03-Power System Operations

GRID FUNDAMENTALS
A Comprehensive Introduction to:

Theory, Operation, Planning and Regulation
of Electric Power Systems
Agenda
1. Electric Fundamentals
2. How to Build an Interconnected Power
System
3. Power System Operations
4. Regulation
5. Environment and the Grid
6. Current Events: Regulatory and Policy Issues
3|Power System Operations
• Types of Load
• Load Characteristics
• Balancing Authority Overview
• Frequency and Energy Balance
• System Operators
• Safety
• System Restoration
W E S T E R N E L E C T R I C I T Y C O O R D I N A T I N G C O U N C I L
Types of Load
• Residential, Commercial, Industrial,
Agriculture
• Firm, Interruptible, Contract
What is Load?
Residential Load
Energy Usage In Our Homes
Commercial Load
Industrial Load
Agriculture
Load Obligations
• Firm
• Interruptible
• Contract
Load Characteristics
13
Load Characteristics
• On vs. Off Peak
• Seasonal
• Daily
• Roof-Top-Solar
• Predicting Load
Characteristics of Load
Load Size – kW
Reactive Power – kVAR
Power Factor %
Total Energy Consumed
Load Factor
Cold-Load Pick-up
Interruptible?
Characteristics of System Load
How Load Varies
– Moment to moment
– Time of day
– Day of week
– Time of year
On-Peak & Off-Peak Periods
Hourly Load – Varies by Customer Type
Base Load and Peaking Load
On-Peak and Off-Peak Periods
Net Demand
CAISO 3/8/17
Solar Production
CAISO 3/8/17
The “Duck Chart”
Seasonal Predictions
System Operators live and die by the load!

Seasonal Predictions
• Daily & seasonal load patterns
• Weather correlation analysis
• Learning computer algorithms
• Weather forecasts
• Operator experience
Load Growth?
Interconnection Load and Generation
Peak Load – 150,913 MW (2012 Summer)
Generation – 233,083 MW (2012 Summer)
233,083 Total Generation

150,913 Peak Load
= 82,170 Excess Generation, RIGHT??
So, why rolling black outs and “Energy Shortages?”
Challenges to Load Forecasting
Forecast 30,000 MW Load
Estimate 10,000 MW Reserves
Total of 40,000 MW to Serve Reliable Load
Outcome 1 Outcome 2
Weather is colder than predicted Weather is better than predicted
and load is 40,000 MW and load is only 20,000
Result = not enough reserves, Result = too much power

not enough power
EastEnders:
Britain Peak Demand
34
Check Your Knowledge:
General Characteristics of Load
1. What is Peak Load?
2. What is Off-Peak Load?
3. Why does load vary?
4. What things are considered when doing load
forecasting?
5. How far in the future do we forecast load?
Balancing Authority Overview
Balancing Authority Overview
• Definition
• Where and Who Are They?
• Basic Responsibilities
Balancing Authority Definition
Operates within the metered boundaries of their Area
Mission:
• Maintain balance between loads and resources in real
time within its Area
• Keep actual interchange equal to scheduled
interchange
• Meet frequency bias obligation
• Load-resource balance is measured by Area Control
Error (ACE)
Basic Responsibilities
• Balance Load, Generation and Net Interchange
• Control Frequency and Time Error
• Maintain Reserves
• Implement Interchange Transactions
• Minimize Cost
Balancing Authority
Tools and Measures:
• Metering
• Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
• Area Control Error (ACE)
• Frequency Response
• Operating Reserves
Functions & Types
• Balancing Authorities(BA)
• Reliability Coordinators(RC)
• Transmission Operators (TOP)
• Independent System Operators (ISO)
• Regional Transmission Organizations (RTO)
Balancing Authority and Regulation Overview
1. How many Balancing Authorities are in the
Western Interconnection?
2. What do BAs balance?
3. How does a generation-only BA balance load

