HELLENISTIC RULERS

Contents

1 Attalid dynasty 1
1.1 Dynasty of Pergamon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Philetaerus 2
2.1 Early life and career under Lysimachus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Ruler of Pergamon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Eumenes I 5
3.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4 Attalus I 7
4.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 Defeat of the Galatians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 Conquests in Seleucid Asia Minor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.4 First Macedonian War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.5 Introduction of the cult of the Magna Mater to Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.6 Macedonian hostilities of 201 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.7 Second Macedonian War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.8 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

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4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.10.1 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.10.2 Secondary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Eumenes II 15
5.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

6 Attalus II Philadelphus 16
6.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.2 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

7 Attalus III 18
7.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

8 Eumenes III 19
8.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

9 Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 20
9.1 Independence (around 250 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9.2 Overthrow of Diodotus II (230 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
9.3 Seleucid invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
9.4 Geographic expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
9.4.1 Contacts with China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
9.4.2 Contacts with India (250–180) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9.4.3 Expansion into India (after 180 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9.5 Usurpation of Eucratides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9.5.1 Defeats against Parthia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9.6 Nomadic invasions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.6.1 Yuezhi expansion (c. 162 BC-) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.6.2 Scythians (c. 140 BC-) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.6.3 Second Yuezhi expansion (120 BC-) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.7 Main Greco-Bactrian kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.7.1 House of Diodotus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.7.2 House of Euthydemus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.7.3 House of Eucratides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
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9.8 Greek culture in Bactria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

9.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

10 Diodotus I 33
10.1 Independence and prosperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10.2 Conflict with Arsaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
10.3 Coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
10.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
10.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

11 Diodotus II 36
11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

12 Euthydemus I 37
12.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
12.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
12.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

13 Demetrius I of Bactria 39
13.1 Encounter with Antiochus III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
13.2 Invasion of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
13.3 Aftermaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
13.4 Demetrius and Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
13.4.1 Coinage & connection with Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
13.4.2 Greco-Buddhist art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
13.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
13.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
13.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
13.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

14 Euthydemus II 44
14.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
14.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
14.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
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15 Antimachus I 45
15.1 Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
15.2 Coins of Antimachus I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
15.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
15.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
15.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

16 Pantaleon 47
16.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

17 Agathocles of Bactria 48
17.1 Pedigree coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
17.2 Dynast or usurper? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
17.3 Nickel coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
17.4 Bilingual coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
17.4.1 Buddhist coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
17.4.2 Hinduist coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
17.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
17.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
17.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
17.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

18 Demetrius II of India 51
18.1 The enigma of “Demetrius, king of the Indians” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
18.2 Coins of Demetrius II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
18.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
18.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
18.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

19 Eucratides I 53
19.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
19.1.1 Coup d'etat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
19.1.2 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
19.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
19.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
19.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
19.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
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20 Plato of Bactria 56
20.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
20.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

21 Eucratides II 57
21.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
21.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

22 Indo-Greek Kingdom 58
22.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
22.1.1 Preliminary Greek presence in South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
22.1.2 Greek rule in Bactria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
22.1.3 Rise of the Sungas (185 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
22.2 History of the Indo-Greek kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
22.2.1 Nature and quality of the sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
22.2.2 Demetrius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
22.2.3 Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
22.2.4 Later History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
22.3 Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
22.4 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
22.5 Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
22.6 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
22.6.1 Tribute payments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
22.6.2 Trade with China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
22.6.3 Indian Ocean trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
22.7 Armed forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
22.7.1 Military technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
22.7.2 Size of Indo-Greek armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
22.8 Legacy of the Indo-Greeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
22.9 List of the Indo-Greek kings and their territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
22.10Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
22.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
22.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
22.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

23 Apollodotus I 91
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23.1 Ruler of the Indo-Greek kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

23.2 Coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
23.2.1 Bactrian coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
23.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
23.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
23.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
23.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

24 Antimachus II 94
24.1 Coins of Antimachus II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
24.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
24.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
24.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

25 Menander I 96
25.1 Indo-Greek ruler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
25.2 Menander and Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
25.2.1 The Milinda Panha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
25.2.2 Other Indian accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
25.3 Coins of Menander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
25.4 Menander II, a separate Buddhist ruler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
25.5 Menander’s death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
25.5.1 Theories of Menander’s successors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
25.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
25.6.1 Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
25.6.2 Representation of the Buddha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
25.6.3 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
25.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
25.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
25.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
25.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

26 Zoilos I 106
26.1 Time of reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
26.2 Coin types of Zoilos I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
26.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
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26.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

26.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
26.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

27 Agathokleia 108
27.1 Date and genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
27.2 Coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
27.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
27.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
27.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

28 Lysias Anicetus 110

28.1 Time of reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
28.2 Coin types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
28.3 “Mule coins” (overstrikes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
28.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
28.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
28.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

29 Strato I 112
29.1 Date and genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
29.2 Events during his reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
29.3 Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
29.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
29.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
29.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
29.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

30 Antialcidas 115
30.1 Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
30.2 The Heliodorus inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
30.3 Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
30.4 “Mule coins” (overstrikes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
30.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
30.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

31 Heliokles II 118
viii CONTENTS

31.1 Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

31.2 Coins of Heliocles II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31.3 Overstrikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

32 Polyxenos Epiphanes Soter 120

32.1 Time of reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
32.2 Coins of Polyxenos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
32.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
32.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

33 Demetrios III 121

33.1 Controversy about time of reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
33.2 Possible dynastic context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
33.3 Coins of Demetrius III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
33.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
33.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

34 Philoxenus Anicetus 123

34.1 Coins of Philoxenos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
34.2 Overstrikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
34.3 Other coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
34.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
34.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
34.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

35 Diomedes Soter 125

35.1 Time of reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
35.2 Coins of Diomedes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
35.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
35.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
35.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

36 Amyntas Nikator 126

36.1 Time of reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
CONTENTS ix

36.2 Coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

36.3 Overstrikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
36.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
36.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
36.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
36.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

37 Epander 128
37.1 Time of reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
37.2 Coins of Epander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
37.3 Overstrikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
37.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
37.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
37.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

38 Theophilos (king) 129

38.1 Time of reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
38.2 Coins of Theophilos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
38.3 A Bactrian king Theophilos? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
38.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
38.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
38.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

39 Peukolaos 131
39.1 Coins of Peucolaos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
39.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
39.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

40 Thraso 132
40.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
40.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

41 Nicias (Indo-Greek king) 133

41.1 Time of reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
41.2 The coinage of Nicias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
41.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
41.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
x CONTENTS

41.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

42 Menander II 135
42.1 Time of reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
42.2 Relations to other kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
42.3 Coins of Menander II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
42.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
42.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

43 Artemidoros 137
43.1 A son of Maues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
43.2 Time of rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
43.3 Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
43.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
43.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
43.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

44 Hermaeus 139
44.1 Coins of Hermaeus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
44.2 Contacts with China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
44.3 Biblical connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
44.4 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
44.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
44.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
44.7 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
44.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

45 Archebius 142
45.1 Coin types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
45.2 Overstrikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
45.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
45.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

46 Apollodotus II 143
46.1 Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
46.2 Coins of Apollodotus II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
46.3 Overstrikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
CONTENTS xi

46.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

46.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

47 Hippostratos 145
47.1 Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
47.2 Coins of Hippostratos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
47.3 Overstrikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
47.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
47.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
47.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

48 Dionysios Soter 147

48.1 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
48.2 Coins of Dionysios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
48.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
48.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
48.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

49 Zoilos II 149
49.1 Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
49.2 Coins of Zoilus II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
49.3 Monograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
49.4 Findplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
49.5 Overstrikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
49.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
49.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
49.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

50 Apollophanes 151
50.1 Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
50.2 Coins of Apollophanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
50.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
50.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
50.5 Apollophanes the dramatist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

51 Strato II and III 152

51.1 Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
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51.2 Coins of Strato II, III and Strato Dikaios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

51.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
51.4 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
51.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
51.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

52 List of rulers of Bithynia 154

52.1 Dynasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
52.2 Kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
52.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

53 Bas of Bithynia 155

53.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

54 Zipoetes I of Bithynia 156

54.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
54.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

55 Nicomedes I of Bithynia 157

55.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
55.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
55.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

56 Zipoetes II of Bithynia 159

56.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
56.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

57 Etazeta of Bithynia 160

57.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

58 Ziaelas of Bithynia 161

58.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
58.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

59 Prusias I of Bithynia 162

59.1 Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

60 Prusias II of Bithynia 163

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61 Nicomedes II of Bithynia 164

61.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

62 Nicomedes III of Bithynia 165

62.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
62.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

63 Nicomedes IV of Bithynia 166

63.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
63.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

64 Socrates Chrestus 168

64.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
64.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

65 List of kings of Pontus 170

65.1 Kings of Pontus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

66 Mithridates I of Pontus 171

66.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
66.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

67 Ariobarzanes of Pontus 173

67.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
67.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

68 Mithridates II of Pontus 174

68.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
68.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

69 Mithridates III of Pontus 175

69.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
69.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
69.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

70 Pharnaces I of Pontus 176

70.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
70.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
70.3 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
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71 Mithridates IV of Pontus 178

71.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
71.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
71.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

72 Mithridates V of Pontus 180

72.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
72.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
72.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

73 Mithridates VI of Pontus 182

73.1 Ancestry, family and early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
73.2 Early reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
73.3 Mithridatic Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
73.4 Assassination conspiracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
73.5 Propaganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
73.6 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
73.7 Mithridates’ antidote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
73.8 Mithridates as polyglot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
73.9 Wives, mistresses and children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
73.10Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
73.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
73.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
73.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
73.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

74 Pharnaces II of Pontus 190

74.1 Coup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
74.2 War with Gaius Julius Caesar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
74.3 Coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
74.4 Marriage, issue and succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
74.5 Pharnaces II in opera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
74.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
74.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
74.8 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
74.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
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75 Darius of Pontus 193

75.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
75.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

76 Arsaces of Pontus 194

76.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
76.2 Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

77 Polemon I of Pontus 195

77.1 Life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
77.2 Marriage and succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
77.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
77.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
77.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
77.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

78 Pythodorida of Pontus 197

78.1 Origins & Early Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
78.2 Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
78.3 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
78.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
78.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
78.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

79 Polemon II of Pontus 199

79.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
79.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
79.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

80 List of rulers of Commagene 201

80.1 Satraps of Commagene, 290–163 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
80.2 Kings of Commagene, 163 BC – 72 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
80.3 Descendants of Commagene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
80.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

81 Ptolemaeus of Commagene 202

81.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
81.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
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82 Sames II Theosebes Dikaios 203

82.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
82.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

83 Mithridates I Callinicus 204

83.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
83.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
83.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

84 Antiochus I Theos of Commagene 205

84.1 Family, Ancestry and Early Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
84.2 Relations with the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
84.3 Mount Nemrut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
84.4 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
84.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
84.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
84.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
84.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

85 Mithridates II of Commagene 208

85.1 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
85.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
85.3 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

86 Antiochus II of Commagene 209

86.1 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
86.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

87 Mithridates III of Commagene 210

87.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
87.2 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
87.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
87.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

88 Antiochus III of Commagene 211

88.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
88.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
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89 Antiochus IV of Commagene 212

89.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
89.2 Coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
89.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
89.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
89.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
89.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

90 List of rulers of Cappadocia 214

90.1 Datamid Satraps of Cappadocia, c. 380–331 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
90.2 Ariarathid Kings of Cappadocia, 331 BC–17 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

91 Ariarathes I of Cappadocia 215

91.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
91.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

92 Ariarathes II of Cappadocia 216

92.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
92.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

93 Ariamnes of Cappadocia 217

93.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
93.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

94 Ariarathes III of Cappadocia 218

94.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
94.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

95 Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia 219

95.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
95.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
95.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

96 Ariarathes V of Cappadocia 221

96.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
96.2 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
96.3 Marriage and succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
96.4 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
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96.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

96.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

97 Orophernes of Cappadocia 223

97.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
97.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

98 Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia 225

98.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
98.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

99 Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia 227

99.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

100Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia 228

100.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
100.2Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

101Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia 229

101.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

102Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia 230

102.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

103Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia 231

103.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

104Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia 232

104.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

105Ariarathes X of Cappadocia 233

105.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

106Archelaus of Cappadocia 234

106.1Family and early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
106.2Glaphyra, Mark Antony and accession to the throne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
106.3Reign as king . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
106.4Tiberius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
106.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
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106.6References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
106.7Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
106.8External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

107Bosporan Kingdom 238

107.1Early Greek colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
107.2Geography of the Bosporan Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
107.3Kings of Cimmerian Bosporan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
107.3.1 Archaeanactidae dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
107.3.2 Spartocid dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
107.3.3 Mithridates VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
107.4Roman client kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
107.5Byzantine period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
107.6Coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
107.7See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
107.8References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
107.9Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
107.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

108Asander (Bosporan king) 244

108.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
108.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
108.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

109Dynamis (Bosporan queen) 246

109.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
109.2Character, Honors and Allegiances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
109.3See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
109.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
109.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
109.6Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

110Mithridates I of the Bosporus 249

110.1Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
110.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

111Tiberius Julius Aspurgus 250

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111.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

111.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
111.3External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
111.4Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

112Tiberius Julius Mithridates 252

112.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
112.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
112.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

113Gepaepyris 254
113.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
113.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
113.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

114Tiberius Julius Cotys I 256

114.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
114.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
114.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

115Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis I 258

115.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
115.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
115.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

116Eunice (Bosporan queen) 260

116.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
116.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
116.3External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
116.4Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

117Tiberius Julius Sauromates I 262

117.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
117.2Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
117.3External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

118Tiberius Julius Cotys II 264

118.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
CONTENTS xxi

118.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

118.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

119Tiberius Julius Rhoemetalces 265

119.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
119.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
119.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

120Tiberius Julius Eupator 267

120.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
120.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
120.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

121Tiberius Julius Sauromates II 269

121.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
121.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
121.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

122Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis II 271

122.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
122.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
122.3External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

123Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis III 272

123.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
123.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
123.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

