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CULTURE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE In this chapter we explore the role of culture in en. teaching in exms oF the cultural content of teaching materials and in reference co the use of in specific dicourse communities. In the case of teaching materials, we focus on what cultural information is taught in eu classrooms: inthe cxse of discourse communities, we focus on the way in which sociocultual prictioes influence hv texts are developed and used, “The use of cultural content in #1. tesching is problematic in light ofthe assumptions that were made in Chapter I tegarding the characteristics of an international language. Inthe case of English, these are that: 1 Asi isan international language, the use of English is no longer con- nected tothe culture of Inner Circe counties, 2 One of the primary functions of English, as is the case with any iner- national language, isto enable speakers to share thei ideas and clues 1 will argue that one of the primary reasons for dealing with culeural ‘content in #1. teaching i beease the use of i involves crossing bordes, both literally and figuratively, as individuals interac in cross-culeral encounters. The chapter begins by considering the role of culture in language teaching materials. In this section I emphasize that culture learning isa social process and chat, in reference to att, understanding one's ‘own culture in relation to thar of others is paramount. We then explore ‘various rationales forthe inclusion of culture lesring in the language classroom, including the idea of culture as motivating content. This is followed by an examination of whose culture shouldbe included in an st classroom, Here, we examine the benefits and disadvantages cha aise from using culural content from the local culture, a target culture, cra sore general international cultuse. Various strategies chat can be used ro promote a reflective approach to culeue are then suggested. The final fection ofthe chapter examines how the discourse of various communiies is informed by specific caleural values that cut across che primary cultures oF etnicity and geography. Mckay, §.L 2002. Teahiny English as an international Language. NY: Oxtord University Press Calsre in teaching Englch as an international language The role of culture in language teaching CCuleure in language teaching has taditionlly involved proving culsual information. Such information typically includes at least one of the following dimensions of culeure discussed by Adaskou, Britten, and Fahsi (1990): the aesthetic sense’ in which the literature, film, and music of ‘anges language country ae examined: the sociological sense’ in which the ‘customs and institutions of this county are explained; ‘the semantic sense In which how a culture’ conceptual system is embodied in languages investigated; and ‘the pragmatic sense’ in which how cultural norms influence what language is appropriate for which contexts is eamined “Two major problems exist with this approach co culture in ration wo the teaching of srt. Fist, as was pointed out in the introduction to this chapter it cannot be assumed that the culeure of any ore particular Country, expecially an Inner Circle county, should provide the basis: ‘ulcutal content when teaching sit. Second, ifone of the gals of using Cultuce in ett. teaching isto help individuals interact in coss-cultural, tencounters, then merely knowing about a culture will not be sufficient co ‘gain insight ino how ro interact in these encounters. In onder for this to ‘occur, learners need to eflect on how such information might affect their interaction, But how can this kind of reflection be encouraged in an Et classroom? In otder to answer this question, itis helpful to consider how ‘cultural information ie acquired outside of clasroom and bow this type ‘of cultural learning might be encouraged wichin it Spradley (1980), «noted ethnographer, maintains that elke involves thre fundamental pet of human experience what pape do ural behav, whe people now (ral knowledge), and what hings people take and use (cultured aria). He argues tha ndvicual aequie Tnowladge abou thse ariou aopects of culture by ineracing with one other freample they have meaning for things they eeu, ut ‘hove meanings may be modified as they ners with others, Cre then inthe lnowledge thax people have learned ar members of + our (pre 1980: 1 culture outside of the classroom is acquited by means of individuals ‘erecting with one another, how cana classtoom become a extension of | this proces and students be encouraged to reflect on and pechaps modify the meaning they have for things they encounter? Two goals discussed by Kramsch (1993) regarding culture in language teaching are particularly relevant here. 1 Establishing a ‘sphere of incerclturalit’ thie line of thoughe promores the idea thar the learning of culture is more than just the transfer of information berween cultures. Racher learning about a culture requires, Galare in tcaching Engh can international language that an individual conser hie or her own culture in relation to nother, Hence, the proces of learning abou undies culate eal reflection on one’s own clue as well asthe target culture 2 Teaching