and generation?
Frequency and Energy Balance
• Load and Generation Balancing
• Automatic Generation Control (AGC) Basics
• Area Control Error (ACE)
• Frequency Response
• Operating Reserves
• Operating Limits
• Interchange Scheduling: Energy Imbalance
Market and Tagging
• Off-Nominal Frequency
Load and Generation Balancing
• Generation must equal load
• Required for good control of frequency
• Short term = “load-frequency regulation”
• Longer term = “load following”
• Balancing Authorities and their Automatic
Generation Control (AGC) maintain balance
Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
• Scheduled and Actual Interchange
• Turbine Governor Controls
• Area Control Error
• Sample Automatic Generator Control
Response
• NERC/WECC Control Criteria
AGC: A Matter of Balance
Frequency
60
Load Generation
Turbine Governor Controls
Generating Unit Controls (Think Cruise Control)
R L
Speed Changer
R Increasing speed
decreases turbine
Motor input
L
f
Moveable collar
Turbine Generator
Steam
Increase output when it sees low frequency

Decrease output when it sees high frequency
Governor action takes place without control center instruction
Turbine Governor Control
Area Control Error (ACE)
• Measures whether Balancing Authority is
properly generating its MW requirements
• Helps control interconnection frequency
ACE Equation
ACE = (Actual – Scheduled)
– (Bias x (Actual Frequency – 60hz))
ACE Equation
ACE = (NIA - NIS) – (10B x (FA - FS))
Tie-line error Frequency
factor error factor
Negative ACE = under-generation

Positive ACE = over-generation
Time Error Correction Standard
Time Error
Operation at other than 60Hz results in time
error.
– Low frequency-time is “slow”
– High frequency-time is “fast”
Large time error accumulations are a sign of

poor Control Performance.
NERC/WECC Control Performance Criteria
Measures of a Balancing Authority’s
control performance over time.
• Non-compliance can result in monetary

penalties
• Two Control Performance Standards serve as

measures:
• CPS1
• CPS2
CPS1
CPS1 – Helping or hurting frequency?
• Control errors of moderate magnitude are
acceptable
• Control errors helping frequency are good

(over-generating when frequency is low,
under-generating when frequency is high)
• Control errors hurting the frequency are bad

(over-generating when frequency is high,
under-generating when frequency is low)
CPS2
CPS2 – Magnitude of ACE over time
Over a 10-minute period, the average ACE may not

exceed a threshold value called L10.
– L10 values are unique to each Balancing Authority
Frequency Response
Sample AGC Response
Frequency Disturbance Sequence:
Somewhere in the system, a generator trips…

Stored energy (inertia) from all rotating mass in
system acts to slow frequency decline
All generator governors act to restore frequency
AGC of deficient system eventually reacts to

compensate for lost generation
61
2008 Florida Blackout:
Fnet Frequency Display
2008 Florida Blackout:
Fnet Frequency Display
AGC Basics
1. What does AGC stand for?
2. Which of these factors does AGC help control
a. Frequency
b. Load/Energy Balance
c. Area Control Error
d. All of the above
3. How do different types of generation
respond to AGC?
Operating Reserves
• Purpose and Type of Operating Reserves
• Standards
• Reserve Sharing Groups
Operating Reserves
Electricity production is a “real-time” process.
Extra generating capacity needs to be readily

available:
– to replace lost generation or imports
– supply load increases
– used to meet the Disturbance Control Standard (DCS)
– systems can meet requirements collectively
– can create Reserve Sharing Groups
All in the name of good frequency control.

Operating Reserves
Contingencies
– e.g. generation failures
– Load forecast errors
Regulation
– Frequency
– ACE
Purpose and Types of Operating Reserves
Regulating reserve
– Needed for moment to moment load
balancing
– Used to meet CPS1 and CPS2
Standard
– Must be spinning
– Responsive to AGC
– Have enough to meet CPS1 and CPS2
Regulating Reserves For
Moment To Moment Load
7500 2500
Load
7000 2000
Generation
6500 1500
6000 1000
5500 500
Scheduled imports
5000 0
7:00 7:06 7:12 7:18 7:24 7:30 7:36 7:42 7:48 7:54 8:00
Time
Operating Reserve Standards
BAL-002-WECC-2 Standard
R1. Each Balancing Authority and each Reserve Sharing Group shall maintain a
minimum amount of Contingency Reserve, except within the first sixty
minutes following an event requiring the activation of Contingency Reserve,
that is: [Violation Risk Factor: High] [Time Horizon: Real-time operations]
1.1 The greater of either:
The amount of Contingency Reserve equal to the loss of the most severe
single contingency;
The amount of Contingency Reserve equal to the sum of three percent of

