Clauses of concession are introduced chiefly by although or its more informal

variant though. Other subordinators used with concessive clauses are: if , even if,
even though, when, whereas (formal), while, and whilst (esp BrE).

 Although he had just joined the company, he was treated exactly like all the
other employees.
 No goals were scored, though it was an exciting game.
 While I don't want to make a fuss, I feel I must protest at your interference.
 Whereas the amendment is enthusiastically supported by a large majority in the
Senate, its fate is doubtful in the House.
 She paid when she could have entered free.
 The same types of clauses may also express concession without a subordinator
though they then generally require a correlative conjunct to make the relationship
clear:

 Not wanting to give offence, they did so all the same.

 Trained in karate, he nevertheless used a gun to defend himself.
 Aware of the dangers to American citizens during the crisis, she still insisted on
staying with the others.

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Clauses of Contrast

 Clauses of contrast are introduced by several of the subordinators that introduce

concessive clauses: whereas, while, and whilst. Indeed, there is often a mixture of
contrast and concession.

 Mr. Larson teaches physics, while Mr. Corby teaches chemistry.

 I ignore them, whereas my husband is always worried about what they think of
us.

 The three subordinators are interchangeable, except that the less common whilst is
found especially in BrE.

Clauses of Exception

 Clauses of exception are introduced by several subordinators: but that

(formal),except (that);less frequently excepting (that) and save that (formal). Several
of the subordinators also blend exception with condition. Except (that), excepting
(that), and save that have very similar uses, apart from the stylistic restriction on
save that:

 I would pay you now, except I don’t have any money on me.
 No memorial remains for the brave who fell on that battlefield, save that they
will leave their image forever in the hearts and minds of their grateful
countrymen. (formal).
 Nothing would satisfy the child but that I place her on my lap.

Reason Clauses

(a) Cause and Effect: the construction expresses the perception of an inherent
objective connection in the real world:
 The flowers are growing so well because I sprayed them. ['The cause for the
flowers growing so well is that I sprayed them 'or ' The reason that the flowers
are growing so well is that I sprayed them.']
 He's thin because he doesn't eat enough.

(b) Reason and Consequence: the construction expresses the speaker's inference of a
connection:

 She watered the flowers because they were dry. ['The reason that she watered
the flowers was that they were dry.']

 Since she's my friend, she must have put in a good word for me.

13 | P a g e
(c) Motivation and Result: the construction expresses the intention of an animate
being that has a subsequent result:

 I watered the flowers because my parents told me to do so. ['My motivation for
watering the flowers was that my parents told me to do so 'or ' The reason that I
watered the flowers was that my parents told me to do so.']
 You'll help me because you're my friend.

(d) Circumstances and Consequence: the circumstantial clause combines reason with
a condition that is assumed to be fulfilled or about to be fulfilled.

 Since the weather has improved, the game will be held as planned. ['In view of
the fact that the weather has improved, the game will be held as planned' or
'The reason that the game will be held as planned is that the weather has
improved.']
 Seeing that it is only three, we should be able to finish this before we leave
today.

 Circumstantial clauses are introduced by the simple subordinators: because, since,

and as and by several complex subordinators: seeing (that); as Iong as; inasmuch
as (formal) :
 Seeing that it seems as if it will rain soon, we had better leave now.
 As long as you're here, we might as well talk about your last game.
 It is doubtful whether research proposals by Freud himself would have been
approved by reviewers, inasmuch as he was not affiliated to any academic
institution. (formal).

 Clauses introduced by with may also be circumstantial:

 With the exams coming next week, I have no time for a social life.
 With so many children to support, they both have to work full time.

 Clauses without a subordinator may imply the meanings discussed in this section:

 Knowing their tastes, she was able to bring a gift that they would like.
 Constructed according to my specifications, the building was able to withstand
the earthquake.