124Tiberius Julius Cotys III 273

124.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
124.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
124.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

125Tiberius Julius Sauromates III 274

125.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
125.2Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
125.3External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
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126Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis IV 275

126.1Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
126.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

127Tiberius Julius Ininthimeus 276

127.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
127.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
127.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

128Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis V 277

128.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
128.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
128.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

129Tiberius Julius Pharsanzes 278

129.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
129.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
129.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

130Tiberius Julius Synges 279

130.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
130.2Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

131Tiberius Julius Teiranes 280

131.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
131.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
131.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

132Tiberius Julius Sauromates IV 281

132.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
132.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
132.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

133Tiberius Julius Theothorses 282

133.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
133.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
133.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
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134Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis VI 283

134.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
134.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
134.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

135Tiberius Julius Rhadamsades 284

135.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
135.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
135.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

136List of Armenian kings 285

136.1Greater Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
136.1.1 Orontid Kings and Satraps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
136.1.2 Artashesian (Artaxiad) Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
136.1.3 Roman and Parthian non-dynastic candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
136.1.4 Arshakuni (Arsacid) Kings of Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
136.1.5 Marzpanate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
136.1.6 Presiding Princes of Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
136.1.7 Bagratuni Kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
136.2Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
136.2.1 Lords/Princes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
136.2.2 Kings and Queens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
136.2.3 Claimants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
136.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
136.4See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

137Orontid Dynasty 289

137.1Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
137.2Orontids Kings and satraps of Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
137.3Orontids of Commagene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
137.4Orontid Kings in Armenian tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
137.5Kings and Satraps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
137.5.1 Orontid Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
137.6Orontid Kings of Commagene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
137.7See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
137.8Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
xxiv CONTENTS

137.9Additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

137.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

138Orontes I 293
138.1Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
138.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

139Orontes II 295
139.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

140Mithrenes 296
140.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
140.2Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

141Orontes III 297

141.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

142Sames of Commagene 298

142.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
142.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

143Arsames I 299
143.1Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
143.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
143.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

144Charaspes 300

145Arsames II 301
145.1External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

146Xerxes of Armenia 302

146.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
146.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
146.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

147Abdissares 303
147.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

148Orontes IV 304
CONTENTS xxv

148.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
148.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

149Artaxiad dynasty 305

149.1Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
149.2Consolidation of Armenian lands under Artaxias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
149.3Hellenistic culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
149.4Armenian Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
149.5Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
149.6Artaxiad Kings of Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
149.7Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
149.8See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
149.9Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

150Artaxias I 308
150.1Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
150.2Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
150.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
150.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

151Tigranes I 310
151.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

152Artavasdes I of Armenia 311

152.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

153Tigranes the Great 312

153.1Early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
153.2Alliance with Pontus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
153.3Wars against the Parthians and Seleucids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
153.4Wars against Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
153.5Pompey and the reconciliation with Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
153.6Halley’s comet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
153.7Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
153.8See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
153.9References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
153.9.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
xxvi CONTENTS

153.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

154Artavasdes II of Armenia 317

154.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
154.2Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

155Artaxias II 319
155.1Family Background & Early Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
155.2Kingship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
155.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
155.4Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
155.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

156Tigranes III 321

156.1Family Background & Early Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
156.2Life in Roman Captivity & Rise to the Armenian Kingship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
156.3Armenian Kingship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
156.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
156.5Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
156.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

157Tigranes IV 323
157.1Family Background & Early Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
157.2Kingship of Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
157.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
157.4Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
157.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

158Erato of Armenia 326

158.1Origin of her name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
158.2Family background & early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
158.3Co-rule with Tigranes IV: 10–2 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
158.4Political exile: 2 BC – 6 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
158.5Co-rule from Tigranes V: 6–12 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
158.6Surviving evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
158.7Modern honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
158.8References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
CONTENTS xxvii

158.9Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
158.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

159Ariobarzanes II of Atropatene 330

159.1Family Background & Early Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
159.2Kingship of Media Atropatene & Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
159.3Family & Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
159.4Inscription Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
159.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
159.6Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

160Artavasdes III of Armenia 333

160.1Family Background & Early Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
160.2Kingship of Media Atropatene & Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
160.3Coinage & Inscription Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
160.4Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
160.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
160.6Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

161Tigranes V of Armenia 336

161.1Family & Life in the Herodian Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
161.2King of Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
161.3Life after being King of Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
161.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
161.5Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
161.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
161.7Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
161.7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
161.7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
161.7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Chapter 1

Attalid dynasty

The Attalid dynasty /ˈætəlɨd/ was a Hellenistic dy- 1.2 Genealogy

nasty that ruled the city of Pergamon after the death of
Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the Great. The At-
talid kingdom was the rump state left after the collapse
of the Lysimachian Empire. One of Lysimachus’ offi-
cers, Philetaerus, took control of the city in 282 BC. The
later Attalids were descended from his father, and they
1.3 Notes
expanded the city into a kingdom. Attalus I proclaimed
[1] Shipley (2000) pp. 318-319.
himself King in the 230s BC, following his victories over
the Galatians. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until Attalus
III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic in
133 BC[1] to avoid a likely succession crisis. 1.4 Sources
On the interior of the Pergamon Altar is a frieze depicting
the life of Telephus, son of Herakles, whom the ruling At- • Shipley (2000). The Greek World After Alexander,
talid dynasty associated with its city and utilized to claim 323-30 B.C.
descent from the Olympians. Pergamon, having entered • Hansen, Esther V. (1971). The Attalids of Perga-
the Greek world much later than its counterparts to the mon. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press;
west, could not boast the same divine heritage as older London: Cornell University Press Ltd. ISBN 0-
city-states, and retroactively had to cultivate its place in 8014-0615-3.
Greek mythology.
• Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003) “The Attalids of
Pergamon,” in Andrew Erskine, ed., A Companion
1.1 Dynasty of Pergamon to the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Blackwell: pp.
159–174. ISBN 1-4051-3278-7. text
• Philetaerus (282 BC–263 BC)
• Eumenes I (263 BC–241 BC) 1.5 External links
• Attalus I Soter (241 BC–197 BC)
• Media related to Attalid dynasty at Wikimedia
• Eumenes II (197 BC–159 BC) Commons
• Attalus II Philadelphus (160 BC–138 BC)
• Attalus III (138 BC–133 BC)
• Eumenes III Aristonicus (pretender, 133 BC–129
BC)

1
Chapter 2
Philetaerus
Marble bust of Philetaerus. Roman copy from 1st century AD of Lysimachus, offering himself and the important fortress
the Greek original. Naples National Archaeological Museum.
Philetaerus (/ˌfɪlɨˈtɪərəs/; Ancient Greek: Φιλέταιρος,
Philetairos, ca. 343 BC–263 BC) was the founder of the
Attalid dynasty of Pergamon in Anatolia.[1]
2
2.1 Early life and career under
Lysimachus
He was born in Tieium (Greek: Tieion),[2] a small town
which is situated in the geographical region of Pontus
Euxinus on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia[1] between
Bithynia to the west and Paphlagonia to the east. His fa-
ther Attalus (Greek: Attalos) was Greek[1] (perhaps from
Macedon) and his mother Boa was Paphlagonian.[3]
After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Phile-
taerus became embroiled in the struggle for supremacy,
called the Wars of the Diadochi (diadochi means “suc-
cessors” in Greek) between Alexander’s regional gover-
nors, Antigonus in Phrygia, Lysimachus in Thrace and
Seleucus in Babylonia (among others). Philetaerus served
first under Antigonus. He then shifted his allegiance to
Lysimachus (ruler of Pergamon from 323 BC to 281
BC), who, after Antigonus was killed at the Battle of Ip-
sus in 301 BC, made Philetaerus commander of Perga-
mon, where Lysimachus kept a treasury of nine thousand
talents of silver.[4]
2.2 Ruler of Pergamon
Philetaerus served Lysimachus until 282 BC, when per-
haps because of conflicts involving the court intrigues
of Arsinoë, Lysimachus’ third wife, Philetaerus deserted
of Pergamon, along with its treasury to Seleucus,[5] who
subsequently defeated and killed Lysimachus[6] at the
Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC. Seleucus himself was
killed by Ptolemy Ceraunus, a brother of Arsinoë at
Lysimachia a few months later.[7]
Though nominally under Seleucid control, Philetaerus,
2.3. NOTES 3

acropolis of Pergamon, the temple of Demeter, and the

temple of Athena (Pergamon’s patron deity), and Perga-
mon’s first palace and he added considerably to the city’s
fortifications.[9]
Philetaerus was a eunuch, though scholars differ on the
reason for his castration. Attalus I, the first Attalid king of
Pergamon, explained that when Philetaerus was a baby,
he was brought into a crowd where he was pressed upon
and his testicles were crushed.

“Philetaerus of Tieium, was a eunuch from

boyhood; for it came to pass at a certain burial,
when a spectacle was being given at which
many people were present, that the nurse who
was carrying Philetaerus, still an infant, was
caught in the crowd and pressed so hard that
the child was incapacitated. He was a eunuch,
therefore, but he was well trained and proved
worthy of this trust.”[4]

Philetaerus never married and, since he was a eunuch, had

no children.[10] He adopted his nephew Eumenes I (the
son of Philetaerus’ brother also named Eumenes), who
succeeded him as ruler of Pergamon, upon his death in
263 BC.[11] With the exception of Eumenes II, all future
Attalid rulers depicted the bust of Philetaerus on their
coins, paying tribute to the founder of their dynasty.

2.3 Notes
Coin, dipicting the head of Philetaerus on the obverse and seated
Athena, Greek goddess of war and wisdom, on the reverse, struck
during the reign of Eumenes I (263 BC–241 BC)
especially after the death of Seleucus, had considerable
autonomy and was able with the help of his consider-
able wealth to increase his power and influence beyond
Pergamon. There are numerous records of Philetaerus
as benefactor to neighboring cities and temples, includ-
ing the temples at Delphi and Delos. He also contributed
troops, money and food to the city of Cyzicus for defense
against the invading Gauls. As a result Philetaerus gained
prestige and goodwill for himself and his family.[8]
[1] Renée Dreyfus, Ellen Schraudolph (1996). Pergamon:
The Telephos Frieze from the Great Altar. University of
Texas Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-88401-091-0. “Philetairos
of Tios on the Black Sea, son of a Greek father and a Pa-
phlagonian mother, a high-ranking officer in the army of
King Lysimachos and also his confidant, was the actual
founder of Pergamon.”
[2] Strabo, 12.3.8.
[3] Hansen, p. 15.
[4] Strabo, 13.4.1.
[5] Pausanias, 1.10.3, 4; Strabo, 13.4.1.
[6] Pausanias, 1.10.5.

During his nearly forty year rule, he constructed on the [7] Junianus Justinus, 17.2; Strabo, 13.4.1.
4 CHAPTER 2. PHILETAERUS

[8] For a more detailed account of the benefactions of Phile-

taerus, including sources, see Hansen, pp. 18–19; see also
Strabo, 13.4.1.

[9] Hansen, pp. 17, 18.

[10] Both Strabo, 13.4.1 and Pausanias, 1.8.1 state that he was
a eunuch, according to Strabo, as the result of a childhood
accident.

[11] Strabo, 13.4.2.

2.4 References
• Hansen, Esther V. (1971). The Attalids of Perga-
mon. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press;
London: Cornell University Press Ltd. ISBN 0-
8014-0615-3.
• Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003) “The Attalids of
Pergamon,” in Andrew Erskine, ed., A Companion
to the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Blackwell: pp.
159–174. ISBN 1-4051-3278-7. text
• Junianus Justinus, Epitome of the Philippic History
of Pompeius Trogus, translated, with Footnotes, by
the Rev. John Selby Watson; London: Henry G.
Bohn, York Street, Convent Garden (1853).
• Pausanias, Description of Greece, Books I-II, (Loeb
Classical Library) translated by W. H. S. Jones;
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918)
ISBN 0-674-99104-4.

• Strabo, Geography, (Loeb Classical Library) trans-

lated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts: Harvard University Press; London:
William Heinemann, Ltd. (1924) Books 10-12,
ISBN 0-674-99233-4; Books 13-14, ISBN 0-674-
99246-6.
Chapter 3
Eumenes I
Eumenes I (Greek: Εὐμένης Αʹ) was dynast (ruler) of
the city of Pergamon in Asia Minor from 263 BC until
his death in 241 BC.[1] He was the son of Eumenes, the
brother of Philetaerus, the founder of the Attalid dynasty,
and Satyra, daughter of Poseidonius. As he had no chil-
dren, Philetaerus adopted Eumenes to become his heir.
Although nominally under Seleucid control, Pergamon
under Philetaerus enjoyed considerable autonomy. How-
ever, upon his succession, Eumenes, perhaps with the en-
couragement of Ptolemy II, who was at war with the Se-
leucids, revolted, defeating the Seleucid king Antiochus
I near the Lydian capital of Sardis in 261 BC. He was
thus able to free Pergamon, and greatly increase the ter-
ritories under his control. In his new possessions, he es-
tablished garrison posts in the north at the foot of Mount
Ida called Philetaireia after his adoptive father, and in the
east, northeast of Thyatira near the sources of the river
Lycus, called Attaleia after his grandfather, and he ex-
tended his control south of the river Caïcus to the Gulf of
Cyme as well. Demonstrating his independence, he be-
gan to strike coins with the portrait of Philetaerus, while
his predecessor had still depicted Seleucus I Nicator.
After the revolt from the Seleucids, there are no records
of any further hostilities involving Pergamon during
Eumenes’ rule, even though there continued to be con-
flict between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies, and even
though the Gallatian Gauls were continually plundering
throughout the region. If Eumenes was able to keep Perg-
amon free from the ravages of the Gauls, it was probably
because he paid them tribute.[2]
Although never assuming the title of “king” Eumenes
did exercise all of the powers of one.[3] Imitating other
Hellenistic rulers, a festival in Eumenes’ honour, called
Eumeneia, was instituted in Pergamon.
It is not known whether he had children. A “Philetaerus
5
son of Eumenes” is mentioned in an inscription in the
town of Thespiae; some regard him as Eumenes’ son, who
would then have died before his father’s death in 241.
Eumenes adopted his second cousin, Attalus I, who suc-
ceeded him as ruler of Pergamon.[4]
3.1 Notes
[1] Strabo 13.4.2, says that Eumenes extquotedbl... died af-
ter a reign of twenty-two years.” His reign began with the
death of Philetaerus in 263 BC.
[2] That Pergamon probably paid tribute can be inferred from
Livy 38.16, that the Gauls had extquotedbl... levied trib-
ute on the whole of Asia west of the Taurus, ... such was
the terror of their name and the growth of their numbers
that at last even the kings of Syria did not dare to refuse
the payment of tribute” and that Attalus I, Eumenes suc-
cessor, was the first to refuse to pay such tribute.
[3] Hansen pp. 23-24.
[4] Strabo, 13.4.2, says that he was the cousin of Attalus
I. Pausanias, 1.8.1, probably following Strabo, says the
same. But modern writers have concluded that Strabo had
skipped a generation, see Hansen p. 26.
3.2 References
• Hansen, Esther V. (1971). The Attalids of Perga-
mon. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press;
London: Cornell University Press Ltd. ISBN 0-
8014-0615-3.
• Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003) “The Attalids of
Pergamon,” in Andrew Erskine, ed., A Companion
6 CHAPTER 3. EUMENES I

Coin of Eumenes. Cabinet des Médailles, Paris.

Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University

Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918)
ISBN 0-674-99104-4.
• Strabo, Geography, Books 13-14, (Loeb Classical
Library) translated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press;
London: William Heinemann, Ltd. (1924) ISBN
0-674-99246-6.

Coin struck during the reign of Eumenes I, depicting the head of

Eumenes’ uncle Philetaerus on the obverse and seated Athena,
patron deity of the city of Pergamon, on the reverse. The
writing reads ΦΙΛΕΤΑΙΡΟΥ (philetairou), extquotedbl(coin) of
Philetaerus extquotedbl.

to the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Blackwell: pp.

159–174. ISBN 1-4051-3278-7. text

• Livy, History of Rome, Rev. Canon Roberts (trans-

lator), Ernest Rhys (Ed.); (1905) London: J. M.
Dent & Sons, Ltd.

• Pausanias, Description of Greece, Books I-II, (Loeb

Classical Library) translated by W. H. S. Jones;
Chapter 4

Attalus I

Attalus I (Greek: Ἄτταλος Α΄), surnamed Soter (Greek:
Σωτήρ, “Savior extquotedbl; 269–197 BC)[1] ruled
Pergamon, an Ionian Greek polis (what is now Bergama,
Turkey), first as dynast, later as king, from 241 BC to
197 BC. He was the second cousin and the adoptive son
of Eumenes I,[2] whom he succeeded, and was the first
of the Attalid dynasty to assume the title of king in 238
BC.[3] He was the son of Attalus and his wife Antiochis.
Attalus won an important victory over the Galatians,
newly arrived Celtic tribes from Thrace, who had been,
for more than a generation, plundering and exacting trib-
ute throughout most of Asia Minor without any serious
check. This victory, celebrated by the triumphal monu-
ment at Pergamon (famous for its Dying Gaul) and the
liberation from the Gallic “terror” which it represented,
earned for Attalus the name of “Soter”, and the title
of extquotedblking extquotedbl. A courageous and ca-
pable general and loyal ally of Rome, he played a sig-
nificant role in the first and second Macedonian Wars,
waged against Philip V of Macedon. He conducted nu-
merous naval operations, harassing Macedonian interests
throughout the Aegean, winning honors, collecting spoils,
and gaining for Pergamon possession of the Greek islands
of Aegina during the first war, and Andros during the
second, twice narrowly escaping capture at the hands of
Philip.
Attalus was a protector of the Greek cities of Anatolia[4]
and viewed himself as the champion of Greeks against
barbarians.[5] During his reign he established Pergamon
as a considerable power in the Greek East.[6] He died in
197 BC, shortly before the end of the second war, at the
age of 72, having suffered an apparent stroke while ad-
dressing a Boeotian war council some months before. He
enjoyed a famously happy domestic life, shared with his
wife and four sons. He was succeeded as king by his son
Eumenes II.
4.1 Early life
Coin struck during the reign of Attalus I, depicting At-
talus’ great uncle, Philetaerus. Reverse shows Greek in-
scription ΦΙΛΕΤΑΙΡΟΥ, extquotedbl(coin) of Philetaerus”, and
Athena.[7]
Little is known about Attalus’ early life. He was born a
Greek,[8] the son of Attalus, and Antiochis.[9] The elder
Attalus was the son of a brother (also called Attalus) of
both Philetaerus, the founder of the Attalid dynasty, and
Eumenes, the father of Eumenes I, Philetaerus’ successor;
he is mentioned, along with his uncles, as a benefactor of
Delphi,[10] won fame as a charioteer, winning at Olympia,
and was honored with a monument at Pergamon.[11]
Attalus was a young child when his father died, sometime
before 241 BC, after which he was adopted by Eumenes
I, the incumbent dynast. Attalus’ mother, Antiochis, was
related to the Seleucid royal family (being a granddaugh-
ter of Seleucus I Nicator) with her marriage to Attalus’ fa-
ther likely arranged by Philetaerus to solidify his power.
This would be consistent with the conjecture that Attalus’
father had been Philetaerus’ heir designate, but was suc-
ceeded by Eumenes, since Attalus I was too young when
his father died.[12]

7
8 CHAPTER 4. ATTALUS I
4.2 Defeat of the Galatians
The Dying Gaul representing the defeat of the Galatians by At-
talus
According to the 2nd century AD Greek writer
Pausanias, “the greatest of his achievements” was the de-
feat of the extquotedblGauls extquotedbl (Γαλάται).[13]
Pausanias was referring to the Galatians, immigrant Celts
from Thrace, who had recently settled in Galatia in cen-
tral Asia Minor, and whom the Romans and Greeks called
Gauls, associating them with the Celts of what is now
France, Switzerland, and northern Italy. Since the time
of Philetaerus, the first Attalid ruler, the Galatians had
posed a problem for Pergamon, indeed for all of Asia Mi-
nor, by exacting tributes to avoid war or other repercus-
sions. Eumenes I had (probably), along with other rulers,
dealt with the Galatians by paying these tributes. Attalus
however refused to pay them, being the first such ruler to
do so.[14] As a consequence, the Galatians set out to at-
tack Pergamon. Attalus met them near the sources of the
river Caïcus[15] and won a decisive victory, after which,
following the example of Antiochus I, Attalus took the
name of Soter, which means “savior”, and claimed the
title of king.[16] The victory brought Attalus legendary
fame. A story arose, related by Pausanias, of an oracle
who had foretold these events a generation earlier:[17]
Then verily, having crossed the narrow strait of
the Hellespont,
The devastating host of the Gauls shall pipe;
and lawlessly
They shall ravage Asia; and much worse shall
God do
To those who dwell by the shores of the sea
For a short while. For right soon the son of
Cronos
Shall raise a helper, the dear son of a bull
reared by Zeus
Who on all the Gauls shall bring a day of de-
struction.
Pausanias adds that by “son of a bull” the oracle “meant
Attalus, king of Pergamon, who was styled bull-horned”.
On the acropolis of Pergamon was erected a triumphal
monument, which included the famous sculpture the
Dying Gaul, commemorating this battle.
4.3 Conquests in Seleucid Asia Mi-
nor
Several years after the first victory over the Gauls, Perg-
amon was again attacked by the Gauls together with their
ally Antiochus Hierax, the younger brother of Seleucus
II Callinicus, and ruler of Seleucid Asia Minor from his
capital at Sardis. Attalus defeated the Gauls and Anti-
ochus at the battle of Aphrodisium and again at a second
battle in the east. Subsequent battles were fought and won
against Antiochus alone: in Hellespontine Phrygia, where
Antiochus was perhaps seeking refuge with his father-in
law, Ziaelas the king of Bithynia; near Sardis in the spring
of 228 BC; and, in the final battle of the campaign, further
south in Caria on the banks of the Harpasus, a tributary
of the Maeander.[18]
As a result of these victories, Attalus gained control over
all of Seleucid Asia Minor north of the Taurus Moun-
tains.[19] He was able to hold onto these gains in the face
of repeated attempts by Seleucus III Ceraunus, eldest
son and successor of Seleucus II, to recover the lost ter-
ritory, culminating in Seleucus III himself crossing the
Taurus, only to be assassinated by members of his army
in 223 BC.[20] Achaeus, who had accompanied Seleucus
III, assumed control of the army. He was offered and
refused the kingship in favor of Seleucus III’s younger
brother Antiochus III the Great, who then made Achaeus
governor of Seleucid Asia Minor north of the Taurus.
Within two years Achaeus had recovered all the lost Se-
leucid territories, “shut up Attalus within the walls of
Pergamon”,[21] and assumed the title of king.[22]
4.5. INTRODUCTION OF THE CULT OF THE MAGNA MATER TO ROME 9

After a period of peace, in 218 BC, while Achaeus was In the following spring (209 BC), Philip marched south
involved in an expedition to Selge south of the Taurus, into Greece. Under command of Pyrrhias, Attalus’ col-
Attalus, with some Thracian Gauls, recaptured his former league as strategos, the allies lost two battles at Lamia.[31]
territories.[23] However Achaeus returned from victory in Attalus himself went to Greece in July and was joined
Selge in 217 BC and resumed hostilities with Attalus.[24] on Aegina by the Roman proconsul P. Sulpicius Galba
Under a treaty of alliance with Attalus, Antiochus crossed who wintered there.[32] The following summer (208 BC)
the Taurus in 216 BC, attacked Achaeus and besieged the combined fleet of thirty-five Pergamene and twenty-
Sardis, and in 214 BC, the second year of the siege, was five Roman ships failed to take Lemnos, but occupied
able to take the city. However the citadel remained un- and plundered the countryside of the island of Peparethos
der Achaeus’ control. Under the pretense of a rescue, (Skopelos), both Macedonian possessions. Attalus and
Achaeus was finally captured and put to death, and the Sulpicius then attended a meeting in Heraclea Trachinia
citadel surrendered. By 213 BC, Antiochus had regained of the Council of the Aetolians, at which the Roman ar-
control of all of his Asiatic provinces.[25] gued against making peace with Philip.[33]
When hostilities resumed, they sacked both Oreus, on
the northern coast of Euboea and Opus, the chief city of
4.4 First Macedonian War eastern Locris. The spoils from Oreus had been reserved
for Sulpicius, who returned there, while Attalus stayed to
collect the spoils from Opus. With their forces divided,
Philip attacked Opus. Attalus, caught by surprise, was
barely able to escape to his ships.[34]
Attalus was now forced to return to Asia, for he had
learned at Opus that, at the instigation of Philip, Prusias I
king of Bithynia, related to Philip by marriage, was mov-
ing against Pergamon. Soon after, the Romans also aban-
doned Greece to concentrate their forces against Hanni-
bal, their objective of preventing Philip from aiding Han-
nibal having been achieved. In 206 BC the Aetolians sued
for peace on conditions imposed by Philip. A treaty was
drawn up at Phoenice in 205 BC, formally ending the
Mediterranean at 218 BC First Macedonian War. Attalus was included as an ad-
scriptus on the side of Rome. He retained Aegina, but
Thwarted in the east, Attalus now turned his attention had accomplished little else. Since Prusias was also in-
westward. Perhaps because of concern for the ambitions cluded in the treaty, the war between Attalus and Prusias
of Philip V of Macedon, Attalus had sometime before must also have ended by that time.[35]
219 BC become allied with Philip’s enemies the Aetolian
League, a union of Greek states in Aetolia in central
Greece, having funded the fortification of Elaeus, an Ae-
tolian stronghold in Calydonia, near the mouth of the 4.5 Introduction of the cult of the
river Acheloos.[26] Magna Mater to Rome
Philip’s alliance with Hannibal of Carthage in 215 BC
also caused concern in Rome, then involved in the Second In 205 BC, following the “Peace of Phoenice”, Rome
Punic War.[27] In 211 BC, a treaty was signed between turned to Attalus, as its only friend in Asia, for help con-
Rome and the Aetolian League, a provision of which al- cerning a religious matter. An unusual number of meteor
lowed for the inclusion of certain allies of the League, showers caused concern in Rome, and an inspection was
Attalus being one of these.[28] Attalus was elected one made of the Sibylline Books, which discovered verses
of the two strategoi (generals) of the Aetolian League,[29] saying that if a foreigner were to make war on Italy, he
and in 210 BC his troops probably participated in captur- could be defeated if the Magna Idaea, the Mother God-
ing the island of Aegina, acquired by Attalus as his base dess, associated with Mount Ida in Phrygia, were brought
of operations in Greece.[30] to Rome. Hoping to bring about a speedy conclusion to
10 CHAPTER 4. ATTALUS I

the war with Hannibal, a distinguished delegation, led by Polybius writes:

