UNIT 3

VOLCANO
A volcano is essentially an opening or a vent through which this magma and the dissolved gases it contains are
discharged.
HOW IS A VOLCANO FORMED?
A volcano forms when magma rises through weakened areas of the crust from a magma reservoir many miles
deep within the earth, pushing itself up through a vent.
Molten rock, called magma, forms underground when Earth's tectonic plates collide or move apart, or a very hot
layer beneath the earth's crust, causes the crust to melt. Magma contains dissolved gases that remain dissolved
as long as the pressure of the gas is not greater than the confining pressure of the solid rock around it. If the
vapor pressure becomes great enough, the gas forms small bubbles within the magma. These bubbles are less
dense than the surrounding magma, so they push upward to escape it, and an eruption occurs.
MAIN FEATURES OF A VOLCANO
The main features of a volcano include a vent, a summit crater and a magma chamber.
1. The vent is an opening through which volcanic material is erupted. Volcanoes can have more than one vent.
These are called cones and fumaroles.
2. The summit crater is the large concave opening that holds the central vent at the top of the volcano
3. The magma chamber is the large pool-like structure inside the volcano that holds the magma.

STATES OF VOLCANO
There are three states of volcanoes
1. An active volcano is one which has recently erupted and there is a possibility that it may erupt soon.
2.A dormant volcano is one which has not erupted in a long time but there is a possibility it can erupt in the
future.
3. An extinct volcano is one which has erupted thousands of years ago and there’s no possibility of eruption.

FACTORS TRIGGERING A VOLCANIC ERUPTION

The composition of the magma is an important factor in determining the force of this eruption. If it contains
larger amounts of gas, it erupts more violently. Another factor is the viscosity of the magma. Magma with a high
viscosity resists flowing, and the gas bubbles must forcefully push out more material to escape. On the other
hand, magma with a low gas content and low viscosity is likely to result in a slow, non-explosive eruption.
1. The buoyancy of the magma
 Magma is formed when part of the Earth's lower crust or upper mantle melts. Since magma has a lower
density compared to the surrounding rocks, it rises. Eruptions occur when the magma that forms is less dense
than the material above it, causing it to flow upward.
2. Pressure from the dissolved gases in the magma
As the magma rises, bubbles are formed from the dissolved gas within the magma. These gas bubbles exert
immense pressure. This pressure brings magma to the surface and forces it into the air at great heights. During
volcanic eruptions, cinders, red-hot ash and chunks of hot rock shoot out forming fiery clouds over the volcano.
3. The third process that causes volcanic eruptions is an injection of new magma into a chamber that is
already filled with magma of similar or different composition. This injection forces some of the magma in the
chamber to move up in the conduit and erupt at the surface.