14 | P a g e
Clauses of Purpose

 Clauses of purpose, which are adjuncts, are more often infinitival than finite:

 To open the carton, pull this tab.

 I left early to catch the train.
 My publisher sent it for me to comment on (it).

 More explicit subordinators of purpose are in order to (formal) and so as to:

 They left the door open (in order) for me to hear the baby.
 Students should take notes (so as) to make revision easier.
 The committee agreed to adjourn (in order) to reconsider the matter when fuller
information became available.

 Finite clauses of purpose are introduced by so that or (less commonly and more
informally) by so, and (more formally) by in order that:

 The school closes earlier so (that) the children can get home before dark.
 The jury and the witnesses were removed from the court in order that they might
not hear the arguments of the lawyers on the prosecution's motion for an
adjournment.

Clauses of Result

 Clauses of result are introduced by the subordinators so that (formal) and so.
These clauses overlap with those of purpose both in meaning and in subordinators.

 We paid him immediately, so (that) he left contented. [result]

 We paid him immediately so (that) he would leave contented. [purpose]
 I took no notice of him, so he flew into a rage.
 She is such a good lecturer (that) all her courses are full.

Clauses of Similarity and Comparison

 Adjunct clauses of similarity are predication adjuncts. They are introduced by as

and like (informal, esp AmE). As and like are commonly pre-modified by just and
exactly:

 She cooks a turkey (just) as her mother did. ['. . . in a way that is similar to the
way that. . .']

15 | P a g e
  Please do it (exactly) as I said. Say the word (exactly) like I did. (esp
informal AmE)
 It was ( just) as I imagined. ['. . . similar to what I imagined.']
 He looks as if he's getting better.
 He bent down as if tightening his shoe laces.
 She winked at me as if to say that I shouldn't say anything.

Clauses of Proportion

 Proportional clauses involve a kind of comparison. They express a proportionality

or equivalence of tendency or degree between two situations.

 As he grew disheartened, (so) his work deteriorated.

 As the lane got narrower, (so) the overhanging branches made it more difficult for
us to keep sight of our quarry.
 The more she thought about it, the less she liked it. The harder he worked, the
happier he felt.

Clauses of Preference

 Clauses of preference are mainly introduced by the subordinators rather than and
sooner than, with the bare infinitive as the verb of the clause:

 Rather than go there by air, I'd take the slowest train. ['I'd prefer to take the
slowest train.']
 They'll fight to the finish sooner than surrender. ['They prefer to fight to the
finish.']

Comment Clauses

 We distinguish the following types:

(i) like the matrix clause of a main clause: There were no other applicants, I
believe, for that job.
(ii) like an adverbial finite clause (introduced by as): I'm working the night shift, as
you know.

(iii) like a nominal relative clause: What was more upsetting, we lost all our luggage.

(iv) to-infinitive clause as style disjunct: I'm not sure what to do, to be honest.

16 | P a g e
 (v) -ing clause as style disjunct: I doubt, speaking as a layman, whether television
is the right medium for that story.
(vi) -ed clause as style disjunct: Stated bluntly, he had no chance of winning.

Sentential Relative Clauses

 The sentential relative clause refers back to the predicate or predication of a

clause, or to a whole clause or sentence, or even to a series of sentences:
 He walks for an hour each morning, which would bore me.
 Things then improved, which surprises me.

Nonfinite and Verbless Adverbial Clauses

 No further discussion arising, the meeting was brought to a close.

 Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with excitement.
 The oranges, when (they are) ripe, are picked and sorted mechanically.
 Persuaded by our optimism, he gladly contributed time and money to the
scheme. ['Since he was persuaded].
 Driving home after work, I accidentally went through a red light. ['While I was
driving home after work].
Supplementive Clauses
 John, knowing that his wife was expecting a baby, started to take a course on
baby care.
 Julia, being a nun, spent much of her life in prayer and meditation.
 This substance, discovered almost by accident, has revolutionized medicine.
 The old man, being of sane mind, dictated and signed his will.