culeure ae difference: his notion of cultre highlights che fact that national identities are not monolithic. Within each culture thee xs a vatety of national characteristics chat are related to age, gender, ‘gional origin, ethnic background, and social cas. Lec us conser how bh of tee goal ae valuable in aproaching caltre in am eaching Since, a was aged in Chaper 1, one a the major reasons focusing ati to enable speakers co share thelr ideas and culure with ‘others in cos-calral encounters iis beneiia for learners ro be asked to refer on thei own clr in rein wo others, o as Kramach puts to eatablsh a sphere of itercalarality. This requires two eseatlses, Fiat leaners need to acqute knowledge about another culture and then they need orl on how their own cute contrasts wit it In acquiring inowiedge about and reflecting on another clare, ke Spradcy (19801 would argue for the importance of not assuming that the meaning tcl cultural behavior bas fr che members of one group ithe sane sith for others. Spradley argues that in erying to understand another Culture, one of fet things an individual mus doi to put aside what ve ‘ern ‘naive reais, he tes that al people define the eal word in prety rch the same way, that lve, worship, food, death, and soon all have Similar meaning for cresyone In ine with his asumpion, one goal hat ‘ould be encouraged when asking studens to feet on anther ‘ilar ie for them eo consider what meaning particular behavior might have for members of dha culture, and not oasume tat it isthe sameas the one they have ‘Teaching culture as difference is also important because of the common use of EI in erose-cultural encounters. Prequenty, the inroduction of ‘cultural conten in language reaching encourages what Atkinson terms a “Teceived view of culate’, thats, view of culture's geographically (and quite often nationally) dieriner entities, at relatively unchanging and Romogencous, and a all-encompassing systems of rues or notms dat substantially determine personal behavior (1999: 626). In using ex in ‘rose-cultural encounters sens eed tobe encouraged not to adope his view but rather to recognize the diversity that exist within all cultures, particularly in the modern era of travel and migration when cultures se fn constant contact. Atkinson argues for 2 middle ground in approaching culture in language teaching in which educators, while recognizing "he important place of shared perspectives and socialized practices inthe lves ‘of human being" (p. 610), nevertheless acknowledge that no cwo people ‘Share exactly the same sx of experience or views ofthe world and here ro ewo people can be said to share exactly the same culture. Later inthe 7 Galure in eaching English at an international language chapter we will explore in detail how these two perspectives establishing 4 sphere of interculturality and teaching culture a difference—can be ‘encouraged in an en. casroom, Learning about another culture does not necesatily mean that one must, accept that culture, Kramsch (1993), for example, argues chat knowing about 2 culture (guning cultural competence) does not mean that ane has an obligation ro behave in accordance with its conventions. Thus, as was noted in the previous chapter, whereas an individual may leatn about pragmatic differences cht exist berween cultures, the gol of art teaching, Should not be for students to accept the standard of Inner Circle ‘countries, bur rather to recognize how paticulas prapunai differences ‘might affect their wn cross-cultural encounters. Byram (1998) makes 2 similar distinction berween knowing about another culture and accepting another culture when he distinguishes what he terms ‘biculturalise and interculturalism’. For Byram, biculcuralism assumes that an individual identifies with and accepts the beliefs, values, and practices ofa particu culture Intercultralism, on the othe hand, assumes a knowledge of rather than acceptance of another culture. In becoming bicultural an individual would sek ro acquire, for example, aculeute's pragmatic rules. Inthe case of interculturalism, on the ocher hand, an individual would sek only to ‘gin knowledge ofthese rules. To acquire an international language, which, as we have argued consistenly, belongs oie were, clearly does not require biculeuralism, Rationales for culture learning Iccan be questioned whether the teaching of culture is necesary tothe ‘caching of an international language such as English, which has become de-nationalized ard no longer belongs to Inner Citcle counties. Indeed, there are those who argue that there is no need to include ete in the teaching of ttt. Gonziler, for example, maintains that inthe teaching ‘of English as an International Auxliary Language (etat), “English is deracinated or uprooted ftom its orignal cultural soi; ony pedal ceisers ‘of science and technology, business and geopolitics are used’ (1995: 58). Central to his argument isthe assumption that teaching FL is nothing ‘more than teaching English for specific purposes (ese). Brutt-Grifle, for ‘one, disputes ths notion, pointing out that ‘when we say that people in the Outer and Expanding Circe are Engish-using, we must amie at least the possibliry thar chey may use English forall the purposes to which a language may 