hourly integrated Load plus three percent of hourly integrated generation.
BAL-002-WECC-2 Standard
1.2 Comprised of any combination of the reserve types specified
below:
Operating Reserve – Spinning
Operating Reserve - Supplemental
Interchange Transactions designated by the Source Balancing Authority as
Operating Reserve – Supplemental Reserve held by other entities by agreement
that is deliverable on Firm Transmission Service
A resource, other than generation or load, that can provide energy or reduce
energy consumption Load, including demand response resources, Demand-Side
Management resources, Direct Control Load Management, Interruptible Load or
Interruptible Demand, or any other Load made available for curtailment by the
Balancing Authority or the Reserve Sharing Group via contract or agreement.
All other load, not identified above, once the Reliability Coordinator has declared
an energy emergency alert signifying that firm load interruption is imminent or
in progress.
Disturbance Control Standard (DCS)
The ACE must return either to zero or to its pre-disturbance level
within fifteen minutes following the start of the disturbance.
Disturbance control standard compliance

– Each BA or reserve sharing group shall meet the
Disturbance Control Standard (DCS) 100% of the time for
reportable disturbances.
Reportable disturbance reporting threshold
– Events that cause ACE to change by 35% of most severe
Single Contingency
Reserve Sharing Groups
• Self-supply
• Market Structure
– California ISO
• Reserve Sharing Groups
– Northwest Power Pool
– Desert Southwest Reserve Sharing Group
– Rocky Mountain Reserve Group
Operating Reserves
1. What is the purpose of Operating Reserves?
2. What are 3 types of Operating Reserves?
Operating Limits
• Power from generators to loads follows all
available paths
• Most power flows over paths with least
impedance
• System designed to avoid overloads
• Rarely - Phase-shifting transformers are used
to alter flows
Operating Limits
• When a line opens - power flow redistributes
– almost immediately
• System is designed to handle contingencies
– line tripping, or
– lost generation
• Relays, Operators or Special Protection
Schemes (SPS or RAS) act to prevent
equipment overloads
Operating Limits – Varies by Situation and Path
OLD Paradigm: Speed Limits
A single calculated speed number with
enforcement for violations.
NEW Paradigm: Path Limits
No single Path MW System Operating Limits
(SOL). Instead, monitor:
• Thermal limits
• Stability limits
• Voltage limits
Interchange Scheduling
Electricity: A Commodity
• Scheduling
• Interchange
• Unscheduled Flow
• Tagging
• Energy Imbalance Market
Electricity is a Commodity
Behavior of the electric energy commodity
• Must be used immediately as it is generated
• Power exchanges track pricing per location
• Power exchanges track pricing per time of the day (clearing as
frequently as every five minutes)
• Because of the lack of inventory, the price of electricity on the
power markets can vary by 100x in a single day
• Price can dramatically vary between:
– Day-ahead exchange
– Intra-day exchange (a few hours ahead)
– Real time
Transmission Service Fair Treatment
FERC Orders 888/889
Protects and promotes generation competition and enforces
fair treatment of external users of the transmission system.
• Requires functional separation of merchant (power

marketers) & transmission (power scheduler) functions
• Transmission service equally available to all market players
• Transmission marketed via an OASIS (Open Access Same-

time Information System)
A Day-in-the-Life of a Market
Generation Market Consumer Market
(producers) (loads)
• Assesses Market • Assesses Market
Conditions Conditions
• Submits an “asking price” • Submits a “willing to
(bid) purchase price”
• Looks for a buyer • Looks for a seller
Ancillary Service
Services to support the transmission of electric
power from seller to purchaser.
• Scheduling and dispatch