M. Valerius Laevinus, was dispatched to Pergamon, to
seek Attalus’ aid. According to Livy, Attalus received the
… in company with the Romans and the
delegation warmly, and “handed over to them the sacred
Athenian magistrates, he began his progress to
stone which the natives declared to be 'the Mother of the
the city in great state. For he was met, not only
Gods’, and bade them carry it to Rome.”[36] In Rome the
[37] by all the magistrates and the knights, but by all
goddess became known as the Magna Mater.
the citizens with their children and wives. And
when the two processions met, the warmth of
the welcome given by the populace to the Ro-
4.6 Macedonian hostilities of 201 mans, and still more to Attalus, could not have
BC been exceeded. At his entrance into the city
by the gate Dipylum the priests and priestesses
lined the street on both sides: all the temples
Prevented by the treaty of Phoenice from expansion in
were then thrown open; victims were placed
the east, Philip set out to extend his power in the Aegean
[38] ready at all the altars; and the king was re-
and in Asia Minor. In the spring of 201 BC he took
quested to offer sacrifice. Finally they voted
Samos and the Egyptian fleet stationed there. He then be-
him such high honors as they had never with-
sieged Chios to the north. These events caused Attalus,
out great hesitation voted to any of their for-
allied with Rhodes, Byzantium and Cyzicus, to enter the
[39] mer benefactors: for, in addition to other com-
war. A large naval battle occurred in the strait between
pliments, they named a tribe after Attalus, and
Chios and the mainland, just southwest of Erythrae. Ac-
classed him among their eponymous heroes.[45]
cording to Polybius, fifty-three decked warships and over
one hundred and fifty smaller warships, took part on the
Macedonian side, with sixty-five decked warships and a Sulpicius Galba, now consul, convinced Rome to declare
number of smaller warships on the allied side.[40] During war on Philip[46] and asked Attalus to meet up with the
the battle Attalus, having become isolated from his fleet Roman fleet and again conduct a naval campaign, ha-
and pursued by Philip, was forced to run his three ships rassing Macedonian possessions in the Aegean.[47] In the
ashore, narrowly escaping by spreading various royal trea- spring of 199 BC, the combined Pergamon and Roman
sures on the decks of the grounded ships, causing his pur- fleets took Andros in the Cyclades, the spoils going to
suers to abandon the pursuit in favor of plunder.[41] the Romans and the island to Attalus. From Andros they
sailed south, made a fruitless attack on another Cycladic
The same year, Philip invaded Pergamon; although un-
island, Kithnos, turned back north, scavenged the fields
able to take the easily defended city, in part due to precau-
of Skiathos off the coast of Magnesia, for food, and con-
tions taken by Attalus to provide for additional fortifica-
tinued north to Mende, where the fleets were wracked by
tions, he demolished the surrounding temples and altars.
storm. On land they were repulsed at Cassandrea, suf-
Meanwhile, Attalus and Rhodes sent envoys to Rome, to
fering heavy loss. They continued northeast along the
register their complaints against Philip.[42]
Macedonian coast to Acanthus, which they sacked, after
which they returned to Euboea, their vessels laden with
spoils.[48] On their return, the two leaders went to Her-
4.7 Second Macedonian War aclea to meet with the Aetolians, who under the terms
of their treaty, had asked Attalus for a thousand soldiers.
In 200 BC, Attalus became involved in the Second Mace- He refused, citing the Aetolians’ own refusal to honor
donian War. Acarnanians with Macedonian support Attalus’ request to attack Macedonia during Philip’s at-
invaded Attica, causing Athens, which had previously tack on Pergamon two years earlier. Resuming opera-
maintained its neutrality, to seek help from the ene- tions, Attalus and the Romans attacked but failed to take
mies of Philip. Attalus, with his fleet at Aegina, re- Oreus and, deciding to leave a small force to invest it,
ceived an embassy from Athens, to come to the city for attacked across the straight in Thessaly. When they re-
consultations.[43] A few days later, he learned that Roman turned to Oreus, they again attacked, this time success-
ambassadors were also at Athens, and decided to go there fully, the Romans taking the captives, Attalus the city.
at once. His reception at Athens was extraordinary.[44] The campaigning season now over, Attalus attended the
4.8. FAMILY
Eleusinian Mysteries and then returned to Pergamon hav-
ing been away for over two years.[49]
In the spring of 198 BC, Attalus returned to Greece with
twenty-three quinqueremes joining a fleet of twenty Rho-
dian decked warships at Andros, to complete the con-
quest of Euboea begun the previous year. Soon joined
by the Romans, the combined fleets took Eretria and later
Carystus. Thus, the allies controlled all of Euboea except
for Chalcis.[50] The allied fleet then sailed for Cenchreae
in preparation for an attack on Corinth. Meanwhile, the
new Roman consul for that year, Titus Quinctius Flamini-
nus, had learned that the Achaean League, allies of Mace-
don, had had a change in leadership which favored Rome.
With the hope of inducing the Achaeans to abandon
Philip and join the allies, envoys were sent, including At-
talus himself, to Sicyon, where they offered the incorpo-
ration of Corinth into the Achaean League. Attalus ap-
parently so impressed the Sicyonians, that they erected a
colossal statue of him in their market place and instituted
sacrifices in his honor. A meeting of the League was con-
vened and after a heated debate and the withdrawal of
some of delegates the rest agreed to join the alliance. At-
talus led his army from Cenchreae (now controlled by the
allies) through the Isthmus and attacked Corinth from the
north, controlling the access to Lechaeum, the Corinthian
port on the Gulf of Corinth, the Romans attacked from
the east controlling the approaches to Cenchreae, with the
Achaeans attacking from the west controlling the access
to the city via the Sicyonian gate. However the city held,
and when Macedonian reinforcements arrived, the siege
was abandoned. The Achaeans were dismissed, the Ro-
mans left for Corcyra, while Attalus sailed for Piraeus.[51]
Early in 197 BC, Flamininus, summoned Attalus to join
him at Elateia (now in Roman hands) and from there they
traveled together to attend a Boeotian council in Thebes
to discuss which side Boeotia would take in the war.[52]
At the council Attalus spoke first, reminding the Boeo-
tians of the many things he and his ancestors had done
for them, but during his address he stopped talking and
collapsed, with one side of his body paralyzed.[53] Attalus
was taken back to Pergamon, where he died around the
time of the Battle of Cynoscephalae, which brought about
the end of the Second Macedonian War.[54]
11
4.8 Family
Attalus married Apollonis, from Cyzicus. They had four
sons, Eumenes, Attalus, Philetaerus and Athenaeus (af-
ter Apollonis’ father).[55] Polybius describes Apollonis as
“a woman who for many reasons deserves to be remem-
bered, and with honor. Her claims upon a favourable rec-
ollection are that, though born of a private family, she be-
came a queen, and retained that exalted rank to the end of
her life, not by the use of meretricious fascinations, but
by the virtue and integrity of her conduct in private and
public life alike. Above all, she was the mother of four
sons with whom she kept on terms of the most perfect af-
fection and motherly love to the last day of her life.”[56]
The filial “affection” of the brothers as well as their up-
bringing is remarked on by several ancient sources. A
decree of Antiochus IV praises “king Attalus and queen
Apollonis … because of their virtue and goodness, which
they preserved for their sons, managing their education
in this way wisely and well.”[57] An inscription at Perga-
mon represents Apollonis as saying that “she always con-
sidered herself blessed and gave thanks to the gods, not
for wealth or empire, but because she saw her three sons
guarding the eldest and him reigning without fear among
those who were armed.”[58] When Attalus died in 197
BC at the age of 72, he was succeeded by his eldest son
Eumenes II. Polybius, describing Attalus’ life says “and
what is more remarkable than all, though he left four
grown-up sons, he so well settled the question of succes-
sion, that the crown was handed down to his children’s
children without a single dispute.”[59]
4.9 Notes
[1] Hansen, p. 26. Livy, 33.21–22, says that Attalus died
in the consulship of Cornelius and Minucius (197 BC) at
the age of 72, having reigned 44 years. Polybius, 18.41,
also says that he died at 72 and reigned 44 years. Strabo,
13.4.2, says that he reigned 43 years.
[2] Strabo, 13.4.2, says that he was the cousin of Eumenes.
Pausanias, 1.8.1, probably following Strabo, says the
same. But modern writers have concluded that Strabo had
skipped a generation; see Hansen, p. 26.
[3] Strabo, 13.4.2; Polybius, 18.41; Hansen, p. 28; Austin, p.
396; Kosmetatou, p. 161.
[4] Grolier, p. 314: “Attalus was both a strong protector of
the Greek cities of Anatolia and an opportunist in trying
12
to expand Pergamum’s territory and power.”
[5] Bradford, p. 121: “Attalus ... commissioned a series
of sculptures that depicted the defeat of the Gauls and
glorified himself as the champion of Greeks against bar-
barians extquotedbl; Wilson, p. 593: “By means of lav-
ish sculpted dedications, Attalus depicted his victories as
important achievements, and himself as the champion of
Greek freedom against a renewed barbarian threat.”
[6] Bradford, p. 121: “Attalus established Pergamum as a
power in the Greek East, but it was to reach its greatest
power and prosperity by its alliance with Rome”
[7] Renée; Schraudolph, p. 107.
[8] Richardson, p. 254: extquotedbl... he was a Greek and
devoted to the Greek culture, ...”.
[9] Strabo, 13.4.2; Hansen, p. 26.
[10] Hansen, p. 19; Austin, p. 400,
[11] Hansen, p. 27.
[12] Hansen, pp. 27–28.
[13] Pausanias, 1.8.1.
[14] Livy, 38.16; Hansen, pp. 28–31.
[15] Hansen, p. 31. An Inscription from the Gaul Monument
located in the Athena Sanctuary on the acropolis at Perg-
amon reads: “King Attalos having conquered in battle the
Tolistoagii Gauls around the springs of the river Kaikos
[set up this] thank-offering to Athena” (source, see also
Austin, p. 405). Such inscriptions are the main source
of information on Attalus’ war with the Galatians, see
Mitchell, p. 21.
[16] Hansen, p. 31; Mitchell, p. 21.
[17] Pausanias, 10.15.3.
[18] Hansen, pp. 34–35; Green, p. 264–265.
[19] Polybius, 4.48; Hansen, p. 36; Kosmetatou, p. 162;
Green, p. 264.
[20] Hansen, p. 36; Green, p. 265.
[21] Polybius, 4.48.
[22] Hansen, p. 39; Green, p. 265.
[23] Polybius, 5.77; Hansen, pp. 41–43. According to Heinen,
p. 432, after the expedition of 218, Attalus’ kingdom was
again the most powerful state in Asia Minor.
[24] Hansen, pp. 42–43.
CHAPTER 4. ATTALUS I
[25] Polybius, 5.107, 7.15–18, 8.17–23; Hansen, p. 43;
Heinen, p. 440.
[26] Polybius, 4.65; Hansen, p. 46; Gruen (1990), p. 29.
[27] Livy, 23.33–34, 38; Hansen, p. 46.
[28] Livy, 26.24; Hansen, p. 47.
[29] Livy, 27.29; Hansen, p. 47.
[30] Polybius, 9.42 and 22.11; Hansen, p. 47; Gruen (1990),
p. 29.
[31] Livy, 27.30; Hansen, p. 47.
[32] Livy, 27.33; Hansen, p. 48.
[33] Livy, 28.5; Polybius, 10.42; Hansen, pp. 48–49.
[34] Livy, 28.5–7; Polybius, 11.7; Hansen, p. 49.
[35] Livy, 29.12; Hansen, p. 49–50; Gruen (1990), p. 29–30.
[36] Livy, 29.10, 11. The poet Ovid (Fasti, IV 326) portrays
Attalus as initially refusing to give up the goddess, only
to relent after “the earth shook” and the goddess herself
spoke, see Erskine, p. 210.
[37] Hansen, pp. 50–52; Gruen (1990), pp. 5–33; Erskine,
pp. 205–224; Kosmetatou, p. 163.
[38] Hansen, p. 52.
[39] Hansen, p. 53; Errington p. 252.
[40] Polybius, 16.2; Hansen; p. 53.
[41] Polybius, 16.6; Hansen, p. 54.
[42] Livy, 31.2; Polybius, 16.1; Hansen, pp. 55–57; Errington,
p. 253–257.
[43] Pausanias, 1.36.5–6; Livy, 31.9, 14; Hansen; p. 57.
[44] Livy, 31.14; Hansen, pp. 58–59; Errington, p. 258; Hur-
wit, pp. 269–271.
[45] Polybius, 16.25.
[46] Livy, 31.5–8; Hansen, pp. 58, 60; Errington, pp. 255,
261.
[47] Livy, 31.28; Hansen, p. 61; Grainger, p. 33.
[48] Livy, 31.45; Hansen, pp. 61–62; Grainger, pp. 33–36.
[49] Livy, 31.46–47; Hansen, p. 62; Warrior, p. 87.
[50] Livy, 32.16,17; Hansen, pp. 63–64.
4.10. REFERENCES
[51] Livy, 32.19–23; Polybius, 18.16; Hansen, p. 64. Gruen
(1986), pp. 179, 181.
[52] Livy, 33.1, Hansen, p. 66.
[53] Livy, 33.2; Hansen, p. 67; Kosmetatou, p. 163. Inscrip-
tions document Pergamene benefactions to the Greeks in
general and the Boeotians in particular, see Hansen, p. 19.
[54] Hansen, p. 67, says he did not die “until the begin-
ning of autumn” citing manumission records dated to Au-
gust or September 197 BC, and speculates that “he may
have heard of the great Roman victory at Cynoscepha-
lae”. However Kosmetatou, p. 163, asserts that he died
“probably shortly before” the battle.
[55] Strabo, 13.4.2; Hansen, pp. 44–45; Hurwit, p. 271.
[56] Polybius, 22.20.
[57] Hansen, p. 45.
[58] Hansen, p. 45; Austin, pp. 370–371.
[59] Polybius, 18.41.
4.10 References
4.10.1 Primary sources
• Livy, History of Rome, Rev. Canon Roberts (trans-
lator), Ernest Rhys (Ed.); (1905) London: J. M.
Dent & Sons, Ltd.
• Pausanias, Description of Greece, Books I–II, (Loeb
Classical Library) translated by W. H. S. Jones;
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918)
ISBN 0-674-99104-4.
• Polybius, Histories, Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (trans-
lator); London, New York. Macmillan (1889);
Reprint Bloomington (1962).
• Strabo, Geography, Books 13–14, translated by Ho-
race Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press; London: William Heine-
mann, Ltd. (1924) ISBN 0-674-99246-6.
13
4.10.2 Secondary sources
• Austin, M.M. (2006). “The Attalids of Pergamum”.
The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman
Conquest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-
521-82860-0.
• Bradford, Alfred S.; Pamela M. Bradford (2001).
With arrow, sword, and spear: a history of warfare
in the ancient world. Greenwood Publishing Group.
p. 121. ISBN 978-0-275-95259-4.
• Errington, R.M. (1993). “Rome against Philip and
Antiochus”. In Walbank, F.W.;Astin, A.E. The
Cambridge Ancient History VII. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press. ISBN 0-521-23448-4.
• Erskine, Andrew (2003). Troy between Greece and
Rome: Local Tradition and Imperial Power. Oxford
University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-926580-0.
• Grainger, John D. (2002). “Approaches”. The Ro-
man War of Antiochus the Great. Brill Publishers.
ISBN 90-04-12840-9.
• Green, Peter (1993). “The Road to Sellasia”.
Alexander to Actium. University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-08349-0.
• Grolier Incorporated (1996). Academic American
Encyclopedia, Volume 15. Grolier Enterprises. p.
314. ISBN 978-0-7172-2060-1.
• Gruen, Erich S. (1986). extquotedblPatrocinium
and Clientela extquotedbl. The Hellenistic World
and the Coming of Rome. University of California
Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05737-1.
• Gruen, Erich S. (1990). “The Advent of the Magna
Mater”. Studies in Greek Culture and Roman Policy.
Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09051-7.
• Hansen, Esther V. (1971). The Attalids of Perga-
mon. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0615-
3.
• Heinen, H. (1984). “The Syrian–Egyptian Wars and
the New Kingdoms of Asia Minor”. In Wallbank;
Frank William. The Cambridge Ancient History V.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23445-
X.
• Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (1999). “The Hellenistic and
Roman Acropolis”. The Athenian Acropolis. CUP
Archive. ISBN 0-521-41786-4.
14 CHAPTER 4. ATTALUS I

• Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003). “The Attalids of

Pergamon”. In Erskine; Andrew. A Companion to
the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 159–
174. ISBN 1-4051-3278-7.
• Mitchell, Stephen (1995). “The Celts in Anatolia”.
Anatolia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
815029-6.

