WOMEN UNIVERSITY IN AFRICA

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

NAMES : Edgar Muzulu

STUDENT NUMBER : W150766

PROGRAMME : Master of Science in Development Studies

INTAKE 10 : Weekend Class

COURSE : Gender and Development Studies

LECTURER : Dr E. Makura

QUESTION

‘Gender equality is undebatable, what is debatable are the efforts to

universalize it”

DUE DATE : 26 September 2015

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+Introduction

Sustainable development can only be achieved through long term investments in economic,
human and environmental capital. At present the female half of the world’s human capital is
undervalued and underutilised the world over. Women’s potential contributions to economic
advances, social progress and environmental protection have been marginalised and yet better
use of the world female population could increase economic growth, reduce poverty, enhance
societal well-being and ensure sustainable development in all countries The purpose of this essay
is to highlight that gender equality is uncontestable, however what is debatable are the efforts to
universalise it. This essay will focus on Feminist Theories, national, regional and international
instruments, various case studies in relation to the social, cultural, economic and political spheres
to buttress the argument.

Definition of key terms

Gender: refers to the differences in socially constructed roles, behaviours and responsibilities
associated with men and women, boys and girls in their social interactions. Gender therefore
determines what is expected, permitted and valued in one’s behaviour in a specific context
(Giddens, 2006). To a greater extent Gender determines how a people feel, think and perceive
things in society.

Gender equality: UNICEF (2014) states that gender equality means that women, men, girls or
boys enjoy the same right, resources, opportunities and protections. It means that women and
men have equal conditions for realizing their full human rights and for contributing to, and
benefiting from, economic, social, cultural and political development (Cadwell, 2007).

Universalise. Raday (2011) states that to universalise means to male consistent or common
across all cases. Overholt (1991) defines it as a religious, theological, and philosophical concept
with universal or uniform application or applicability.

Discussion

Gender equality connotes an equal number or an equal percentage of women and men at a given
position place or space. It does not mean that women and men have to become the same, but that
their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born female or
male. Gender equality requires equal enjoyment by women and men of socially valued goods,
services, opportunities, rewards and resources .Gender equality entails the concept that all human
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beings, both female and male are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices
without the limitation set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices (Goetz, 1998)

The term gender has travelled a lot, through both time and place. In its journeys through different
times and contexts, the meaning of the concept has been shaped in different ways. The roots of
this term can be traced as far back as days of modernization, a time when the European cultural
hegemony was being established and expanded the world over. The term was then universalized.
Towing Oyewumi (2002)’s line of thought, gender was therefore imposed on an already existing
African culture through modernization. Because Europe and Africa differ in culture, values and
identities, it goes without saying that the application of gender in an European context differs
from its application in an African context (Oyewumi, 2002).

Movements such as Liberal and Radical Feminists challenged gender-blind and gender-neutral
analyses which reinforced women’s subordination within development programmes and
planning frameworks. These challenges resulted in feminist attempts to introduce gender
planning frameworks, which attempted to take into account the gender division of labour which
increased women’s burden, and women’s lack of access to and control over resources (March et
at, 2005). Meanwhile radical feminists calls for a radical reordering of society in which male
supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts and seek to abolish patriarchy by
challenging existing social norms and institutions, rather than through a purely political process.
Therefore the efforts above qualify the statement that Gender Equality is uncontestable. However
the efforts to universalize it are what is debatable as strides to advance the cause apply
differently to women in Africa and Europe as they are not homogenous groups.

The uncontestable nature of gender equality is demonstrated in international efforts towards this
noble cause. According to Cornwall and Rivas (2015:397) the international community has
established universal gender equality through international laws, conventions and treaties passed
through the United Nations, which seek the universality of gender equality and its
indispensability of global development. The advancement of women’s rights and gender equality
has been informed by UN frameworks, in particular the 1948 United Nations Charter and the
Universal Declaration on Human Rights. Additionally there are also UN instruments such as the
Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the
Vienna Declaration on Human Rights, the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies, Beijing Platform
for Action, the outcome of the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD),
Palermo Protocol on Trafficking in Humans, and the Millennium Declaration, Millennium
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Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). For example, the
issue of gender equality is universally agreed in the United Nations, Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) in particular goal number three which focuses on the promotion of gender
equality and the empowerment of women but the efforts to advance this have been different
recognizing the diversity of different groups of women and men and broader socio-cultural
context.

Locally, Zimbabwe is party to international and regional instruments that seek to attain gender
equality and the empowerment of women and girls. Section( 17) of the constitution of Zimbabwe
states that “(1) The State must promote full gender balance in Zimbabwean society, and in
particular— 26 (a) the State must promote the full participation of women in all spheres of
Zimbabwean society on the basis of equality with men; (b) the State must take all measures,
including legislative measures, needed to ensure that— (i) both genders are equally represented
in all institutions and agencies of government at every level; and (ii) women constitute at least
half the membership of all Commissions and other elective and appointed governmental bodies
established by or under this Constitution or any Act of Parliament; (c) the State and all
institutions and agencies of government at every level must take practical measures to ensure that
women have access to resources, including land, on the basis of equality with men. (2) The State
must take positive measures to rectify gender discrimination and imbalances resulting from past
practices and policies.”(Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment No.20 Act 2013)

Furthermore, chapter 12 (Part 4) of the Zimbabwe constitution establishes the Zimbabwe Gender
Commission whose functions are “to monitor issues concerning gender equality to ensure gender
equality as provided in this Constitution. However, regardless of the universal consensus guided
by international, regional and domestic laws, treaties and conventions that seek to provide
women with the same rights, responsibilities and opportunities as men, people in many countries
around the world say gender inequalities persist in their countries.