TYPES OF VOLCANOS
1. Cinder Cone volcano
Also known as scoria cone or aka scoria. Sides are quite straight with steep slopes with large summit
crater
One of the most common types of volcanoes is the cinder cone. Less dangerous compared to other types, cinder
cones only grow to about 1,000-1,200 feet tall. Unlike some of the other types of volcanoes—namely, shield
volcanoes and composite volcanoes—cinder cones are usually created from a single opening.
The manner of eruption for cinder cones is relatively simple. When the lava erupts, cinders of it are blown into
the air. These fragmented cinders fall a short distance from the opening, thus creating the cone.
2. Shield Volcanoes
Unlike cinder cones, shield volcanoes can be very, very big in size. However, they are not as dangerous as that
size might make it seem. This is because the eruption of lava out of shield volcanoes is not accompanied by
pyroclastic material (bursts of gas and particles).
Shield volcanoes may be tall but tend to be very broad, with less steep slopes than other volcanoes.
3. Composite Volcanos
Composite volcanoes are also known as strato volcanoes. Composite volcanoes are steep-sided volcanoes
composed of many layers of volcanic rocks, usually made from high-viscosity lava, ash and rock debris.
Their eruptions are dangerous and explosive in nature, with many layers of lava and pyroclastic materials, the
current of rock and gas that can reach 1,800°F and 450 mph, killing any living organism in its path immediately.
4. Lava Domes
They are formed when the lava is too viscous to flow to a great distance. As the lava dome slowly grows, the
outer surface cools and hardens as the lava continues to pile within.
DISTRINUTION OF VOLCANOS
Volcanos are distributed in well-defined zones or belts. These are as follows
The Circum Pacific Belt
This is the most important belt of volcanoes. This is the so called Ring of Fire. The belt extends through the
Andes of South America, Central America, Mexico, the Cascade Mountains of Western United States, the
Aleutain Islands, Kamchatka, the Kuril Isles, Japan, the Philippines, Celebes, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands,
New Caledonia and New Zealand.
This belt has 80 active volcanoes. The Circum-Pacific belt meets the mid- continental belt in the East Indies.
This belt is characterised by high volcanic cones and volcanic mountains. The volcanoes of the Aleutian Island,
Hawaii Island and Japan are found in Chains.
The Mid Continental Belt
This belt has various volcanoes of the Alpine mountain chain, Mediterranea Sea (Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna
etc.), Volcanoes of the Aegean Sea. Mt. Ararat, Elburz and Hindukush are also included in this belt.
It is interesting to not that there are several volcanic free zones found along the Alps and the Himalayas. The
Rift Valleys of Africa have volcanoes such as Kilimanjaro, Elgon, Birunga and Rungwe etc.
In the region where the boundaries of Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan meet, there are several volcanic
cones of large size, and one or two of them emit steam and other gases. This region has also a few extinct
volcanoes.
The Mid- Atlantic belt:
As the name indicates, this belt includes the volcanoes of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The volcanoes associated with
the Atlantic Ocean are located either on swells or ridges rising from the sea floor, or on or near the edge of the
continent where it slopes abruptly into the deep oceanic basins. However, in each case, the volcanoes are
associated with zones of crystal movement.
The volcanoes formed along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge actually represent the splitting zone of the American plate
moving towards west and the Eurasian plate moving towards east.
In the splitting zone stated above there is constant upwelling of magmas. Thus, it is a zone of crustal weakness.
Volcanoes in this belt are generally of fissure-eruption type. Volcanoes of Lesser Antilles, Azores, St. Helens
etc. are included in this belt.
HAZARDOUS EFFECTS
Volcanoes themselves might not appear to be a big disaster, but, they cause several complications.
 Because of activities below the surface of the earth, including discharge of a huge amount of material,
its possible that volcanic eruptions could be accompanied by earthquakes.
 Volcanic activity in sea could cause triggering of Tsunamis.
 Because of discharge of very high quantity of toxic material onto the landscape, sources of water like
lakes/rivers etc. could get poisoned, thereby severely disrupting the water-supply. Also, the change in
water composition could impact the aquatic organisms also. Thus, overall ecosystem of the water-body
is misbalanced, thus, impacting the water quality. This could even impact the areas fed downstream by
these same water bodies.
 Because of discharge of high amount of toxic gases in the atmosphere – the air could become highly
difficult to breathe. Release of several gases – including oxides, sulfides, aerosols etc. changes the
atmospheric mix of the area. These in turn can give rise to:
o “acid rain”
o Discharge of “aerosols” into the atmosphere alters the filtering impact of the atmosphere – for
Sun’s radiation as well as for heat from the earth getting radiated back into the space. This can
change the temperature of the area.
 Molten lava coming out of a volcano could reach temperatures up to 1200 degrees Celsius, thus,
incernating anything that comes in its way.
 Structural damages: Lava flowing down at such a high temperature could cause structural damages
 Landslide: As lava flows down, it gets solidified, and, modifies the landscape. However, sometimes a
fresh layer of lava at high temperature could destabilize the earlier solidified layer, and, that layer could
simply slide off – causing a landslide.
 Lack of drinking water and breathable air causes people to migrate from their existing place of living to
other places, thereby causing situations of migration, refugees. Besides, being emotionally distressful,
there are severe kinds of physical stress and strain also associated with migration activities. And then,
the resources at the destination side are also stretched beyond their normal capacity.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
The sulfur dioxide that large volcanic explosions hurl into the stratosphere mixes with water to create sulfuric
acid. If the acid droplets are large enough, they prevent heat from escaping Earth's atmosphere. That results in
higher temperatures, an element of the greenhouse effect.
The carbon dioxide released by volcanic activity is a greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases are responsible for
extreme weather and temperature increases around the world. Among the consequences are health problems,
crop failures and the loss of habitat for animals and plants.
Eruptions might warm the water on the surface of the Pacific Ocean, triggering the El Niño effect, a weather
pattern that brings about torrential rain or heavy snow in some places and drought elsewhere. Acid rain, which
contaminates water sources, is another environmental effect of volcanism.
Eruptions can impair air quality by creating a volcanic fog called "vog," which consists of sulfuric-acid droplets
distributed by trade winds. Volcanic ash and aerosol particles floating in the atmosphere can also be responsible
for a more pleasant phenomenon: colorful sunsets and sunrises.
EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the perceptible shaking of the surface of the Earth,
resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
The earth’s crust is a rocky layer of varying thickness ranging from a depth of about 10 kilometers under the sea
to 65 kilometres under the continents. The crust is not one piece but consists of portions called ‘plates’ which
vary in size from a few hundred to thousands of kilometres.
The ‘theory of plate tectonics’ holds that the plates ride up on the more mobile mantle, and are driven by some
yet unconfirmed mechanisms, perhaps thermal convection currents. When these plates contact each other, stress
arises in the crust.
These stresses can be classified according to the type of movement along the plate’s boundaries:
a) pulling away from each other,
b) pushing against one another and
c) sliding sideways relative to each other.
All these movements are associated with earthquakes.