5 put. (Grate Grille 1998: 389) Caleare in reaching English as an international language Hence, che face tha an individual may incially equire Englich to serve a specific purpose does not mean that he ot she is then confined to using English for that purpose. Rather the abilcy co speak the language allows individuals the possibilty of using ito achiew a varity of communicate seals However, even ifone accepts the notion that eis essentially English for ‘pecifie purpoces come people would auc tha cular valucs ae psi it this use ofthe language. Brown (1990), fr example, poins out thar within scientific writing there are many cultural assumptions and presuppositions regarding, for instance, the nature of objectivity, the importance of ‘wuthfulnes in scientific endeavors, and what is appropriate to include or ‘exclude in a sien report Thisis a poine we will examine in more detail lacer in the chapter. If all uses of ti, including English for Specific Purposes (esP), entail some cultural dimension, ie would appear that one cannot avoid the issue of culture in the teaching of English, Indeed, Valdes is one of many who maintains tha iis vitwally imposible to teach a language without teaching cultural content’ (1986: 121). Soifeultare is essential tothe teaching of a language, che question isin what ways iit sssential? ‘One answer to this question, indicated above is tha in order to use Engh fo special purposes, an indvidal needs o acquire the culturally influenced ways of wing particular dicourse This it an important ‘aronalefor including the teaching of calurein an st cattoom, Another ‘atonale, proposed by Brown (1980) is thar cular is neces because “i is teallyan integral part of che interaction becween language and thought. Cultural pacers, customs, and ways of ie are expressed in language: culture-spciic word views are reflected i language’ (p. 43). Brown argues forthe inclusion in euluewaching refered oe the semantic dimension of language, which examines the ways in which language apres scale eoneepal ym ‘The question in relation to suis which particular culturally influenced uses of English do learners need to acquire? As was pointed out in Chapter 3. lexical innovation are accurting in the development af many native ‘ates of English These innovations often provide a means to deste a cultural aspect of lca life, for example the ue of clansmet in Hong Kong for ‘minor wife’ in Thailand. Buc is ie necessary to know these words in order to be considered a user of English? I would argue that ifan intr- national language is one that is de-nationalized, then there ie no season ‘why bilingual users of English need to acquire the localized lexical items of any country other than their own, Lexical items that include cultural knowledge exist on a continuum, Some need to be acquired because oftheir fequent sein international contexts, Galea in teaching English sen international language whereas others are more restcted to use in a particular locality or country. To take the example ofthe United States, readers might come across terms such as The Big Three’ ‘big stick diplomacy’, or yellow journalism all terms tha have emerged ftom the historical and political development of the country. Because of theit local meaning, thee phrases are nor centeal to the lexning of 211. On the other hand, there are terms that have ‘emerged from more general western triditions such a Pandora box, the “Midas touch’ of ‘the good Samaritan’ that are pechaps more relevant to sit, Hence, diffcule question in nt teaching is define the parameters of global as opposed to local lexical knowledge. One principle may be that the more locally used che lexical item, and the lower its frequency the less likly fe will be needed in the use of nL. While some people argue forthe inclusion of culture in language eaching ton the bars that one cannot acquire che language without an under- ‘tanding ofthe culture orculces with which i is associated, others argue for the inclusion of information about specific culures onthe grounds chat caltural content in general is motivating to students. Richards (1995), for cxample, in developing a textbook projec, surveyed Japanese students bout theislfe and interests in order t0 select content that would be ‘motivating for the students. The survey results showed that the students ‘wanted to deal with cultural content and to lesen primatily about the United Sete, followed by Briain and China. More specifically, chey were ‘ott curious about school life in the United States, American food, ‘American music, and American films. However, they were also very interested in Americant opinions of Jpaa. The survey is iteresing in that ieilluseates dha what students, at least these Japanese university students, ‘want to know about most is cultural artifaees—for example food, music, and fms. But ifcopics are presented in terms of information about & specific culture, they da litle to further the type of reflection that is Aecessary in establishing a sphere of incerculeurality so esenil tothe use ofan. Although many people support the inclusion of culture in language teaching onthe grounds tha its motivating, others dispute the value of caltral content inthis regard. Prodromou (1992), for example, surveyed Greek