Made (2000), mentions that a plethora of factors militate against endeavours to attain gender
equality thereby raising debates on universal applicability of the same. Such factors include
political will; cultural and religious factors; economic challenges and limited access to
productive resources; limited coordination of international, regional and domestic statutes;
inadequate implementation and the partial domestication of international laws and gender based
violence. Thus, unless all these dimensions of gender inequality are addressed, the overall

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Millennium Development Goal, the universality of gender equality and women’s empowerment
will remain contestable.

Taking Zimbabwe into context, following the promulgation of the constitution and the
subsequent appointment of Ministers by the President Robert Mugabe, the appointments fell
short of the provisions of the constitution and in accordance with the Sadc Protocol on Gender
and Development and other international provisions which call for 50/50 representation of men
and women. However the President of Zimbabwe appointed twenty three (23) men and three (3)
women which casts aspersions on the political will to achieve and universalise gender equality in
Zimbabwe. Thus political will is a critical ingredient to the universal applicability of gender
equality. It is critical to note that section 17 (1) of the Constitution makes gender equality
uncontestable and makes it mandatory for the State to promote gender balance, particularly the
participation of women in all spheres of Zimbabwean society - economic, political and social.

It is incumbent upon the State to promote such participation through positive action and also
refrain from conduct which is discriminatory and does not foster gender equality. Efforts such as
the proportional representation which seeks 50/50 representation in the allocation House of
Assembly seats should be applauded. In this case it is evident that gender equality is undebatable
but what is debatable are the efforts to universalize it. Quantitative equality as opposed to
qualitative equality is present and this translates to reality (Made, 2000)

Another factor which makes the universality of gender equality contestable hinges on the
allocation of government resources, for example, through budgets and has an important influence
on the social and economic well-being of the country. Shah (2007:21) states that the budget
could be described as the single most important policy document of governments as it mirrors,
expressed in financial terms, the social and economic policies pursued by a country. It is through
the budget that policies are transformed from ‘paper promises’ into practice. As a result, the
budget indicates what is important to a government and a society, showing what, who, and
whose work and contribution, is valued.

Government budgets also tell us what is less valued, who is less valued and whose contribution
is not actively supported. Thus one of the most critical issues making attempts towards gender
equality universal is through the allocation of resources by government. One example of this is
found in the 2014 Zimbabwe national budget where less than 1 percent allocation is to the
Ministry of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development (MWAGCD), a position

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which does not bode well with commitments towards gender equality. As the budget is such a
powerful tool for change it is important to understand better how the macroeconomic strategy,
the composition of revenues and expenditures and the delivery of services impact on gender
inequalities and the associated issues of poverty and sustainable development(SADC Gender
Barometer,2014)

Lack of coordination at both national and international level also militates against the universal
efforts towards gender equality. According to the World Economic Forum Gender Gap Report
(2014), addressing gender equality is a cross-cutting issue and requires a multi-sectoral approach,
involving at a minimum the health, education, social, legal and security sectors, and strategically,
other key sectors such as labour, migration and urban planning, among others.

Cornwall, (2008) states that in many cases it is the Ministry of Women’s Affairs or its
equivalent, which are often under-resourced and lacking the institutional and political influence
within government. Other mechanisms and processes pose additional challenges to coordinating
and monitoring the implementation of policies and programmes, where addressing gender
equality may not be seen as a priority. Formal channels of communication and information-
sharing between and among governments and non-governmental entities working on this issue
are also needed for coordinated, effective responses.

Klein (1989) states that in Africa, efforts to universalise gender equality are hindered because of
culture, patriarchal practices and sexuality. Klein (1989) further states that custom in Africa is
stronger than domination, the law and even religion. The three variables of feminity, sexuality
and culture are interwoven inextricably to the extent that any efforts to separate them are
fruitless. Okome (2003) states that radical feminists argue that culture imprisons women leading
to their subordination because of the patriarchal nature of society.

Charvet (1982) states that patriarchal attitudes are bred in the family through the socialisation
process by socialising the young to accept sexually differential roles. For example in the Shona
culture from a tender age the socialisation process differentiates the girl child from the boy child.
Boys are socialised to view themselves as breadwinners and heads of households whilst females
are taught to be obedient and submissive housekeepers. As such society views women as sexual
beings and not human beings. Pringle (1992) further states that women depend on men and
subordinate to them as well. Women are socialised to be gentle, passive, submissive and striving

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to please men always. This situation is made worse by the lobola payment which leaves women
at the mercy of men.