Comparative Clauses
 Jane is as healthy as her sister (is).
 There are more intelligent monkeys than Herbert.
 She is so beautiful that her beauty is dwarfed only by that of Venus.
 Functions of comparative “more”
(i) determinative: Isabelle has more books than her brother (has).
(ii) head of a noun phrase: More (of my friends) are in New York than (are) here.
(iii) subjunct: I agree with you more than ((I agree) with) Robert.
(iv) modifier of an adjective head: The article was more objective than I expected (it
would be).
(v) modifier of a pre-modifying adjective: It was a more heated discussion than we
thought it would be.
(vi) modifier of an adverb: The time passed more quickly than (it passed) last year.
(vii) modifier of a premodifying adverb: I am more severely handicapped than you
(are).

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ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES

 Like a single-word adjective, an adjectival clause describes a noun (in the

sentence's main clause) and answers one of these questions

which one? what kind?

 An adjectival clause usually begins with a relative pronoun, which makes the
clause subordinate (dependent). Common relative pronouns:

that which who whom whose

NOTE: Use who, whom, and whose to describe people.

Use that and which to describe things.

 Adjectival clauses always follow the person, place, or thing they describe, usually
immediately.

18 | P a g e
Exercise Underline the adjective clause/s of each sentence

1. A statement issued after General Rose met US Admiral Jeremy Boroda, NATO’s
southern Europe commander who would be in charge of any air raid, spoke of
possible strikes on Serbian and Bosnian government positions.

2. By Monday they had pulled back less than ten percent of the 315 tanks,
artillery pieces, mortars and multiple-rocket launchers that Serb officers say
General Rose asked them to give up.

3. The handful of heavy weapons that the Bosnian government has given up as its
side of the bargain have been grouped at a Sarajevo barracks watched by
Ukrainian troops.

4. More than 500 people have been killed and thousands made homeless across
northern Ghana as ethnic fighting between the Konkombas and the
Nanyumbas, which erupted on February 3, spread to seven districts.

5. Late last year the Majlis gave the go-ahead for charges to be brought against Mr
Hashemi, a move designed to take the broadcasting service out of the
president’s hands.

6. Non-governmental organisations, some of which work with Unita via Zaire, have
taken over health care and distribution of UN emergency food in the 80 percent
of the country where Unita prevents the government from working.

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7. The king warned that the Zulu nation would not be bound by South Africa’s
new constitution, under which the first multi-racial elections will be held in
April.

8. More than half of the £4 billion worth of property stolen each year is being sold
to finance the habits of drug users.

9. The estimate of the amount of drug-related property crime is derived from a

formula devised by the Greater Manchester police and Home Office statistics.

10. That same evening the Algerian press issued a denial which seemed to shoot
down yet another rumour.

11. A 45-year-old on social benefit who spends his time getting drunk and is of no
use to his family or to society should be excluded from medical care which
should instead be given to active 70 year olds.

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NOMINAL CLAUSES

 Like a noun, a nominal clause names a person, place, thing, or idea. A nominal
clause may function in a sentence as any of the following:

subject, subjective complement, appositive, object of preposition,

direct object, indirect object, retained object

 Nominal clauses may begin with interrogatives:

who whom what which whoever whomever whatever when

where how why

Nominal clause as subject in sentence Nominal clause as subjective complement in sentence

Nominal clause as object of preposition in sentence

Nominal clause as direct object in sentence Nominal clause as indirect object in sentence

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 Nominal clause as retained object in sentence

 Nominal clauses may also begin with expletives:

that whether if

An expletive beginning a nominal clause has no function within the nominal clause.

that-clause

 The that-clause can occur as:

subject: That she is alive is a consolation
direct object: I knew that he was wrong
subject complement: The assumption is that things will improve
appositive: Your assumption, that things will improve, is unfounded
adjectival complement: I am sure that things will improve