The areas of stress at plate boundaries which release accumulated energy by slipping or rupturing are known as
'faults'.
The theory of 'elasticity' says that the crust is continuously stressed by the movement of the tectonic plates; it
eventually reaches a point of maximum supportable strain. A rupture then occurs along the fault and the rock
rebounds under its own elastic stresses until the strain is relieved. The fault rupture generates vibration called
seismic (from the Greek 'seismos' meaning shock or earthquake) waves, which radiates from the focus in all
directions.
EARTHQUAKE TERMINOLOGY
The point of rupture is called the 'focus' and may be located near the surface or deep below it. Focus is also
termed as hypocentre.
The point on the surface directly above the focus is termed as the 'epicenter' of the earthquake
The distance between epicentre and focus is called focal depth.
The distance between any point on the surface of the earth and the epicentre is called epicentral distance.
A Fault is a fracture or crack along which two blocks of rock slide past one another. This movement may occur
rapidly, in the form of an earthquake, or slowly, in the form of creep

EARTHQUAKE WAVES
Earthquake vibrations occur in a variety of frequencies and velocities. The actual rupture process may last for a
few seconds to as long as one minute for a major earthquake. The ground shaking is caused by ‘body waves’
and ‘surface wave’.
BODY WAVES
Body waves travels through the interior(body) of earth as they leave the focus. Body waves are further divided
into following types
P waves and S waves
P Waves or Primary waves
Primary Waves (P-Waves) are identical in character to sound waves. They are high frequency, short-wavelength,
longitudinal waves which can pass through both solids and liquids. The ground is forced to move forwards and
backwards as it is compressed and decompressed. This produces relatively small displacements of the ground.
P Waves can be reflected and refracted, and under certain circumstances can change into S-Waves.
S-Waves
Secondary Waves (S-Waves) travel more slowly than P-Waves and arrive at any given point after the P-Waves.
Like P-Waves they are high frequency, short-wavelength waves, but instead of being longitudinal they are
transverse. They move in all directions away from their source, at speeds which depend upon the density of the
rocks through which they are moving. They cannot move through liquids. On the surface of the Earth, S-Waves
are responsible for the sideways displacement of walls and fences, leaving them 'S' shaped.
SURFACE WAVES
Surface waves travels parallel to the earth’s surface and these waves are slowest and most damaging. Surface
wave are divided into following types
L-Waves and R-Waves
L-Waves
Surface Waves (L-Waves) are low frequency transverse vibrations with a long wavelength. They are created
close to the epicentre and can only travel through the outer part of the crust. They are responsible for the majority
of the building damage caused by earthquakes. This is because L Waves have a motion similar to that of waves
in the sea. The ground is made to move in a circular motion, causing it to rise and fall as visible waves move
across the ground. Together with secondary effects such as landslides, fires and tsunami these waves account
for the loss of approximately 10,000 lives and over $100 million per year.
R-Waves
Rayleigh waves (R Waves) undulating wave that travels over the surface of a solid, especially of the ground in
an earthquake, with a speed independent of wavelength, the motion of the particles being in ellipses.
Displacement is perpendicular to love-wave displacement. Rayleigh wave is slower than l waves.

MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes can be described by the use of two distinctively different scales of measurement demonstrating
magnitude and intensity.

Earthquake magnitude or amount of energy released is determined by the use of a seismograph’ which is an
instrument that continuously records ground vibration. The scale was developed by a seismologist named
Charles Richter.
An earthquake with a magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale releases 30 times the energy than one with 6.5
magnitudes. An earthquake of magnitude 3 is the smallest normally felt by humans. The largest earthquake that
has been recorded with this system is 9.25 (Alaska, 1969 and Chile, 1960).
The second type of scale, the earthquake intensity scale measures the effects of an earthquake where it occurs.
The most widely used scale of this type was developed in 1902 by Mercalli an Italian seismologist. The scale
was extended and modified to suit the modern times. It is called the Modified Mercalli Scale, which expresses
the intensity of earthquake effect on people, structure and the earth’s surface in values from I to XII. With an
intensity of VI and below most of the people can feel the shake and there are cracks on the walls, but with an
intensity of XII there is general panic with buildings collapsing totally and there is a total disruption in normal
life.

DISTRIBUTION PATTERN OF EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA

India falls quite prominently on the 'Alpine - Himalayan Belt'. This belt is the line along which the Indian plate
meets the Eurasian plate. This being a convergent plate, the Indian plate is thrusting underneath the Eurasian
plate at a speed of 5 cm per year. The movement gives rise to tremendous stress which keeps accumulating in
the rocks and is released from time to time in the form of earthquakes.
Bureau of Indian Standards, based on the past seismic history, grouped the country into four seismic zones, viz.
Zone-II, -III, -IV and –V. Of these, Zone V is the most seismically active region, while zone II is the least. The
Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity, which measures the impact of the earthquakes on the surface of the earth,
broadly associated with various zones, is as follows
Zone V
Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of intensity IX or greater. The IS
code assigns zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5. Structural designers use this factor for earthquake resistant design
of structures in Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 is indicative of effective (zero period) level earthquake in this
zone. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The region of Kashmir, the western and
central Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar, the North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in this
zone.
Zone IV
This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to VIII. The IS code assigns zone factor
of 0.24 for Zone 4. The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of the country (Delhi), Jammu and Kashmir fall in
Zone 4. In Maharashtra, the Patan area (Koyananager) is also in zone no-4. In Bihar the northern part of the state
like- Raksaul, Near the border of India and Nepal, is also in zone no-4.
Zone III
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall under this zone. This zone is
classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to VII. and also 7.8 The IS code assigns zone factor
of 0.16 for Zone 3.
Zone II
This region is liable to VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns zone
factor of 0.10 (maximum horizontal acceleration that can be experienced by a structure in this zone is 10% of
gravitational acceleration) for Zone 2.

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

(1) Damage to human structures - Earthquakes cause great damage to human structures such as buildings,
roads, rails, factories, dams, bridges etc, and thus cause heavy damage to human property.

(2) Landslides-The shocks produced by earthquakes particularly in hilly areas and mountains which are
tectonically sensitive causes landslides and debris fall on human settlements and transport system on the lower
slope segments, inflicting damage to them.
(3) Fires- The strong vibrations caused by severe earthquakes strongly shake the buildings and thus causing
severe fires in houses, mines and factories because of overturning of cooking gas, contact of live electric wires,
churning of blast furnaces, displacement of other fire related and electric appliances.
(4) Flash Floods- Strong seismic waves cause damage to dams thereby causing severe flash floods. Severe
floods are also caused because of blocking of water flow of rivers due to rock blocks and debris produced by
severe tremors in the hill slopes facing the river valleys. Sometimes the blockage is so severe that rivers change
their main course.
(5) Deformation of Ground surface- severe tremors and resultant vibrations caused by earthquakes result in
the deformation of ground surface because of rise and subsidence of ground surface and faulting
activity(formation of faults).
(6) Tsunamis- The seismic waves caused by earthquake(measuring more than 7 on richter scale) travelling
through sea water generate high sea waves and cause great loss of life and property.