• Reactive supply & voltage control
• Load regulation & frequency control
• Energy imbalance
• Operating reserves
• Energy loss compensation
How Do We Schedule Power?
How do we get 100 MW of power to flow from
Balancing Authority A to B?
Scenario:
A generates 100 MW more than its load.
B generates 100 MW less than its load.
Excess MW from A serves the deficiency in B.
Balancing Authorities
M = meter
Balancing
Authority
Balancing
Authority
M
B
A M
M
M Balancing M
Authority
Balancing M D M
M
Authority Balancing
C Authority
E
What is Scheduled Interchange?
• An agreement to exchange a specified amount

of power for an agreed upon period of time.
• Balancing Authorities implement the schedule

in a coordinated manner.
What is Actual Interchange?
• Measured MW flow between balancing

authorities
• Interchange meters on BA boundaries
• Flows are not always intentional
Actual Interchange
Computing BA Area Load
M
M
Balancing Interchange
Authority M
Generation
M
M
BA Load = (Generation) – (Net Interchange)

Scheduled
Schedule from A to D
& Unscheduled Flow
Scheduled
Flow
A B
Unscheduled Contract Path Scheduled
flow Flow
D C
Scheduled
Flow
How Schedule Cuts Relieve USF
Affected Path from A to D
Sender
reduces
export Less Scheduled
schedule generation Flow
Decreases
generation A B
Unscheduled
Contract
Flow Scheduled
Path Flow
Affected
Path
Receiver
reduces
import
schedule
D C
More Scheduled
Increases generation Flow
generation
Managing Unscheduled Flow (USF)
• Use phase shifters, DC line, series capacitors in
the path
• Accommodate some USF
• Curtail schedules causing USF
Inadvertent Interchange
Power doesn’t always flow on scheduled lines.
The difference between Scheduled Interchange
and Actual Interchange is Inadvertent Flow.
Causes:
– Schedule errors
– Poor unit control
– Frequency control
– Ramp skew
– Metering error
Common Power Types in the Market
Firm
– Highest level of delivery priority
– Backed-up by system-wide resources
Contingent
– Depends on availability of certain
resources
– Cut before any firm deliveries are cut
Non-firm/Interruptible
– Lowest level of priority
– Highest likelihood of being cut
Power Scheduling
Hour 2 is understood as the 60 minute period
ending at 2:00 AM (Hour Ending 0200)
Hour 1 2 3 4 21 22 23 24
Import A 50 50 25 35  75 45 25 0
Export B 35 42 55 80 62 75 30 25
Power Scheduling
Imports are netted against exports to determine
a net schedule.
Hour 1 2 3 4 21 22 23 24
Import A 50 50 25 35  75 45 25 25
Export B 35 42 55 80 62 75 30 0
Net 15 8 30 45 13 30 5 25
in in out out in out out in
Power Scheduling
Schedulers make transactions for the next
day’s operation.
Operators make real-time schedule

adjustments, as needed.
Power Scheduling
In real-time, hourly schedule changes are
ramped to smooth out abrupt changes.
as scheduled
as implemented
Hour 08 Hour 09 Hour 10

Transaction Tagging
Electronic Tagging (e-Tag)
– Allows each transaction to be
uniquely identified
– Identifies all parties & transmission
arrangements
– Facilitates timely schedule cuts if
problems arise
Energy Imbalance Market (EIM)
104
California ISO Energy Imbalance Market
California ISO EIM webpage 2017