• Richardson, Rufus Byam (1911). A history of Greek

sculpture. American book company. p. 254. OCLC
517364.
• Warrior, Valerie M. (1996). “Events in Eastern
Mediterranean”. The Initiation of the Second Mace-
donian War. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 3-515-
06853-8.
• Wilson, Nigel Guy (2006). Encyclopedia of ancient
Greece. Routledge. p. 593. ISBN 978-0-415-
97334-2.

• Dreyfus, Renée; Schraudolph, Ellen (1996).

“Attalid Silver Coinage of the Attic Weight Stan-
dard”. Pergamon: The Telephos Frieze from the
Great Altar, Volume 2. University of Texas Press.
ISBN 978-0-88401-091-3.
Chapter 5

Eumenes II

ally associated with the creation of parchment, although

it had actually existed for centuries. He also built a stoa
on the Athenian acropolis. Married to Stratonice of Perg-
amon, daughter of Ariarathes IV, King of Cappadocia,
and wife Antiochis, they were the parents of Attalus III.
Since their son was still a minor, the throne was assumed
by his brother Attalus II, who married Eumenes’ widow
Stratonice.

5.1 References
Eumenes II [1] A History of Rome, M. Cary & H.Scullard (1935), p165
ISBN 0-333-27830-5
Eumenes II of Pergamon (Greek: Εὐμένης Βʹ; ruled
197–159 BC) was king of Pergamon and a member of • Hansen, Esther V. (1971). The Attalids of Perga-
the Attalid dynasty. The son of king Attalus I and queen mon. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press;
Apollonis, he followed in his father’s footsteps and col- London: Cornell University Press Ltd. ISBN 0-
laborated with the Romans to oppose first Macedonian, 8014-0615-3.
then Seleucid expansion towards the Aegean, leading to
• Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003) “The Attalids of
the defeat of Antiochus the Great at the Battle of Mag-
Pergamon,” in Andrew Erskine, ed., A Companion
nesia in 190 BC. Following the peace of Apamea in 188
to the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Blackwell: pp.
BC, he received the regions of Phrygia, Lydia, Pisidia,
159–174. ISBN 1-4051-3278-7. text
Pamphylia, and parts of Lycia from his Roman allies, as
they had no desire to actually administer territory in the
Hellenistic east but wished for a strong state in Asia Mi-
nor as a bulwark against any possible Seleucid expansion
in the future. He later fell out of favour with the Romans
after they suspected him of conspiring with Perseus of
Macedon and consequently in 167 BC, the Romans made
an abortive attempt to suborn his brother Attalus II, as a
pretender to the Pergamene throne and refused Eumenes
entry into Italy to plead his case.[1]
One of the great achievements of Eumenes II was the
expansion of the Library at Pergamon, one of the great
libraries of the Ancient World and the place tradition-

15
Chapter 6

Attalus II Philadelphus

6.1 Family

He was the second son of Attalus I Soter and queen

Apollonis,[1] and ascended the throne first as co-ruler
alongside his ailing brother Eumenes II in 160 BC, whose
widow Stratonice of Pergamon he married in 158 BC
upon Eumenes’ death.[2]

6.2 Biography

Prior to becoming King, Attalus was already an accom-

Statue of Attalus II
Attalus II Philadelphus (Greek: Ἄτταλος Β΄ ὁ
Φιλάδελφος, Attalos II Philadelphos, which means “At-
talus the brother-loving extquotedbl; 220–138 BC) was a
King of Pergamon and the founder of modern-day Turk-
ish city Antalya.
plished military commander. In 190 BC, he resisted an
invasion by the Seleucids and the following year (189
BC) led his forces to fight alongside the Roman Army
under Gnaeus Manlius Vulso in Galatia. In 182 BC he
again fought the Seleucids, successfully meeting the army
of Pharnaces I of Pontus. Finally, he assisted the Ro-
mans again in 171 BC, joining Publius Licinius Crassus
in Greece for the Third Macedonian War.
Attalus II also made frequent diplomatic visits to Rome,
and gained the esteem of the Romans. At one point,
they offered him assistance to overthrow his brother, but
he declined. After he became King, they assisted him
in his own battles against Prusias II in 156–154 BC and
sided with him in helping pretender Alexander Balas to
seize the Seleucid throne from Demetrius I in 150 BC and
Nicomedes II Epiphanes seize the Bithynian throne from
his father Prusias II the following year.
Attalus expanded his kingdom with the help of his good
friend Ariarathes V of Cappadocia, and founded the cities
of Philadelphia and Attalia. He was well known as a pa-
tron of the arts and sciences, and was the inventor of a
new kind of embroidery.

16
6.4. REFERENCES 17

In his old age, he relied upon his chief minister, named

Philopoemen (Φιλοποίμην), to help him govern.

6.3 Notes
[1] Polybius, 22.20.

[2] Strabo, 13.4.2; Hansen, pp. 44–45; Hurwit, p. 271.

6.4 References
• Hansen, Esther V. (1971). The Attalids of Perga-
mon. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0615-
3.

• Polybius, Histories, Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (trans-

lator); London, New York. Macmillan (1889);
Reprint Bloomington (1962).
• Strabo, Geography, Books 13–14, translated by Ho-
race Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press; London: William Heine-
mann, Ltd. (1924) ISBN 0-674-99246-6.
Chapter 7

Attalus III

Attalus III (Greek: Ἄτταλος Γ΄) Philometor Euer- • Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003) “The Attalids of
getes (c. 170 BC – 133 BC) was the last Attalid king Pergamon,” in Andrew Erskine, ed., A Companion
of Pergamon, ruling from 138 BC to 133 BC. to the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Blackwell: pp.
He was the son of Eumenes II and wife Stratonice of 159–174. ISBN 1-4051-3278-7. text
Pergamon and the nephew of Attalus II, whom he suc- • Christian Settipani, Les Ancêtres de Charlemagne
ceeded. Married to Berenice (?) (in Greek Βερενίκη), (France: Éditions Christian, 1989).
they were the parents of a daughter, Princess of Perga-
mum (it is assumed that this link is a daughter since At- • Simon Hornblower and Tony Spawforth, Who’s
talus III is noted as dying without leaving heirs), who Who (Classical World), pg. 61.
was the mother of Berenice (?), married to Deiotaros I
Philoromaios, King of Galatia. “Philometor Euergetes”
means “Loving-his-Mother, Benefactor” in Greek. He
was so-called because of his close relationship with his
mother Stratonice.
Attalus III had little interest in ruling Pergamon, devot-
ing his time to studying medicine, botany, gardening, and
other pursuits. He had no male children or heirs of his
own, and in his will he left the kingdom to the Roman
Republic. Tiberius Gracchus requested that the treasury
of Pergamon be opened up to the Roman public, but the
Senate refused this.
Not everyone in Pergamon accepted Rome’s rule.
Aristonicus, who claimed to be Attalus’ brother as well as
the son of Eumenes II, an earlier king, led a revolt among
the lower classes with the help of Blossius. The revolt was
put down in 129 BC, and Pergamon was divided among
Rome, Pontus, and Cappadocia.

7.1 References
• Hansen, Esther V. (1971). The Attalids of Perga-
mon. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press;
London: Cornell University Press Ltd. ISBN 0-
8014-0615-3.

18
Chapter 8

Eumenes III

Eumenes III (Greek: Εὐμένης Γʹ; originally named to the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Blackwell: pp.
Aristonicus, in Greek Aristonikos Ἀριστόνικος) was 159–174. ISBN 1-4051-3278-7. text
the pretender to the throne of Pergamon.
• Robinson, E. S. G. (1954) “Cistophori in the Name
When the Pergamene king, Attalus III (138–133 BC), of King Eumenes,” Numismatic Chronicle 6: pp. 1-
died in 133 BC, he bequeathed his kingdom to the 7.
Romans. Because the Romans were slow in securing their
claim, Aristonicus, who claimed to be the illegitimate
son of the earlier Pergamene king, Eumenes II (197–160
BC), father of Attalus III, filled the power vacuum, claim-
ing the throne and taking the dynastic name Eumenes III.
At first he tried to gain support by promising freedom to
the Greek cities of the coast. When this failed, he sought
support in the interior, promising freedom to both slaves
and serfs. To what extent he was a social revolutionary
or simply a dynastic contender to the throne is uncertain.
He was joined by Blossius of Cumae, the Stoic, who had
been a supporter of Tiberius Gracchus and promised to
found a state called Heliopolis in which all were to be
free. The first army sent against him, in 131 BC, was led
by Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus, who was
killed in battle. However, Eumenes III was defeated and
captured in 129 BC by a Roman force under Marcus Per-
perna, the consul for 130 BC, in the siege of Thyatira.
After his surrender, he was paraded through Rome, then
executed by strangulation.

8.1 References
• Hansen, Esther V. (1971). The Attalids of Perga-
mon. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press;
London: Cornell University Press Ltd. ISBN 0-
8014-0615-3.

• Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003) “The Attalids of

Pergamon,” in Andrew Erskine, ed., A Companion

19
Chapter 9
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was – along with the
Indo-Greek Kingdom – the easternmost part of the
Hellenistic world, covering Bactria and Sogdiana in
Central Asia from 250 to 125 BC. The expansion of the
Greco-Bactrians into northern India from 180 BC estab-
lished the Indo-Greek Kingdom, which was to last until
around AD 10.
9.1 Independence (around 250 BC)
Gold coin of Diodotus c. 245 BC. The Greek inscription reads:
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΟΔΟΤΟΥ – extquotedbl(of) King Diodotus”.
Diodotus, the satrap of Bactria (and probably the sur-
rounding provinces) founded the Greco-Bactrian King-
dom when he seceded from the Seleucid Empire around
250 BC and became King Diodotus I of Bactria. The
preserved ancient sources (see below) are somewhat con-
tradictory, and the exact date of Bactrian independence
has not been settled. Somewhat simplified, there is a
high chronology (c. 255 BC) and a low chronology (c.
246 BC) for Diodotos’ secession.[1] The high chronology
has the advantage of explaining why the Seleucid king
Antiochus II issued very few coins in Bactria, as Diodotos
would have become independent there early in Antiochus’
20
reign.[2] On the other hand, the low chronology, from the
mid-240s BC, has the advantage of connecting the seces-
sion of Diodotus I with the Third Syrian War, a catas-
trophic conflict for the Seleucid Empire.
Diodotus, the governor of the thousand cities
of Bactria (Latin: eodotus, mille urbium
Bactrianarum praefectus), defected and pro-
claimed himself king; all the other people of
the Orient followed his example and seceded
from the Macedonians. (Justin, XLI,4 [3] )
The new kingdom, highly urbanized and considered as
one of the richest of the Orient (opulentissimum illud mille
urbium Bactrianum imperium “The extremely prosperous
Bactrian empire of the thousand cities” Justin, XLI,1 [4] ),
was to further grow in power and engage into territorial
expansion to the east and the west:
The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew
so powerful on account of the fertility of the
country that they became masters, not only of
Ariana, but also of India, as Apollodorus of
Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued
by them than by Alexander... Their cities were
Bactra (also called Zariaspa, through which
flows a river bearing the same name and emp-
tying into the Oxus), and Darapsa, and several
others. Among these was Eucratidia,[5] which
was named after its ruler. (Strabo, XI.XI.I [6] )
In 247 BC, the Ptolemaic empire (the Greek rulers of
Egypt following the death of Alexander the Great) cap-
tured the Selucid capital, Antioch. In the resulting power
vacuum, the satrap of Parthia proclaimed independence
from the Selucids, declaring himself king. A decade
9.3. SELEUCID INVASION 21

Asia in 200 BC, showing the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and its

neighbors.