HUMAN ADJUSTMENT, PERCEPTION AND MITIGATION MEASURES

Possible Risk Reduction Measures
Community preparedness: Community preparedness is vital for mitigating earthquake impact. The most
effective way to save you even in a slightest shaking is 'DROP, COVER and HOLD'.
Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and guidelines for safe construction of
buildings against earthquakes. Before the buildings are constructed the building plans have to be checked by the
Municipality, according to the laid down bylaws. Many existing lifeline buildings such as hospitals, schools and
fire stations may not be built with earthquake safety measures. Their earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by
retrofitting techniques.
Public education is educating the public on causes and characteristics of an earthquake and preparedness
measures. It can be created through sensitization and training programme for community, architects, engineers,
builders, masons, teachers, government functionaries teachers and students.
Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and constructed as per the building by laws to withstand
ground shaking. Architectural and engineering inputs need to be put together to improve building design and
construction practices. The soil type needs to be analyzed before construction. Building structures on soft soil
should be avoided. Buildings on soft soil are more likely to get damaged even if the magnitude of the earthquake
is not strong. Similar problems persist in the buildings constructed on the river banks which have alluvial soil.
LANDSLIDE
The term’ landslide’ includes all varieties of mass movements of hill slopes and can be defined as the downward
and outward movement of slope forming materials composed of rocks, soils, artificial fills or combination of all
these materials along surfaces of separation by falling, sliding and flowing, either slowly or quickly from one
place to another.
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDE
There are several causes of landslide. Some of the major causes are as follows:
1. Geological Weak material: Weakness in the composition and structure of rock or soil may also cause
landslides.
2. Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to cutting down of vegetation, construction of roads might increase the
vulnerability of the terrain to slide down.
3. Intense rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall for periods as short as several hours or have a more
moderate intensity lasting several days have triggered abundant landslides. Heavy melting of snow in the hilly
terrains also results in landslide.
4. Human Excavation of slope and its toe, loading of slope/toe, draw down in reservoir, mining, deforestation,
irrigation, vibration/blast, Water leakage from services.
5. Earthquake shaking has triggered landslides in many different topographic and geologic settings. Rock falls,
soil slides and rockslides from steep slopes involving relatively thin or shallow dis-aggregated soils or rock, or
both have been the most abundant types of landslides triggered by historical earthquakes.
6. Volcanic eruption Deposition of loose volcanic ash on hillsides commonly is followed by accelerated erosion
and frequent mud or debris flows triggered by intense rainfall.
TYPE OF LANDSLIDES
The common types of landslides are described below.
Falls: Abrupt movements of materials that become detached from steep slopes or cliffs, moving by free-fall,
bouncing, and rolling.
Flows: General term including many types of mass movement, such as debris flow, debris avalanche, lahar, and
mudflow.
Creep: Slow, steady downslope movement of soil or rock, often indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or
retaining walls, tilted poles or fences.
Debris flow Rapid mass movement in which loose soils, rocks, and organic matter combine with entrained air
and water to form slurry that then flows down slope, usually associated with steep gullies.
Debris avalanche A variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.
Lahar Mudflow or debris flow that originates on the slope of a volcano, usually triggered by heavy rainfall
eroding volcanic deposits, sudden melting of snow and ice due to heat from volcanic vents, or the breakout of
water from glaciers, crater lakes or lakes dammed by volcanic eruptions
Mudflow Rapidly flowing mass of wet material that contains at least 50 per cent sand, silt, and clay-sized
particles.
Lateral spreads Often occur on very gentle slopes and result in nearly horizontal movement of earth materials.
Lateral spreads usually are caused by liquefaction, where saturated sediments (usually sands and silts) are
transformed from a solid into a liquefied state, usually triggered by an earthquake.
Slides Many types of mass movement are included in the general term “landslide.” The two major types of
landslides are rotational slides and translational landslides.
Topple A block of rock that tilts or rotates forward and falls, bounces, or rolls down the slope.
EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES
Landslides are a major catastrophe the world as it is widespread and significant impact, including Malaysia. The
effects of catastrophic landslides is dangerous to humans and to other living things
For example, the slope of the saturated with water to form debris flows or mud flows. Concentrated mixture of
rock and mud may destroy the trees, houses, and cars and blocking the bridge. Mud mixed with river flow can
cause devastating flooding along the route.
Similarly, the ice floes formed in the river caused by ice clogging the rivers and flows more slowly. However,
it can produce enough energy to destroy the bridge. Ice may accumulate on the edge or on top of weak layers of
snow or unstable causes crash occurred.
Pyroclastic flows (pyroclastic) arising from dust debris of ash, poisonous gas and hot rock from volcanic
eruptions that spread quickly to eat anything that traveled to the effects of destruction and death.