students, mordly young aduls, studying in private language insitues and a Brith Counc! Teaching Cente asco what they believed should be the subjece matter of English lessons. The two most popular topics were the English language’ and science and sociery.The student? {ction 9 culeural contene was mized. Whereas 60 per cone wanted ‘cady British ie and institutions, only about 25 pee cent wanted eo seudy cither American or Greek life and institutions, Prodromou hypothesized that che student’ intrest in Briih life and institutions might be due to 2 belief that if chey knew more about British life, chey would do better in Galeri eacing English asa international language the Brtsh-based Cambridge exam, If thse the case, overall these students did not find learning about culture, either their own or others, very ‘motivating, Prodcomou (1988) maintains that one reat students are not motivated by culture learning isthe way culture is presented in many sur textbooks He maintains that globally designed ceatbooks have continued to be seubboraly Anglo-centc appealing roa world market as chey do, they cannot by definition draw on local varieties of English and have not gone very far in recognizing English as an international language either, What were they about? They were mostly sbout situations which were not only imaginary... but vacuous, empry of fe, Even when the textbooks went technicalour, they were sil marketing a black-and-white cardboard cu-out world (Prodzomou 1988: 76) Prodromou maintains that when students enter the language classroom, ‘they eave their three-dimensional humanity ouside and enter the plastic world of efl textbooks; textbooks where life is safe and innocent, and does not say or do anything. Our modern books are fall of speech acts that don' act, dont mean anything .-- Most textbooks project an Anglo-centrc, male-dominated, middle-class utopia of one kind or another (Prodromou 1988: 79) ‘Thus, he maintains it is understandable why students find litle o ‘motivate them in the foreign language class. He argues that when ‘both ‘he material we use and the way We use it are culturally alienating then, inevitably, the sudents switch of, eet int their inet world, 1 defend their own inter (bid: 80). ‘Adaskou, Britten, and Fahsi (1990) also question the notion that the inclusion of cultural information, specifically that relating tothe earget, culture, i motivating to sudents,in thie cae Moroccan students. Drawing fon interviews with Moroccan teachers, they note that, in general, the teachers believe that including information about the target culture, ‘contributes to seudents’ discontent with theit own material culture by inviting comparisons. The teachers also maincain that there are patterns of ‘bchavior that exis in Britain and Ameria that many Moroccans would prefer chat their young people do not see. Finally, che teachers believe ‘hat student will be more, not less motivated, ro learn English ifthe language is presented in contexts that relate to thei own lives as young adults rather than to set presented in the context of an English-speaking country. 7 88 ude in eaching Engh a an nteratonllnguge ‘These mized findings regarding the motivating influence of cultural content suggest thatthe debate whether of not to include it in the #ur classroom has les © do with whether or not to include culture and more todo with what to include, This is the topic vo which we now turn, Cultural content in language teaching materials (Corsazi an fin (1999) dsinguish thre types of cultural information that ‘an be used in language textbooks and material ~ ‘source culture mater “target cdtare material thar use the culture ofa county where English isspoken a a fist language ~ “intenatomaltrgee clare material that ws a gest varity of ealcures in Englis- and non-Englsh-speaking countries around the worl ‘As we argued atthe beginning of the chapter, culate teaching in nt needs to be more chan supplying information about various cultures if i 0 be heli in using the language for both cross-cultural encounters and sharing insights about one's own culture with others. In order ro develop these uses of rr, students need to be encouraged to reflect on thet own, culture in ration to others asa way of establishing a sphere of inter- culturalty: What cultural content to inchide ie only pare ofthe isue Equally important is how to deal with thi content in a particular context Because att today is taught in such a wide variery of contexts, involving teachers and students ftom various cultural Backgrounds and texibooks tha include information on different cultures, its necesaty to consider hhow these various dynamics can be used to establish a sphere of inter- culturality and contribute co students! use of nit in ceos-celtural that draw on the learner’ own eulzure as Target culture materials ‘igure 4.1 illustrates cwo posible contexts in which information axout a target culture canbe introduced in the teaching of ei. One very common context rodiy, which typically occurs in Expanding Circle counties, is ‘where the teicher and students come from the same culeural background, ‘but the materials wed inthe classroom present cultural information fom a targer culture. This would be the eat, for example, in classroom in ‘Thailand wth a Thai teacher using materials dealing with American culture. Whereas is possible, as noted above, cha content relating tothe targec cule may be motivating ro some students, a more important Calare in teaching Engl as an international language 39 ‘Targee culture “eteock Source Calure ‘Source Culere Target Cutere “shook ‘Target Cueore ‘Source Culere Figure 4.1: Ts contexts in which information about a target culture can be ‘insodueed in an 81 clasroom, ‘concern in elation tothe teaching oft is how such acontert can be used productively ro establish 2 sphere of interculraiy. may be, as suggested earlier, that some ofthe culeurl conten relating tw the target culture, or culcures, is largely ieelevant or uninteresting some of the students, or even presents cultural conics. For example, 2 discusion of garage sales may be irrelevant to students who do not have such sales in cheir own country; shoes placed inside western homes may be ppuzaling to students who come from cultures whete shoes stay outside of "he home. One Korean teacher I worked with told me about his experience ‘using a book published in America with his class in Korea In one ccrise in the book, students were asked <0 look at photographs of various ‘American scenes depicting different periods of history and decide in which decade the picrure was taken. As one might imagine, seudents found the 90 Caleare in teaching English ax an international language tsk exemely dificule. Furthermore ea eache had few eaoure to Atay onto hep his students. This kindof acral could be epecily problematic in euler where the teacher considered to be he main Provider of information. Also, eis dub whether the mater wat felevantin an se context, where che lnguage becomes de- nationalized {nd the educational goals enable eames o communicate water thee ideas and culture. What this Korean teacher did wast ete the opportunity to help seen lerm move abou thes own cular an imporane componeat of easing a sphere of imrelarliy: He tpliced the photograph inthe et with one of vasiuspeidr in Kes {nd then followed the format athe book ths encouraging his tens ‘ore on thio clue ‘A second situation that can arise in using target culeure materials is when ‘the students are from the source culure and the teacher i from the arget culture, 8 might happen with an expatriate teacher workirg in China. The classroom itself can then provide the bass for aeros-cultwal encounter, If the teacher uses the opportunity primarily to give students more information about the target eulesr, ie i gained in establishing «sphere of inereulturalty. A more effective approach to establish sphere of inter. culturalty would be forthe veacher to encourage students to reflect on heir own culture in relation to the target culture and to provide additional information on the target culture when studeats request such information. Source culture materials gure 42 illus contain which he ourc atte maybe wed in anit castoom Inthe fis cathe den ech ad eal sae the source eltur. For example, atexbeok publabed ad sed in Japan with Japanese students and teacher might sk the dens deseo nna Jpaneeevents like the Chidess Day esa nd the Moone Viewing Festival and eradtonal ar like Haikw, Not comedy, and unr puppet shows lel sacha context proves te sunk an opportunity oles more abou heir own cute and lesen he language needed expan thse call coments in agi, bar can contrite to establishing a sphere of interclutlityin which they Consider ther own cults ration to snk’ The eae col explo the mata by ung individu seadns to esc whar pee of hei culture mean othe away of demonstsng te ease at {sts within one clture and promoting a wew of ela diference The eather could ab we material ating to the source altar ways tha encourage students wo consider haw dey would epln clement of ther own creo oes Guerin seaching Engh san ternavonal language Sours Cuttare “eapeok Source Culture ‘Source Culture Source Culeure “extook Target Cau ‘Source Guture Figure 4.2: Contes whieh she source ealere maybe ase ine Et clatvon Source culture texts can also be sed in contexts where the students come from the source culture bu che teacher i from snother culture In such a situation, the teacher, if not familias with some othe eultural topics can ‘become an interested listener, creating an ideal context for exablishing a sphere of interculeraity. The teacher might pose custions tothe students, asking them to explain what meaning a particular culearal element has for ‘them, and share with students his or her personal reaction to the cultural information and behavior prerented inthe text. International target culture materials Figure 4.3 shows two contexts in which intemational target culeure ‘materials epresening many English and non-English speaking countries 2 Gaur in caching English as an international language Imeermationa Culture ‘Target Cuore ‘Source Culere International Culture “exbook Source Caeare ‘Source Culture Figure 43: Tivo contecsin which international ares cleure mig be noed finan a1 elazroom might be used. When both the students and the teacher come frm & culture not represented inthe text, s could occur in both contests, thet it with a teacher from the source culare and with an expatriate eacet, may ofthe same