Diodotus I around 230-220 BC and started his own dy-

nasty. Euthydemus’s control extended to Sogdiana, go-
ing beyond the city of Alexandria Eschate founded by
Alexander the Great in Ferghana:

And they also held Sogdiana, situated above

Bactriana towards the east between the Oxus
Remains of a Hellenistic capital found in Balkh, ancient Bactra.
River, which forms the boundary between the
Bactrians and the Sogdians, and the Iaxartes
River. And the Iaxartes forms also the bound-
later, he was defeated and killed by Arsaces of Parthia, ary between the Sogdians and the nomads.
leading to the rise of a Parthian Empire. This cut Bac- (Strabo XI.11.2)[9]
tria off from contact with the Greek world. Overland
trade continued at a reduced rate, while sea trade between
Greek Egypt and Bactria developed. 9.3 Seleucid invasion
Diodotus was succeeded by his son Diodotus II, who al-
lied himself with the Parthian Arsaces in his fight against
Seleucus II:

Soon after, relieved by the death of Diodotus,

Arsaces made peace and concluded an alliance
with his son, also by the name of Diodotus;
some time later he fought against Seleucos who
came to punish the rebels, and he prevailed:
the Parthians celebrated this day as the one
that marked the beginning of their freedom.
(Justin, XLI,4)[7] Coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus 230–200
BC. The Greek inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΥΘΥΔΗΜΟΥ
– extquotedbl(of) King Euthydemus”.
9.2 Overthrow of Diodotus II (230
Euthydemus was attacked by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus
BC) III around 210 BC. Although he commanded 10,000
horsemen, Euthydemus initially lost a battle on the Arius
Euthydemus, a Magnesian Greek according to Polybius[8] [10] and had to retreat. He then successfully resisted a
and possibly satrap of Sogdiana, overthrew the dynasty of three-year siege in the fortified city of Bactra (modern
22 CHAPTER 9. GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGDOM

Balkh), before Antiochus finally decided to recognize the

new ruler, and to offer one of his daughters to Euthy-
demus’s son Demetrius around 206 BC.[11] Classical ac-
counts also relate that Euthydemus negotiated peace with
Antiochus III by suggesting that he deserved credit for
overthrowing the original rebel Diodotus, and that he was
protecting Central Asia from nomadic invasions thanks to
his defensive efforts:

...for if he did not yield to this demand, neither

of them would be safe: seeing that great hordes
of Nomads were close at hand, who were a dan-
ger to both; and that if they admitted them into
the country, it would certainly be utterly bar-
barised. (Polybius, 11.34 [8] )

9.4 Geographic expansion

Following the departure of the Seleucid army, the Bac-
trian kingdom seems to have expanded. In the west, areas
in north-eastern Iran may have been absorbed, possibly
as far as into Parthia, whose ruler had been defeated by
Antiochus the Great. These territories possibly are iden-
tical with the Bactrian satrapies of Tapuria and Traxiane.

9.4.1 Contacts with China

To the north, Euthydemus also ruled Sogdiana and

Ferghana, and there are indications that from Alexandria
Eschate the Greco-Bactrians may have led expeditions as
far as Kashgar and Ürümqi in Chinese Turkestan, leading
to the first known contacts between China and the West
around 220 BC. The Greek historian Strabo too writes Statuette of a Greek soldier, from a 3rd-century BC burial site
north of the Tian Shan, Urumqi Xinjiang Museum (drawing).
that:

they extended their empire even as far as
the Seres (Chinese) and the Phryni (Strabo,
XI.XI.I [6] ).
Several statuettes and representations of Greek soldiers
have been found north of the Tien Shan, on the doorstep
to China, and are today on display in the Xinjiang mu-
seum at Urumqi (Boardman [12] ).
Greek influences on Chinese art have also been suggested
(Hirth, Rostovtzeff). Designs with rosette flowers, ge-
ometric lines, and glass inlays, suggestive of Hellenistic
influences,[13] can be found on some early Han dynasty
bronze mirrors.[14]
Numismatics also suggest that some technology ex-
changes may have occurred on these occasions: the
Greco-Bactrians were the first in the world to issue cupro-
nickel (75/25 ratio) coins,[15] an alloy technology only
known by the Chinese at the time under the name “White
copper” (some weapons from the Warring States period
were in copper-nickel alloy [16] ). The practice of export-
ing Chinese metals, in particular iron, for trade is at-
tested around that period. Kings Euthydemus, Euthyde-
9.4. GEOGRAPHIC EXPANSION 23

Zhou/Han bronze mirror with glass inlays, perhaps incorporated

Greco-Roman artistic patterns (rosette flowers, geometric lines,
and glass inlays). Victoria and Albert Museum.

Western-influenced Zhou vase with glass inlays, 4th–3rd century

BC, British Museum.

The presence of Chinese people in India from an-

Probable Greek soldier in the Sampul tapestry, woollen wall cient times is also suggested by the accounts of the
hanging, 3rd–2nd century BC, Sampul, Urumqi Xinjiang Mu- extquotedblCiñas extquotedbl in the Mahabharata and
seum. the Manu Smriti.
The Han Dynasty explorer and ambassador Zhang Qian
mus II, Agathocles and Pantaleon made these coin issues visited Bactria in 126 BC, and reported the presence of
around 170 BC and it has alternatively been suggested Chinese products in the Bactrian markets:
that a nickeliferous copper ore was the source from mines
at Anarak.[17] Copper-nickel would not be used again in When I was in Bactria (Daxia) extquotedbl,
coinage until the 19th century. Zhang Qian reported, “I saw bamboo canes
24 CHAPTER 9. GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGDOM

from Qiong and cloth made in the province of

Shu (territories of southwestern China). When
I asked the people how they had gotten such
articles, they replied, “Our merchants go buy
them in the markets of Shendu (India). (Shiji
123, Sima Qian, trans. Burton Watson).

Upon his return, Zhang Qian informed the Chinese em-

peror Han Wudi of the level of sophistication of the ur-
ban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria and Parthia, who
became interested in developing commercial relationship
with them:

The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned

thus: Ferghana (Dayuan) and the possessions
of Bactria (Daxia) and Parthia (Anxi) are large
countries, full of rare things, with a popula- Bilingual Edict of Ashoka (in Greek and Aramaic), found in
tion living in fixed abodes and given to occu- Kandahar. Circa 250 BC, Kabul Museum.
pations somewhat identical with those of the
Chinese people, and placing great value on the
The conquest by Dharma has been won here,
rich produce of China. (Hanshu, Former Han
on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas
History).
(4,000 miles) away, where the Greek king
Antiochos rules, beyond there where the
A number of Chinese envoys were then sent to Central
four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas
Asia, triggering the development of the Silk Road from
and Alexander rule, likewise in the south
the end of the 2nd century BC.[18]
among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as
Tamraparni. (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock
9.4.2 Contacts with India (250–180) Edict, S. Dhammika).

The Indian emperor Chandragupta, founder of the Some of the Greek populations that had remained in
Mauryan dynasty, had re-conquered northwestern India northwestern India apparently converted to Buddhism:
upon the death of Alexander the Great around 322 BC.
However, contacts were kept with his Greek neighbours Here in the king’s domain among the Greeks,
in the Seleucid Empire, a dynastic alliance or the recog- the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamk-
nition of intermarriage between Greeks and Indians were its, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and
established (described as an agreement on Epigamia in the Palidas, everywhere people are following
Ancient sources), and several Greeks, such as the histo- Beloved-of-the-Gods’ instructions in Dharma.
rian Megasthenes, resided at the Mauryan court. Subse- (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dham-
quently, each Mauryan emperor had a Greek ambassador mika).
at his court.
Chandragupta’s grandson Asoka converted to the Bud- Furthermore, according to Pali sources, some of
dhist faith and became a great proselytizer in the line of Ashoka’s emissaries were Greek Buddhist monks, indi-
the traditional Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism, di- cating close religious exchanges between the two cul-
recting his efforts towards the Indian and the Hellenistic tures:
worlds from around 250 BC. According to the Edicts of
Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, he When the thera (elder) Moggaliputta, the il-
sent Buddhist emissaries to the Greek lands in Asia and luminator of the religion of the Conqueror
as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts name each of the (Ashoka), had brought the (third) coun-
rulers of the Hellenistic world at the time. cil to an end… he sent forth theras, one
9.5. USURPATION OF EUCRATIDES 25

here and one there: …and to Aparantaka

(the “Western countries” corresponding to
Gujarat and Sindh) he sent the Greek (Yona)
named Dhammarakkhita... and the thera Ma-
harakkhita he sent into the country of the
Yona. (Mahavamsa XII).

Greco-Bactrians probably received these Buddhist emis-

saries (At least Maharakkhita, lit. “The Great Saved
One”, who was “sent to the country of the Yona”) and
somehow tolerated the Buddhist faith, although little
proof remains. In the 2nd century AD, the Christian dog-
matist Clement of Alexandria recognized the existence
of Buddhist Sramanas among the Bactrians (“Bactrians”
meaning “Oriental Greeks” in that period), and even their
influence on Greek thought:

Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest util-
ity, flourished in antiquity among the barbar-
ians, shedding its light over the nations. And
afterwards it came to Greece. First in its
ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; and
the Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the
Druids among the Gauls; and the Sramanas
among the Bactrians ( extquotedblΣαρμαναίοι
Βάκτρων extquotedbl); and the philosophers
of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians,
who foretold the Saviour’s birth, and came into
the land of Judea guided by a star. The In-
dian gymnosophists are also in the number,
and the other barbarian philosophers. And
of these there are two classes, some of them
called Sramanas ( extquotedblΣαρμάναι ex-
tquotedbl), and others Brahmins ( extquot-
edblΒραφμαναι extquotedbl). Clement of
Alexandria “The Stromata, or Miscellanies”
Book I, Chapter XV.[19]
Silver coin depicting Demetrius I of Bactria (reigned c. 200–180
BC), wearing an elephant scalp, symbol of his conquests in India.
the Buddhist faith from the religious persecutions of the
Sungas as alleged by Buddhist scriptures (Tarn). Other
historians have argued however that the accounts of these
persecutions have been exaggerated (Thapar, Lamotte).
Demetrius may have been as far as the imperial capi-
tal Pataliputra in eastern India (today Patna). However,
these campaigns are typically attributed to Menander.
The invasion was completed by 175 BC. This established
in northern India what is called the Indo-Greek Kingdom,
which lasted for almost two centuries until around AD
10. The Buddhist faith flourished under the Indo-Greek
kings, foremost among them Menander I. It was also a
period of great cultural syncretism, exemplified by the
development of Greco-Buddhism.

9.5 Usurpation of Eucratides

9.4.3 Expansion into India (after 180 BC)
Main article: Indo-Greek Kingdom
Demetrius, the son of Euthydemus, started an invasion of
India from 180 BC, a few years after the Mauryan empire
had been overthrown by the Sunga dynasty. Historians
differ on the motivations behind the invasion. Some his-
torians suggest that the invasion of India was intended to
show their support for the Mauryan empire, and to protect
Back in Bactria, Eucratides, either a general of Demetrius
or an ally of the Seleucids, managed to overthrow the Eu-
thydemid dynasty and establish his own rule around 170
BC, probably dethroning Antimachus I and Antimachus
II. The Indian branch of the Euthydemids tried to strike
back. An Indian king called Demetrius (very likely
Demetrius II) is said to have returned to Bactria with
60,000 men to oust the usurper, but he apparently was
defeated and killed in the encounter:
26 CHAPTER 9. GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGDOM

As Eucratides returned from India, he was

killed on the way back by his son, whom he had
associated to his rule, and who, without hiding
his parricide, as if he didn't kill a father but
an enemy, ran with his chariot over the blood
of his father, and ordered the corpse to be left
without a sepulture. (Justin XLI,6 [20] ).

Silver tetradrachm of King Eucratides I 171–145 BC. The Greek
inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΕΥΚΡΑΤΙΔΟΥ –
extquotedbl(of) King Great Eucratides”.
9.5.1 Defeats against Parthia
Concurrently, and possibly during or after his Indian
campaigns, Eucratides’ Bactria was attacked and defeated
by the Parthian king Mithridates I, possibly in alliance
with partisans of the Euthydemids:

Bilingual coin of Eucratides in the Indian standard, on the

obverse Greek inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ
ΕΥΚΡΑΤΙΔΟΥ- extquotedbl(of) King Great Eucratides”, Pali in
the Kharoshthi script on the reverse.

Eucratides led many wars with great courage,

and, while weakened by them, was put under
siege by Demetrius, king of the Indians. He
made numerous sorties, and managed to van-
quish 60,000 enemies with 300 soldiers, and
thus liberated after four months, he put India
Gold 20-stater of Eucratides, the largest gold coin of Antiquity.
under his rule. (Justin, XLI,6 [20] )
The coin weighs 169.2 grams, and has a diameter of 58 millime-
ters.
Eucratides campaigned extensively in northwestern India,
and ruled on a vast territory as indicated by his minting of
coins in many Indian mints, possibly as far as the Jhelum The Bactrians, involved in various wars, lost
River in Punjab. In the end however, he was repulsed by not only their rule but also their freedom, as,
the Indo-Greek king Menander I, who managed to create exhausted by their wars against the Sogdians,
a huge unified territory. the Arachotes, the Dranges, the Arians and the
In a rather confused account, Justin explains that Eu- Indians, they were finally crushed, as if drawn
cratides was killed on the field by “his son and joint of all their blood, by an enemy weaker than
king”, who would be his own son, either Eucratides II or them, the Parthians. (Justin, XLI,6 [20] )
Heliocles I (although there are speculations that it could
be his enemy’s son Demetrius II). The son drove over Eu- Following his victory, Mithridates I gained Bactria’s ter-
cratides’ bloodied body with his chariot and left him dis- ritory west of the Arius, the regions of Tapuria and
membered without a sepulchre: Traxiane:
9.6. NOMADIC INVASIONS 27

“The satrapy Turiva and that of Aspionus were

taken away from Eucratides by the Parthians.”
(Strabo XI.11.2 [9] )

In the year 141 BC, the Greco-Bactrians seem to have

entered in an alliance with the Seleucid king Demetrius
II to fight again against Parthia:

The people of the Orient welcomed his

(Demetrius II) arrival, partly because of the
cruelty of the Arsacid, king of the Parthians,
partly because, used to the rule of the Macedo-
nians, they disliked the arrogance of this new The migrations of the Yuezhi through Central Asia, from around
people. Thus, Demetrius, supported by the 176 BC to AD 30.
Persians, Elymes, Bactrians, routed the Parthi-
ans in numerous battles. At the end, trumped
by a false peace, he was taken prisoner. (Justin
XXXVI, 1,1 [21] )

The 5th century historian Orosius declares that Mithri-

dates I managed to occupy territory between the Indus
and the Hydaspes towards the end of his reign, c. 138
BC, before his kingdom was weakened by his death in
136 BC.[22]
Heliocles I ended up ruling in what territory remained.
The defeat, both in the west and the east, may have left
Bactria very weakened and open to the nomadic inva-
sions.