Madlala (2000) states that in Africa a married woman is treated with respect and is also expected
to satisfy her husband sexually. If a man has another wife or an extra marital affair the woman is
blamed for not being able to satisfy him and this has fuelled HIV and AIDS of which women are
the worst affected being solely dependent on men.

Monitor (2001) posits that patriarchal attitudes are also found in Christianity and these have
strengthened the traditional customs which men use to control women’s sexuality. A case in
point is the white garments sects, especially the Johanne Marange sect in which patriarchal
values are deep rooted in the church’s doctrine as evidenced by the polygamous marriages and
the neglecting of the girl child who only reaches grade seven education and awaits marriage
thereafter. The boy child is therefore preferred more as he is thought to carry the family name
and bring in more family members, that is grandchildren.

Chirimuuta (2006) states that in Zimbabwe the education system is structured in a way that
maintains the inequalities because the textbooks that are used depict boys as tough, rough and
mentally skilled people whilst girls are depicted as soft, gentle people who enjoy carrying out
household duties. The educational system does not take into consideration the fact that when
children start attending school they come with inequalities already shaped within them. For
instance in secondary schools, the enrolment ratio for girls is only 42% (UNAIDS, 2004).

Human Rights Monitor(2001) states that the majority of Zimbabwean women who are not
employed are found in rural areas where they toil on land they do not own, to produce what they
do not control and at the end of the marriage, through divorce or death, they are sent away empty
handed. Julius Nyerere (1984) commented that these women are discriminated upon by not being
allowed to own land on the basis of custom and customary law since men have always been
viewed culturally as land owners and as a result this situation forces rural women to be
dependent on males through the cycle of marriage and reproduction.

Garbus (2002) states that politics is portrayed as a dirty game which requires tough qualities that
few women are attracted to it. Those who enter have to really prove that they have the tough
calibre in order to withstand the pressure brought about by patriarchal attitude which define
women as weak citizens not fit for public office.

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Khumalo (2002) also agrees that patriarchal practices which dominate the African culture are
also patrilineal and female sexuality is largely in the hands of males because of the payment of
lobola, arranged marriages, marital rape and early marriages. Kambarami (2010) further argue
that the patriarchal nature of our society has shaped and perpetuated gender inequality to the
extent of allowing male domination and female subordination which is fuelled by the
socialisation process. Therefore, to amend the situation this calls for re-socialisation. Women
should continue to be educated so that they understand how culture imprisons them since the
majority of them have accepted the status quo to the extent that they worship male domination.

Wendoh & Wallace (2005) argues that there is need to work on rethinking gender
mainstreaming in African NGOs and communities .with special reference to Zambia, Rwanda,
Gambia and Uganda’ acknowledge the rather pervasive resistance to gender equality issues by
African NGOs and communities with which the Western donor community worked. Because of
this resistance the goal of gender equality is not attained. In their discussion, the authors lament
the fact that the implemented gender projects remain external and irrelevant to the Africans.
They concluded by a strong recommendation to the effect that the Western donors, as external
agents to Africa, should not determine what changes Africans need, or tell Africans what roles
they must play. Change, they maintain, should start from within and not an imposition from
outside. True sustainable development for Africa depends on the inclusion of men and women in
the programs, not only as passive participants, but as powerful agents of the social and economic
development brought about by the programs (Mary;2005).

The involvement of men in gender issues seems to be a reaction to the criticism that gender is
against men. Donor attention to men seems to signify a shift of support away from women’s
empowerment and handing over of the pedals in the struggle for gender parity to men.

The response to women’s movement over the years has been hostility and this is what led to
gender being defined as an attack on men. In Zimbabwe there is an organization called Varume
Svinurai which is a reaction to advancing of women’s rights and these men felt that men are
suffering and worse off than women and also need to be protected. Donor preference for men’s
organizations has led to confusion, and has transferred resources away from women. Since
women are the subordinated group, the struggle for gender equality needs to be led by women.
Men can support struggles for gender equality and explore constructions of masculinity as part of
this agenda, but they cannot replace women’s organizations. Another organization in Zimbabwe
that purports to advance rights of women is Padare men’s forum. Padare seeks to alter deeply
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rooted ideas about masculinity, sexuality and gender through creating a forum for men to
question and reject gender stereotypes, roles and practices that privilege men and oppress women
(Made;2000).

Conclusion

In conclusion the arguments stated above are wholly applicable to our Zimbabwean context. It
goes without saying that feminists struggled over the years and having ideas from the movements
that then developed to the technical field of development. It then changed from women in
development to gender and development, to gender mainstreaming and now to involvement of
men. In a way the use of the term gender has generated considerable debate and confusion such
that the intended effect has been lost and continues to be lost. This essay has demonstrated that
gender equality is uncontestable, however what is debatable are the efforts to universalize it.
International instruments such as those under the aegis of the United Nations, continental treaties
under the African Union, regional measures under Sadc and domestic laws pursued by the
government all endeavor to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment. However, a
number of issues such as political will, allocation of resources, lack of coordination amongst
stakeholders and cultural and religious beliefs militate against the universal achievements of
gender equality.

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