problems discussed in reference to the use ofa target culture ‘could occur. Students may be Uninterested of puzled by the information in the text, and teachers may not have access to additional information needed to explain some ofthe cultural references, This may reultin no ‘one in the clas being able to comment on the culture presented hence the degree of understanding both teacher and students can grin sbout the culture presented in che text wl be limited. ‘Are there any potential benefits fiom using content ftom an international target culture? This depends on whac cultural information is inelded and. Calare in teaching English as an international language 93 hhow it is presented. One value of this kind of material is chat ic can illustrate che diverse contexts in which English i used as an international language. Imagine 2 text in which bilingual users interact with other speakers of English in cros-culeural encounters fora variety of purposes. ‘Such materials could have several benefits. For example, they could ‘exemplify the manner in which English can be used internationally, or they could include examples of lexical, grammatical, and phonological vatation in context. They could also illustrate cross-cultural pragmatics in which bilingual users of English draw on thei own rules of appropriateness They ‘could then provide a bass fr students to gain a fuller understanding of how English today serves a great varery of international pusposes in a broad range of contre, thus encouraging students to tflcton their own local and global uses of ‘The sbove discussion demonstrates that an assessment of whore culture to tse in teaching sit needs tobe made in the context of specific classtooms and the dynamics char exist among the teacher, student, and textbook. In all contexts itis important ro consider how a sphere of intereulturality can be encouraged A reflective approach to cultural content ‘One ofthe fst steps that needs to be taken in approaching che cultural ‘content used in an n1Lclss is to examine in wha ways it might appear ‘unusual to members of another culture. Lee us ake, fr example, a lesson ‘on garage sales that is presented in che context of asking for and giving advice (Hynes and Baichman 1989). The chapet opens withthe following information and instructions. A garage sale is sale of items you no longer want or need. People hhave these sales in their homes, yards, oF garages. I is a way for sellers to make money in theic homes, yazds or garages. Ie isa way for cllers to make money by gen dof oldies. ei as0 a way for buyers wo gee secondhand items, of wed items, cheaply. Look atthe lit below. With a partner decide which items you would want to buy new and which items you woulda’ mind buying secondhand. Write NV or S. Then discuss your answers with your classmates (Hynes and Baichman 1989: 47) ‘Students are then asked to check the following items: a casente recorder, shoes, pots and pans, a mattress, childrens toy, a rocking chai, sheet, blankets and pillows, a clock radio, babies’ clothes, old record, pictures with frames, a tablecloth, jewelry, a toaster, a rug, underwear, a winter con, Calsare in reaching Enlich ax an international language and rools. The chapter then continues with a character named Jani asking another named Roberto whether or not be thinks she should have the sale on Saturday or Sunday, whether or not she should put ana ia the paper or pur signs up inthe neighborhood, and whether of no she should Pat signs inthe front yard or backyard. The unitends by asking seudents {tw think of some advice they need, ask partner for this advice, and then decide whether or no chey would take this advice for tose rom cures in which garages te Bld, he curl information apeas ake innocuous atnoughiesmporiet epee ou tha personal reactions to the value of guage nes woud ey tremendously among member of thee cue, Pr thor fos otk cultures, howeven there may be a good dea at is pusliog Ieee ‘sample this parclr txt wer to be wed in am may he ig be qt unfit the wudnt When houhdld ems esl they ate general sold indoor in he sellers home and buys ofc and make an appoinmen ogo and look xt thm, Ao, me onan sade could be suprsed~and perhaps ofiendas~ bythe eefRagag sed matin dee Banke, ad ence andy pire pened by th sling of pirates wt ames since na tara pte ee 204 pier of aly members pret woul eee dead Sle Arras thee om gn ade concn: hag oe ‘natal o vome students sae infantis uo eaomary tone sea the neighborhood. 