After-the-Fact Accounting
Actual operation often differs from the original
plan.
Every day energy accounting personnel unravel

the myriad changes from the prescheduled
operation.
Interchange Scheduling
1. What is the relation between scheduling
power and actual power?
2. What is the primary contributor to
unscheduled flows?
3. Is it better to generate close to load or far
away?
Off Nominal Frequency
• Load/Generation Balance
• Generator Under-frequency Protection
• Why Coordinate Load-Shedding?
• Plan Overview
Off-Nominal Frequency Plan
Load/Generation Balance
Frequency Control
• Frequency is stable when load and
generation match
• Frequency drops when load is higher than
generation
• Frequency rises when generation is higher
than load
Protection
Frequency Control
• Customer equipment will be damaged if
operated at abnormal frequencies
• Generators will trip
Why Coordinate Load-Shedding?
When generation is lost, coordinated dropping
of load will keep frequency in balance.
Controlling Frequency
• AGC
• Operator action
• Routine generation changes
• Interruptible load curtailments
• Manual load shedding (coordinated
throughout WECC)
• Automatic relay action
• Under-frequency load shedding
• Over-frequency load restoration
Overview
Under-Frequency Load Shedding
LOAD SHED % of LOAD TO RELAY

BLOCK DROP TRIP FREQUENCY
1 5.3 59.1 Hz
2 5.9 58.9 Hz
3 6.5 58.7 Hz
4 6.7 58.5 Hz
5 6.7 58.3 Hz
1. How does the power system protect itself
when the frequency is moving too far away
from the target?
2. What frequency is used in the
Interconnection?
System Operators
• Control Room
• System Maintenance – Issuing Clearances
• System Overloads
• Total Transfer vs. System Overloads
• Situational Awareness
• State Estimator
• Contingency Analysis
• Plant Operators
Control Room
• Economic Dispatch
• Interchange Transaction Scheduling
• Generator Status
• Power System Analysis
• Breaker and Line Status
ALL of this info is brought into the system

operators desk and the System Operator must
monitor and determine what actions need to be
taken.
Then…
Now
Now
• SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data

Acquisition)
• AGC (Automatic Generation Control)
• Generator Status
• Breaker and Line Status
• Issuing Clearances for System Maintenance
• System Overloads
• Situational Awareness
• State Estimator
• Contingency Analysis
Plant Operators
Safety
• Personnel Safety
• Switching Orders
• Clearance to Work on Equipment
• Restoration to Service
System Restoration
• Cause for Disturbance
• Restoration Priorities
• Operator Challenges
• Building from the Black
• Major Events
What Is A Major Disturbance?
• Islanding
• Load shedding
• Trip of generation
• Full or partial blackout

August 10, 1996 NW Disturbance
What Causes a Major Disturbance?
• Storms
• Earthquakes
• Equipment
Malfunction
• Inadequate System
• Operating Errors
• Sabotage
• Combination of Events
(perfect storm)
Operator Goal:
Make Sure Everyone Is Safe and
Get the Lights Back On!
Operator Challenges
• The Public
• The Media
• Frequency
• Generation vs. Load
Building From Black
One Island At A Time
Major Events
YEAR EVENT # PEOPLE TIME CAUSE
1965 The Great Northeast Blackout 30 million 13 hrs. Incorrect relay setting
1977 New York Blackout 9 million 26 hrs. Lightning strike

1989 Hydro Quebec Blackout 6 million 9 hrs. Geo magnetic storm
2003 2003 Northeast Blackout 50 million 30 hrs. Line sagging into tree
30 hours
2008 South Florida Blackout 590,000 3 hrs. Primary and secondary
protection disabled
2011 Southwest Blackout 2.7 million 12 hrs. Switching error initiated lack of
operating in N-1 condition
September 2011
Pacific Southwest
Disturbance
September 8, 2011
• A disturbance led to cascading outages and
loss of load
• SDG&E, IID & CFE had complete system