Gold artifacts of the Scythians in Bactria, at the site of Tillia tepe.

9.6 Nomadic invasions

9.6.1 Yuezhi expansion (c. 162 BC-)
According to the Han chronicles, following a crush-
ing defeat in 162 BC by the Xiongnu, the nomadic
tribes of the Yuezhi fled from the Tarim Basin towards
the west, crossed the neighbouring urban civilization of
the extquotedblDayuan extquotedbl (probably the Greek
possessions in Ferghana), and resettled north of the Oxus
in modern-day Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, in the north-
ern part of the Greco-Bactrian territory. The Dayuan re-
mained a healthy and powerful urban civilization which
had numerous contacts and exchanges with China from
130 BC.
9.6.2 Scythians (c. 140 BC-)
Around 140 BC, eastern Scythians (the Saka, or Sacarau-
cae of Greek sources), apparently being pushed forward
by the southward migration of the Yuezhi started to in-
vade various parts of Parthia and Bactria. Their invasion
of Parthia is well documented, in which they attacked
in the direction of the cities of Merv, Hecatompolis and
Ectabana. They managed to defeat and kill the Parthian
king Phraates II, son of Mithridates I, routing the Greek
mercenary troops under his command (troops he had ac-
quired during his victory over Antiochus VII). Again in
123 BC, Phraates’s successor, his uncle Artabanus I was
killed by the Scythians.[23]
28 CHAPTER 9. GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGDOM

9.6.3 Second Yuezhi expansion (120 BC-)

When Zhang Qian visited the Yuezhi in 126 BC, trying
to obtain their alliance to fight the Xiongnu, he explained
that the Yuezhi were settled north of the Oxus but also
held under their sway the territory south of Oxus, which
makes up the remaining of Bactria.
According to Zhang Qian, the Yuezhi represented a
considerable force of between 100,000 and 200,000 Silver coin of Heliocles (r. 150–125 BC), the last Greco-Bactrian
mounted archer warriors,[24] with customs identical to king. The Greek inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ
those of the Xiongnu, which would probably have eas- ΗΛΙΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ – extquotedbl(of) King Heliocles the Just”.
ily defeated Greco-Bactrian forces (in 208 BC when the
Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus I confronted the inva-
Tochari, and Sacarauli, who came from the
sion of the Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great, he
country on the other side of the Jaxartes, op-
commanded 10,000 horsemen [10] ). Zhang Qian actu-
posite the Sacae and Sogdiani.
ally visited Bactria (named Daxia in Chinese) in 126 BC,
(Strabo, 11-8-1 [25] )
and portrays a country which was totally demoralized and
whose political system had vanished, although its urban
infrastructure remained: Around that time the king Heliocles abandoned Bac-
tria and moved his capital to the Kabul valley, from
Daxia (Bactria) is located over 2,000 li south- where he ruled his Indian holdings. Having left the Bac-
west of Dayuan, south of the Gui (Oxus) river. trian territory, he is technically the last Greco-Bactrian
Its people cultivate the land and have cities king, although several of his descendants, moving be-
and houses. Their customs are like those of yond the Hindu Kush, would form the western part of
Dayuan. It has no great ruler but only a num- the Indo-Greek kingdom. The last of these “western”
ber of petty chiefs ruling the various cities. The Indo-Greek kings, Hermaeus, would rule until around
people are poor in the use of arms and afraid 70 BC, when the Yuezhi again invaded his territory in
of battle, but they are clever at commerce. Af- the Paropamisadae (while the “eastern” Indo-Greek kings
ter the Great Yuezhi moved west and attacked would continue to rule until around AD 10 in the area of
Daxia, the entire country came under their the Punjab).
sway. The population of the country is large, Overall, the Yuezhi remained in Bactria for more than
numbering some 1,000,000 or more persons. a century. They became Hellenized to some degree, as
The capital is called the city of Lanshi (Bactra) suggested by their adoption of the Greek alphabet to write
and has a market where all sorts of goods are their Iranian language, and by numerous remaining coins,
bought and sold. (Records of the Great Histo- minted in the style of the Greco-Bactrian kings, with the
rian by Sima Qian, quoting Zhang Qian, trans. text in Greek.
Burton Watson)
Around 12 BC the Yuezhi then moved further to northern
India where they established the Kushan Empire.
The Yuezhi further expanded southward into Bactria
around 120 BC, apparently further pushed out by in-
vasions from the northern Wu-Sun. It seems they also
pushed Scythian tribes before them, which continued to 9.7 Main Greco-Bactrian kings
India, where they came to be identified as Indo-Scythians.
The invasion is also described in western Classical 9.7.1 House of Diodotus
sources from the 1st century BC, with different names
than those used by the Chinese: Territories of Bactria, Sogdiana, Ferghana,
Arachosia:
The best known tribes are those who deprived
the Greeks of Bactriana, the Asii, Pasiani, • Diodotus I (reigned c. 250–240 BC) Coins
9.7. MAIN GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGS 29

• Diodotus II (reigned c. 240–230 BC) Son of Territory of Bactria

Diodotus I Coins

The existence of a third Diodotid king, Antiochus Nika-

tor, perhaps a younger son of Diodotus I, has recently
been suggested.
Many of the dates, territories, and relationships between
Greco-Bactrian kings are tentative and essentially based
on numismatic analysis and a few Classical sources. The
following list of kings, dates and territories after the reign
of Demetrius is derived from the latest and most exten-
sive analysis on the subject, by Osmund Bopearachchi Silver coin of Antimachus I. The Greek inscription reads:
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΘΕΟΥ ΑΝΤΙΜΑΧΟΥ – extquotedbl(of) King
(“Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Cata-
God Antimachus”.
logue Raisonné extquotedbl, 1991).

• Euthydemus II (c. 180 BC), probably a son of

9.7.2 House of Euthydemus Demetrius. Coins

Territories of Bactria, Sogdiana, Ferghana, • Antimachus I (possibly c. 185–170 BC), brother

Arachosia:
• Euthydemus I (reigned c. 223-c. 200 BC) Over-
threw Diodotus II. Coins
of Demetrius. Defeated by usurper Eucratides.
Coins
Territories of Paropamisadae, Arachosia, Gandhara,
Punjab

• Pantaleon (190s or 180s BC) Possibly another

brother and co-ruler of Demetrius I.
• Agathocles (c. 190–180 BC) Yet another brother?
Coins
• Apollodotus I (reigned c. 180–160 BC) A fourth
brother?

Demetrios I Baktria (c. 205–171 BC). founder of the Indo- • Antimachus II Nikephoros (160–155 BC)
Greek kingdom The Greek inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ
ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ – extquotedbl(of) King Demetrius • Demetrius II (155–150 BC) Coins
• Menander (reigned c. 155–130 BC). Legendary
The descendants of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus for the size of his Kingdom, and his support of the
invaded northern India around 190 BC. Their dynasty was Buddhist faith. It is unclear whether he was related
probably thrown out of Bactria after 170 BC by the new to the other kings, and thus if the dynasty survived
king Eucratides, but remained in the Indian domains of further.Coins
the empire at least until the 150s BC.
• Followed by Indo-Greek kings in northern India.
• Demetrius I (reigned c. 200–180 BC) Son of
Euthydemus I. Greco-Bactrian king, and conqueror
of India. Coins 9.7.3 House of Eucratides

The territory won by Demetrius was separated between Territory of Bactria and Sogdiana
western and eastern parts, ruled by several sub-kings and
successor kings: • Eucratides I 170-c. 145 BC Coins
30 CHAPTER 9. GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGDOM

were on friendly terms with India and exchanged ambas-

sadors.
Their cities, such as Ai-Khanoum in northeastern
Afghanistan (probably Alexandria on the Oxus), and Bac-
tra (modern Balkh) where Hellenistic remains have been
found, demonstrate a sophisticated Hellenistic urban cul-
ture. This site gives a snapshot of Greco-Bactrian culture
around 145 BC, as the city was burnt to the ground around
that date during nomadic invasions and never re-settled.
Silver tetradrachm of King Eucratides 171–145 BC. The Greek Ai-Khanoum “has all the hallmarks of a Hellenistic city,
inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΕΥΚΡΑΤΙΔΟΥ – with a Greek theater, gymnasium and some Greek houses
extquotedbl(of) King Great Eucratides”.
with colonnaded courtyards” (Boardman). Remains of
Classical Corinthian columns were found in excavations
• Plato co-regent c. 166 BC of the site, as well as various sculptural fragments. In par-
ticular a huge foot fragment in excellent Hellenistic style
• Eucratides II 145–140 BC Coins was recovered, which is estimated to have belonged to a
5–6 meters tall statue.
• Heliocles (r. c. 145–130 BC).

Heliocles, the last Greek king of Bactria, was invaded by

the nomadic tribes of the Yuezhi from the North. De-
scendants of Eucratides may have ruled on in the Indo-
Greek kingdom.

9.8 Greek culture in Bactria

Stone block with the inscriptions of Kineas in Greek. Ai

Khanoum.

One of the inscriptions in Greek found at Ai-Khanoum,

the Herôon of Kineas, has been dated to 300–250 BC,
and describes Delphic precepts:

As children, learn good manners.

As young men, learn to control the passions.
In middle age, be just.
In old age, give good advice.
Then die, without regret.

Corinthian capital, found at Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC Some of the Greco-Bactrian coins, and those of their
successors the Indo-Greeks, are considered the finest
The Greco-Bactrians were known for their high level of examples of Greek numismatic art with “a nice blend
Hellenistic sophistication, and kept regular contact with of realism and idealization”, including the largest coins
both the Mediterranean and neighbouring India. They to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold
9.10. NOTES
coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171–145 BC),
the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas
Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits “show
a degree of individuality never matched by the often
bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further
West” (Roger Ling, “Greece and the Hellenistic World”).
Several other Greco-Bactrian cities have been further
identified, as in Saksanokhur in southern Tajikistan (ar-
chaeological searches by a Soviet team under B.A. Litvin-
ski), or in Dal'verzin Tepe.
• Bronze Herakles statuette. Ai Khanoum. 2nd cen-
tury BC.
• Sculpture of an old man, possibly a philosopher. Ai
Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
• Bust of the same man.
• Frieze of a naked man wearing a chlamys.
Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
• Same frieze, seen from the side.
• Gargoyle in the form of a Greek comic mask. Ai
Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
• Plate depicting Cybele pulled by lions.
Khanoum.
9.9 See also
• Greco-Buddhism
• Seleucid Empire
• Indo-Greek Kingdom
• Yuezhi
• Indo-Scythians
• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
9.10 Notes
[1] J. D. Lerner, The Impact of Seleucid Decline on the East-
ern Iranian Plateau: the Foundations of Arsacid Parthia
and Graeco-Bactria, (Stuttgart 1999)
31
[2] F. L. Holt, Thundering Zeus (Berkeley 1999)
[3] Justin XLI, paragraph 4
[4] Justin XLI, paragraph 1
[5] possibly present day Qarshi; Encyclopaedia Metropoli-
tana: Or Universal Dictionary of Knowledge, Volume
23, edited by Edward Smedley, Hugh James Rose, Henry
John Rose, 1923, page 260, states: “Eucratidia, named
from its ruler, (Strabo, xi. p. 516.) was, according to
Ptolemy, 2° North and 1° West of Bactra.” As these co-
ordinates are relative to, and close to, Bactra, it is rea-
sonable to disregard the imprecision in Ptolemy’s coor-
dinates and accept them without adjustment. If the co-
ordinates for Bactra are taken to be 36°45′N 66°55′E
/ 36.750°N 66.917°E, then the coordinates 38°45′N
65°55′E / 38.750°N 65.917°E can be seen to be close to
the modern day city of Qarshi.
[6] Strabo XI.XI.I
[7] Justin XLI
Ai
[8] Polybius 11.34
[9] Strabo 11.11.2
[10] Polybius 10.49, Battle of the Arius
[11] Polybius 11.34 Siege of Bactra
Ai
[12] On the image of the Greek kneeling warrior: “A bronze
figurine of a kneeling warrior, not Greek work, but wear-
ing a version of the Greek Phrygian helmet.. From a
burial, said to be of the 4th century BC, just north of the
Tien Shan range”. Ürümqi Xinjiang Museum. (Board-
man “The diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity”)
[13] Notice of the British Museum on the Zhou vase (2005, at-
tached image): “Red earthenware bowl, decorated with a
slip and inlaid with glass paste. Eastern Zhou period, 4th–
3rd century BC. This bowl was probably intended to copy
a more precious and possibly foreign vessel in bronze or
even silver. Glass was little used in China. Its popularity
at the end of the Eastern Zhou period was probably due
to foreign influence.”
[14] “The things which China received from the Graeco-
Iranian world-the pomegranate and other “Chang-Kien”
plants, the heavy equipment of the cataphract, the traces
of Greeks influence on Han art (such as) the famous white
bronze mirror of the Han period with Graeco-Bactrian de-
signs (...) in the Victoria and Albert Museum” (Tarn, The
Greeks in Bactria and India, pp. 363-364)
[15] Copper-Nickel coinage in Greco-Bactria.
32 CHAPTER 9. GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGDOM

[16] Ancient Chinese weapons A halberd of copper-nickel al- • McEvilley, Thomas (2002).The Shape of Ancient
loy, from the Warring States Period. Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian
Philosophies. Allworth Press and the School of Vi-
[17] A.A. Moss pp317-318 Numismatic Chronicle 1950
sual Arts. ISBN 1-58115-203-5
[18] C.Michael Hogan, Silk Road, North China, Megalithic
Portal, ed. A. Burnham
• Puri, B. N. (2000). Buddhism in Central Asia. Moti-
lal Banarsidass, Delhi. ISBN 81-208-0372-8.
[19] Clement of Alexandria “The Stromata, or Miscellanies”
Book I, Chapter XV • Tarn, W. W. (1966) The Greeks in Bactria and In-
dia. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press.
[20] Justin XLI,6
• Watson, Burton, trans. (1993). Records of the Great
[21] Justin XXXVI, 1,1 Historian. Han dynasty II, by Sima Qian. Columbia
University Press. ISBN 0-231-08167-7.
[22] Mentioned in “Hellenism in ancient India”, Banerjee,
p140, to be taken carefully since Orosius is often rather
unreliable in his accounts.
9.12 External links
[23] “Parthians and Sassanid Persians”, Peter Wilcox, p15

[24] “They are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place • Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kingdoms in An-
with their herds, and their customs are like those of the cient Texts
Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer
warriors... The Yuezhi originally lived in the area be- • Some new hypotheses on the Greco-Bactrian and
tween the Qilian or Heavenly mountains and Dunhuang, Indo-Greek kingdoms by Antoine Simonin
but after they were defeated by the Xiongnu they moved
far away to the west, beyond Dayuan, where they attacked • Catalogue of Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Coins
and conquered the people of Daxia (Bactria) and set up
the court of their king on the northern bank of the Gui
(Oxus) river” ( extquotedblRecords of the Great Historian
extquotedbl, Sima Qian, trans. Burton Watson, p234)

[25] Strabo 11-8-1 on the nomadic invasions of Bactria

9.11 References
• Boardman, John (1994). The Diffusion of Classical
Art in Antiquity. Princeton University Press. ISBN
0-691-03680-2.