Wh- Interrogative Clause

subject: How the book will sell depends on its author

direct object: I can’t imagine what made him do it
subject complement: The problem is not who will go, but who will stay
appositive: My original question, why he did it at all, has not been answered
adjectival complement: I wasn’t certain whose house I was in
prepositional complement: No one was consulted on who should have the prize

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Nominal Relative Clause

subject: What he is looking for is a wife

direct object: I want to see whoever deals with complaints
indirect object: He gave whoever came to the door a winning smile
subject complement: Home is where your friends and family are
object complement: You can call me what(ever) (names) you like
appositive:Let us know your college address (that is, where you live in term time)
prepositional complement: Vote for which(ever) candidate you like

To- Infinitive Nominal Clause

subject: For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable

direct object: He likes everyone to be happy
subject complement: My wish is to be a pilot
appositive: His ambition, to be a straight actor, was never fulfilled
adjectival complement: I am glad to help you

Nominal –ing Clause

subject: Telling lies is wrong

direct object: No one enjoys deceiving his own family
subject complement: His favourite pastime is playing practical jokes
apposition: His hobby, collecting stamps, absorbed him
prepositional complement: I am tired of being treated like a child
adjectival complement: The children were busy building sandcastles

Bare Infinitive and Verbless Clauses

 All I did was (to) turn off the gas/Turn off the tap was all I did

Yes – No Interrogative Clauses

 Do you know if/whether the banks are open?

 I don’t know whether it will rain or be sunny
 I don’t care if your car breaks down or not/ I don’t care whether or not your car
breaks down
 I don’t care if it doesn’t rain/ whether it rains or not doesn’t concern me.

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Exercise Underline the nominal clause/s of each sentence

1. The police today released 43 black militants arrested two days ago in a
crackdown on the Pan Africanist Congress, conceding that they did not have
enough evidence linking them to specific crimes.

2. His extraordinary financial success and a recent business problem he has

encountered say much about what is happening in the lucrative world of
tobacco smuggling.

3. The cabinet is discussing how to cut $2-billion from the public payroll.

4. The delay in meeting will allow the government and its advisers to firm up their
plans.

5. Premier Bob Rae was uncertain about what the government should do next.
6. He complained that the union leaders had walked away from the negotiations
without making counter offers.

7. The 1992 riots let the world know that the dream of a multiethnic paradise on
the Pacific had collapsed.

8. One big mistake was trying to reach an agreement in two months.

9. It’s a textbook example of attempting to ignite a revolution.

10. Earlier this month he was charged with diverting at least $81 million from a
Hyundai subsidiary to his campaign.

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Exercise
In each of the following items, the words in bold characters make up an adjectival
clause, a nominal clause or an adverbial clause. Indicate the type of clause by placing
the letters ‘ADJ’, ‘NC’ or ‘ADV’ against each sentence.

1. Nearby a neat Japanese couple are discussing styles, while two young Dutch
women in shorts and backpacks and several teenagers of both sexes
browse the shelves.

2. For Shelly’s customers, tourist or native, the one brand that counts carries a
black and yellow tag at the heel.

3. Mr Griggs, who has invested £3 million in DM Clothing, denies that the

venture smacks of opportunism.

4. The town has no electricity at night because there is no money for fuel for
the diesel generators.

5. The shark is attracted to the canoe with a coconut shell rattle shaken under
the water.

6. When conditions are right, this is the most effective method of fishing I have
ever seen.

7. In other cities demolishing buildings is a minor form of spectator sport.

8. Along the casino-laden stretch of highway known as The Strip, it is an

exorcism.

9. Before the Dunes Hotel was dynamited into rubble last week, there
occurred a spectacular fireworks display.

10. This fall, more than 10,500 hotel rooms are to be added to what has become
the world’s densest concentration of tourist facilities.

11. Her argument is that government should treat pornography as action to be

regulated.

12. Society is made of words whose meanings the powerful control.

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