outages
• APS and WALC lost some load
September 8, 2011
This disturbance occurred on a heavily loaded
summer day.
Load interrupted:
– SDG&E 4293 MW
– CFE 2150 MW
– IID 929 MW
– APS 389 MW
– WALC 74 MW
September 8, 2011
FERC/NERC Report findings: System was not being
operated in a secure state for an N-1 outage due to:
– Lack of information sharing between entities
– Lack of adequate studies
– Sub 100 kV facilities not adequately considered in next-day
studies
Initiating event: Loss of APS Hassayampa-North Gila
500 kV Line due to an operating error
Outcome: 2.7 million customers. All load was restored
in approximately 12 hours
Some NERC Standards Violated
• COM-002-2, R2
– Issue directives in a clear & concise manner
– Three-part communication
• EOP-001-2.1b
– Developing, maintaining & implementing emergency plans
• EOP-003-2
– Shed load rather than risking uncontrolled failure or cascade
• EOP-005-2
– Returning system to normal following a disturbance
• EOP-006-2
– Coordination with Reliability Coordinator
• TOP-004-2
– Operate so that instability, uncontrolled separation, or cascading
outages will not occur as a result of the most severe single
contingency
Sequence of Events – 1
• At 1527, APS Hassayampa-North Gila 500 kV
line relayed due to switchmen error
• Loss of 500 kV line caused overload on area’s

lower voltage system as power sought
alternate route into San Diego area
• IID’s 92 kV system started to collapse within

40 seconds of initial 500 kV line trip
Sequence of Events – 2
• IID lost 230/92 kV transformers at Cochella
Valley and Ramon
• CFE lost generation in Mexico
• IID experienced a voltage collapse in its

service area and lost 50% of load when UVLS
operated
Sequence of Events - 3
• As IID, WAPA and APS lower voltage system collapsed the

230 kV system on the coast loaded heavier and heavier
• A protection scheme associated with path 44 operated
separating the San Diego, IID, and CFE systems
• Load was much greater than generation so system
collapsed
• UFLS operated but too little too late
• Entire event took only 11 minutes
Frequency Display for
9/8/11 Southwest Blackout
RECAP: System Restoration
• Cause for Disturbances
• Restoration Priorities
• Operator Challenges
• Building from the Black
• Major Events
145
Know Your Utility

03-Power System Operations

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GRID FUNDAMENTALS

A Comprehensive Introduction to:

On-Peak & Off-Peak Periods

System Operators live and die by the load!

233,083 Total Generation

So, why rolling black outs and “Energy Shortages?”

Result = not enough reserves, Result = too much power

2. What do BAs balance?

3. How does a generation-only BA balance load

Increase output when it sees low frequency

• Helps control interconnection frequency

Negative ACE = under-generation

Large time error accumulations are a sign of

• Non-compliance can result in monetary

• Two Control Performance Standards serve as

• Control errors helping frequency are good

• Control errors hurting the frequency are bad

Over a 10-minute period, the average ACE may not

Somewhere in the system, a generator trips…

All generator governors act to restore frequency

AGC of deficient system eventually reacts to

Extra generating capacity needs to be readily

All in the name of good frequency control.

1.1 The greater of either:

The amount of Contingency Reserve equal to the sum of three percent of

Disturbance control standard compliance

2. What are 3 types of Operating Reserves?

• Requires functional separation of merchant (power

• Transmission service equally available to all market players

• Transmission marketed via an OASIS (Open Access Same-

• Scheduling and dispatch

• An agreement to exchange a specified amount

• Balancing Authorities implement the schedule

• Measured MW flow between balancing

• Interchange meters on BA boundaries

• Flows are not always intentional

BA Load = (Generation) – (Net Interchange)

• Accommodate some USF

• Curtail schedules causing USF

Operators make real-time schedule

Hour 08 Hour 09 Hour 10

California ISO EIM webpage 2017

Every day energy accounting personnel unravel

LOAD SHED % of LOAD TO RELAY

ALL of this info is brought into the system

• SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data

• Full or partial blackout

1977 New York Blackout 9 million 26 hrs. Lightning strike

• SDG&E, IID & CFE had complete system

• APS and WALC lost some load

• Loss of 500 kV line caused overload on area’s

• IID’s 92 kV system started to collapse within

• CFE lost generation in Mexico

• IID experienced a voltage collapse in its

• As IID, WAPA and APS lower voltage system collapsed the

Know Your Utility

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