Among the social effects that can be described as:

1. Economic Decline
Landslides are certainly cause damage to property. This brings losses to the economy of a country. Economic
rehabilitation is also needed in the area that has experienced a landslide. This would cost a lot and some of the
offending country economy.
Example:
1. A average, these landslides caused loss of $ 1-2 billion U.S. dollars and 25 disaster in the United
States each year.
2. At Utah, U.S., in 1983, the total cost to repair the landslide area of 500 million dollars and it is
financing the cost of the most expensive landslide in U.S. history
3. Loss due to landslides in the United States is estimated at 1.5 billion dollars annually.
4. Earthquake the earth Loma Prieta in October 1989 caused thousands of landslides covering an area
of 5400 square feet. Causing losses of at least $ 10 million dollars.

2. Damage To Infrastructure.
Landslides can lead to damage to property resulting from the force flow or mud.Infrastructure land such as
buildings, roads, places of leisure and so on can be destroyed by the landslide occurred.
Example:
1. Destruction a building and placement.
2. Land massive collapse can cause the destruction of a city.
3. Damage to roads
4. Affect communication system of roads and communication systems.
Loma prieta
5. Earthquake the earth in October 1989 resulted in tens of thousands of experienced landslides with an
area up to 5400 square feet. Cause affected road communication system, property damage and
destruction of homes.
6. At Alpine Valley, as a result of the City causing damage to the bridge flows as a result of the power
flow.
7. Slip Estate Park Hill View occur on 20 Nov 2002 destroyed a bungalow.
8. May 15, 1999, thousands of residents in housing estates and the International Bukit Wangsa Ukay in
Jalan Hulu Klang trapped when a landslide occurred in the 100 meter event 5:20 am that closed the
only road out into the neighborhood

3. Loss Of Life.
Loss of life is a dangerous effect upon the occurrence of a landslide and it is difficult to avoid. Many lives will
be lost upon the occurrence of landslides

Example:
1. Landslide Estate Park Hill View occur on 20 November 2002 destroyed a house killing eight
bungalows and family life.
2. Landslide in Highland Tower, Ulu Kelang cause of 48 people were killed and many injured.
3. Landslide in Wales in the UK involves the rotation of the fine debris that occurs on hill slopes have
been destroys a school causing 144 people were killed, including 116 school children involved, aged 7
to 10 years.

4. Changes In The Surface Landscape.

Landslide causes significant changes in the landscape of the earth's surface. Pile of soil and mud from the
landslide activity caused the high ground may be flat and settling sediment can become thick very quickly.
Consequently, dam rivers or lakes become more shallow to hold a lot of water. Water level becomes higher
and the ground becomes waterlogged areas.
Landslides can also cause soil or rock slope becomes increasingly steep and unstable.
POSSIBLE RISK REDUCTION MEASURES
Hazard mapping locates areas prone to slope failures. This will help to avoid building settlements in such
areas. These maps will also serve as a tool for mitigation planning.
Land use practices such as:
1. Areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in upper slopes are to be afforested with suitable species.
Existing patches of natural vegetation (forest and natural grass land) in good condition, should be preserved
2. Any developmental activity initiated in the area should be taken up only after a detailed study of the region
has been carried out.
3. In construction of roads, irrigation canals etc. proper care is to be taken to avoid blockage of natural
drainage
4. Total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone should be made mandatory.
5. Relocate settlements and infrastructure that fall in the possible path of the landslide
6. No construction of buildings in areas beyond a certain degree of slope
Construction of Retaining Walls:
Retaining walls can be built to stop land from slipping (these walls are commonly seen along roads in hill
stations). These are constructed to prevent smaller sized and secondary landslides that often occur along the
toe portion of the larger landslides.
Surface Drainage Control Works:
The surface drainage control works are implemented to control the movement of landslides accompanied by
infiltration of rainwater and spring flows.
Engineered structures with strong foundations can withstand or take the ground movement forces.
Underground installations (pipes, cables, etc.) should be made flexible to move in order to withstand forces
caused by the landslide
Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and most effective way of arresting landslides. This helps to bind
the top layer of the soil with layers below, while preventing excessive run-off and soil erosion.
Insurance will assist individuals whose homes are likely to be damaged by landslides or by any other natural
hazards.