7 As was pointed out eater in our dcuson ofthe role of ela in language levming, iti exzeney importante opie he pest dncey tha ess within any alte, Thy within any canroons egies ‘ould no doubr be mixed rexeson the ten dpendng on tensed sade fila with garages both within chiro cosaey a inher counties. Nordea some cultural infomation contaceda the tent might present pint of conf The uewon a whee space right a teacher ae to these material? On posibly ofcoste, nee omit the lesson. Gray (2000, for example, found tak sbon lf ee teaches he surveyed would omit wha they coneted to be clus inappropriate Hyde (1994), one oer hand pus stony agin the dea of cnsonhip- He main tar aber aon mee bet take an anal path in which the clara coment wn cgleay da ‘th denving sent stenton totes om hy and Se ae 4 thor of the age etre, in nde to esa an coma ae diene (p, 301-2) Hyde msinain that petal topereay del explicit wih cul content in theese ofc taciog or Eeghce sine ‘English is stated athe intertce of foreign and nate cafeal ‘acta great een than any oer language Bea ofp a ound she work (303) Galsare in caching English as an international language Fow might che cultural elements inthe leson on garage sales then be dealt with explicitly 0 a to establish a sphere of inteculturality and éevelop ros-cultural awareness? Obviously, his depends toa large exent on the dynamics ofthe particular classroom. If che teacher were fiom a culture that had garage sles, he or she might explain the meaning that they have {or various people in the culture, highlighting the point made eater that there would bea diversy of views. Hence, for some people, garage sales sight bea way to save money, fr some they might be a social activi, for some a diversion, and for others an unpleasant and avoided event Flow- fer because the copic may be largely irrelevant for many anian students, what is the value of dealing with ie? This again depecds on the teacher’ approach. One potentially productive approach would be to ncourage students to consider ther own culture in light ofthis evens, ‘Why do they think garage sales are not common in Iran, and the the household sales that do occur differ significantly both in what items are sod and how they are sold? Under what circumstances do Ieaniam seck advice and whom do they consule In ather words, the text could provide 4 context for students to compare elements of their own culture with another, helping them wo arrive ara beter understanding ofboth cultures, dreitt door wee be oe dota cjperararacneep ne Sue ioieese ee Sone oepiomap cao Suge creat Ween Sanya eee Te Seer etre bey Se is peer Seacoast ee peepee erin incr ouemawet cae Ee poe cha oa racer seston es ccna ee SiS oon acanaberen cei sere na ay a tte iatemtegu rte aamee ‘pin on own culture wo others. Hees itis imporane to afpnneh 8 Galt wcbing Engh es an interatonl language is to consider the following questions in reference to specifi cultural 1 Why is this epic being writen about? 2 How is ths copie being writen about? 3 What other ways of writing about the topic ate thee? (Kress 1985: 7 as cied in Wallace 1992: 123), Lec us take for example, the text on garage sales. If we consider why the topic was written about, the choice of content was perhaps made on the basis of seudene interest in 2 typical American event. Howerer, the ‘materials also havea clear language agenda, The context provides « bars for introducing the vocabulary of various household ebjects and for Practicing expresions of asking for and giving advie. The joxeapoction of lenguage tgenda and cultural contents is feature of many language ‘exes Unfortunately this dual purpose often saul in teachers fresigg fon the language agenda and leaving the cultural content largely us processed, As far asthe cond question, ‘How isthe topic being writen about is ‘concerned, stadens are presented with what appears to bea vrycbjectie account of guage sales. However, this kind of event rellecs a varcty of cultural assumptions, For example, might sugges that people havea varcry of objects tha they to longer want of need, including what for many would be lesunce, (welts a cleck radio, a cassette recorder). Orit might aio suger that there i value in buying items cheaply, and thar people ae wing co Purchase used personal tems like underwear and sheets, For some peogle, {garage sles might provide a way to survive ina society in which goods ate not equally distributed. For others, they might represent thiif and esourefunes. Finally whar other ways of writing about the topic are there? Any presentation ofa copi should explore the vaious meaninga that he evry has fr people nthe culture and encourage rudents to reflect on the vent in reference to theie own culture In order to establish x sphere of ner, culturality, 50 critical o the use of ei, itis eseneal thet the eulseee ‘information pcscuted in a text be processed eeflectively so that learners ‘an explore cultural differences and guin greater insight into ther ove calsure ‘As was suggesed earlier in the chapter, not only isthe choice of the cultural contert ofeach materials imporantin at, bu alo the way in which texts ae developed and used in various domains, In ondee address the lauer role of cultute, we tutn now to an examination of discourse communities and the ute of. for specific purpooen, adr in aching Engh aan international lenge ‘The role of culture in discourse communities Swales (1990) argues persuasively for the ned to separate the notion of speech communities from discourse communities, He tainains thor discourse communities ae different from speech communities ms shes lixeracy‘akes away locality and parochialry’ (1990: 24) since writers ane ‘mor lily than speaker to communicate with member indent lace and react co writings fom the past. Furthermore, whereas in many cases speech communities serve social needs, individuals who join dicoune commutes often do so co achieve functional objectives ioally and mace Jmporanly for our purpotes, speech communities ae

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