• Boardman, John, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Mur-

ray (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece
and the Hellenistic World. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-285438-4.

• Bopearachchi, Osmund (1991). Monnaies Gréco-

Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné.
Bibliothèque Nationale de France, ISBN 2-7177-
1825-7.

• Bopearachchi, Osmund and Christine Sachs (2003).

De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale:
catalogue de l'exposition. ISBN 2-9516679-2-2.
Chapter 10

Diodotus I

Diodotus I Soter (Greek: Διόδοτος Α' ὁ Σωτήρ; epithet

means “the Saviour extquotedbl; c. 285 BC – c. 239 BC)
was Seleucid satrap of Bactria, rebelled against Seleucid
rule soon after the death of Antiochus II in c. 255 or
246 BC, and wrested independence for his territory.[1]
He died in 239 BC.
This event is recorded by Trogus, Prol. 41; Justin xli. 4,
5, where he is called Theodotus; Strabo xi. 515). The
name apparently is related to the title Soter he uses for
himself. His power seems to have extended over the
neighbouring provinces. Diodotus was a contemporary, a
neighbour, and probably an ally of Andragoras, the satrap
of Parthia, who at about the same time also proclaimed
independence from the Seleucid Empire.

10.1 Independence and prosperity Diodotus c. 250 BC.

Diodotus wrested independence for his territory after the

death of the Seleucid ruler Antiochus II Theos, who had
been embroiled in a war against Ptolemaic Egypt:
Diodotus, the governor of the thousand cities
of Bactria (Latin: “Theodotus, mille urbium
Bactrianarum praefectus”), defected and pro-
claimed himself king; all the other people of the
Orient followed his example and seceded from
the Macedonians. (Justin, XLI,4 [2] )
The new kingdom, highly urbanized and considered as
one of the richest of the Orient (opulentissimum illud mille
urbium Bactrianum imperium “The extremely prosperous
empire of the thousand cities of Bactria” Justin, XLI,1
[3]
), was to further grow in power and engage into terri-
torial expansion to the east and the west:
“The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew
so powerful on account of the fertility of the
country that they became masters, not only of
Ariana, but also of India, as Apollodorus of
Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued
by them than by Alexander... Their cities were
Bactra (also called Zariaspa, through which
flows a river bearing the same name and emp-
tying into the Oxus), and Darapsa, and several
others. Among these was Eucratidia, which was
named after its ruler.” (Strabo, XI.XI.I [4] )
The newly declared King married a daughter, born c. 266
BC, of Antiochus II Theos and wife Laodice I and had
two children: Diodotus II and a daughter, born c. 250
BC, who married Euthydemus I.

33
34 CHAPTER 10. DIODOTUS I

10.2 Conflict with Arsaces

Gold stater of Diodotus in the name of the Seleucid emperor

Antiochus I Soter, c. 250 BCE. Diodotus effectively declared his
independence from Seleucid control by placing his own portrait
on the obverse of the coin, and replacing Antiochos’s preferred
deity Apollo with the Zeus shown on this coin.
Gold coin of Diodotus I c. 250 BC. The Greek inscription reads:
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΟΔΟΤΟΥ - extquotedbl(of) King Diodotus”.
10.3 Coinage
Arsaces, the chieftain of the nomadic (Dahae) tribe of the
Of Diodotus I we possess gold, silver and bronze coins,
Parni, fled before him into Parthia and there defeated and
some of which are struck in the name of Antiochos. As
killed Andragoras, the former satrap and self-proclaimed
the power of the Seleucids was weak and continually
king of Parthia, and became the founder of the Parthian
attacked by Ptolemy II, the eastern provinces and their
Empire (Strabo l.c.). The Greco-Bactrians became cut
Greek cities were exposed to the invasion of the nomadic
from direct contacts with the Greek world. Overland
barbarians and threatened with destruction (Polyb. xi.
trade continued at a reduced rate, while sea trade between
34, 5); thus the erection of an independent kingdom may
Greek Egypt and Bactria developed. When Seleucus II
have been a necessity and indeed an advantage to the
in 239 BC attempted to subjugate the rebels in the east,
Greeks, and this epithet well deserved. Diodotus Soter
it appears he and Diodotus united together against the
appears also on coins struck in his memory by the later
Parthians (Justin xli. 4, 9).
Graeco-Bactrian kings Agathocles and Antimachus. Cf.
Soon afterwards Diodotus died and was succeeded by AV Sallet, Die Nachfolger Alexanders d. Gr. in Bak-
his son Diodotus II, who concluded a peace with the trien und Indien; Percy Gardner, Catal. of the Coins of
Parthians and later allied himself with Arsaces in his fight the Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and India (Brit.
against Seleucus II: Mus.).

“Soon after, relieved by the death of Theodotus 10.4 External links

[Justin uses a erroneous version of the name],
Arsaces made peace and concluded an alliance
with his son, also by the name of Theodotus;
some time later he fought against Seleucus who
came to punish the rebels, and he prevailed: the
Parthians celebrated this day as the one that
marked the beginning of their freedom” (Justin,
XLI,4 [5] )
• Coins of Diodotus
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge Univer-
sity Press.

10.5 References
Diodotus II was subsequently killed by a usurper,
Euthydemus, founder of the Greco-Bactrian Euthydemid [1] “The Greek kingdoms of Central Asia,” p. 100. P.
dynasty (Polyb. xi. 34, 2). Bernard in: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Vol-
10.5. REFERENCES 35

ume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civ-

ilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Harmatta, János, ed.,
1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 92-3-102846-
4

[2] Justin XLI, paragraph 4

[3] Justin XLI, paragraph 1

[4] Strabo XI.XI.I

[5] Justin XLI.4)

Chapter 11

Diodotus II

Diodotus II (Greek: Διόδοτος Β΄; c. 252 BC – c. 223

BC) was a Greco-Bactrian king from c. 239 BC, son of
Diodotus I. He is known for concluding a peace treaty
with the Parthian king Arsaces, in order to forestall the
Seleucid reconquest of both Parthia and Bactria:

“Soon after, relieved by the death of Diodotus I,

Arsaces made peace and concluded an alliance
with his son, also by the name of Diodotus;
some time later he fought against Seleucos who
came to punish the rebels, but he prevailed: the
Parthians celebrated this day as the one that
marked the beginning of their freedom” (Justin,
XLI,4 [1] )

Around 230 or 223 BC, Diodotus was killed by an

usurper, his brother-in-law Euthydemus I, founder of the
Greco-Bactrian Euthydemid dynasty (Polybius, 11.34,
2).

11.1 Notes
[1] Justin XLI

36
Chapter 12

Euthydemus I

Little is known of his reign until 208 BC when he was at-

tacked by Antiochus III the Great, whom he tried in vain
to resist on the shores of the river Arius (Battle of the
Arius), the modern Herirud. Although he commanded
10,000 horsemen, Euthydemus initially lost a battle on
the Arius [3] and had to retreat. He then successfully re-
sisted a three-year siege in the fortified city of Bactra, be-
fore Antiochus finally decided to recognize the new ruler,
and to offer one of his daughters to Euthydemus’s son
Demetrius around 206 BC.[3]
Tetradrachm of Euthydemus (c. 230-c. 200 BC). Greek inscrip-
tion reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΥΘΥΔΗΜΟΥ i.e. “of king Euthyde- Classical accounts also relate that Euthydemus negotiated
mus” peace with Antiochus III by suggesting that he deserved
credit for overthrowing the descendants of the original
Euthydemus I (Greek: Εὐθύδημος Α΄; c. 260 BC – rebel Diodotus, and that he was protecting Central Asia
200/195 BC) was a Greco-Bactrian king in about 230 or from nomadic invasions thanks to his defensive efforts:
223 BC according to Polybius;[1] he is thought to have
originally been a satrap of Sogdiana, who overturned the extquotedbl...for if he did not yield to this de-
dynasty of Diodotus of Bactria and became a Greco- mand, neither of them would be safe: seeing
Bactrian king. Strabo, on the other hand, correlates his that great hords of Nomads were close at hand,
accession with internal Seleucid wars in 223–221 BC. His who were a danger to both; and that if they ad-
kingdom seems to have been substantial, including prob- mitted them into the country, it would certainly
ably Sogdiana to the north, and Margiana and Ariana to be utterly barbarised.” (Polybius, 11.34).
the south or east of Bactria.
The war lasted altogether three years and after the Se-
leucid army left, the kingdom seems to have recovered
quickly from the assault. The death of Euthydemus has
12.1 Biography been roughly estimated to 200 BC-195 BC, and the last
years of his reign probably saw the beginning of the Bac-
Euthydemus was allegedly a native of Magnesia (though trian invasion of South Asia.
the exact site is unknown), son of the Greek General There exist many coins of Euthydemus, portraying him as
Apollodotus, born c. 295 BC, who might have been son a young, middle-aged and old man. He is also featured on
of Sophytes, and by his marriage to a sister of Diodotus II no less than three commemorative issues by later kings,
and daughter of Diodotus I, born c. 250 BC, was the fa- Agathocles, Antimachus I and one anonymous series.[4]
ther of Demetrius I according to Strabo[2] and Polybius;[3] He was succeeded by Demetrius, who went on to invade
he could possibly have had other royal descendants, such northwestern regions of South Asia. His coins were im-
as sons Antimachus I, Apollodotus I and Pantaleon. itated by the nomadic tribes of Central Asia for decades

37
38 CHAPTER 12. EUTHYDEMUS I

Barbaric copy of a coin of Euthydemus, from the region of

Sogdiana. The legend on the reverse is in aramaic. Such coins
suggest that Euthydemus ruled, and then lost the territory of Sog-
diana.

after his death; these imitations are called “barbaric” be-

cause of their crude style.

12.2 External links

• Coins of Euthydemus

12.3 Notes
[1] Polybius. The Histories. Book XI chap. 34 v. 1.

[2] Strabo, Geography 11.11.1

[3] Polybius 11.34 Siege of Bactra

[4] “Two Remarkable Bactrian Coins” RC Senior, Oriental

Numismatic Society Newsletter 159
Chapter 13

Demetrius I of Bactria

For other rulers with the same name, see Demetrius I

(disambiguation).

Demetrius I (Greek: Δημήτριος Α΄; Persian: /Pashto:

‫ )بلخی دیمتریوس‬was a Greek king (reigned c. 200–
180 BC) of Gandhara. He was the son of Euthydemus
and succeeded him around 200 BC, after which he con-
quered extensive areas in what now is eastern Iran[1] thus
creating an Indo-Greek Kingdom far from Hellenistic
Greece. He was never defeated in battle and was posthu-
mously qualified as the Invincible (Aniketos) on the pedi-
gree coins of his successor Agathocles.[2]
“Demetrius” was the name of at least two, probably three
Greek kings of Bactria (known as extquotedbl‫ولایت‬
‫ بلخی‬extquotedbl or Balkh Province in Afghanistan)
and India. The much debated Demetrius II was a possi-
ble relative, whereas Demetrios III (c. 100 BC), is known
only from numismatic evidence. Demetrius I was also Demetrius, qualified as “ANIKETOS”, i.e. “Invincible” (Pedigree
known as the second Alexander. coin minted by Agathocles). British Museum.

“And after several journeys of Teleas to and

13.1 Encounter with Antiochus III fro between the two, Euthydemus at last sent
his son Demetrius to confirm the terms of the
The father of Demetrius, Euthydemus, was attacked by treaty. Antiochus received the young prince;
the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III around 210 BC. Al- and judging from his appearance, conversa-
though he commanded 10,000 horsemen, Euthydemus tion, and the dignity of his manners that he was
initially lost a battle on the Arius[3] and had to retreat. He worthy of royal power, he first promised to give
then successfully resisted a three-year siege in the forti- him one of his own daughters, and secondly
fied city of Bactra, before Antiochus finally decided to conceded the royal title to his father.” Polybius
recognize the new ruler. 11.34[4]
The final negotiations were made between Antiochus III
and Demetrius. Antiochus III was reportedly highly im-
pressed by the demeanour of the young prince, and of- The term used for “young prince” is neaniskos
fered him one of his daughters in marriage, around 206 (νεανίσκος), suggesting an age around 16, which
BC: in turn gives a birth date for Demetrius around 222 BC.

39
40
13.2 Invasion of India
BAKTRIA, Greco-Baktrian Kingdom. Demetrios I Aniketos.
Circa 200-185 BC. AR Tetradrachm (33mm, 17.00 g, 12h). Di-
ademed and draped bust right, wearing elephant skin headdress,
symbol of his conquests in India, / Herakles standing facing,
crowning himself, holding club and lion skin; monogram to in-
ner left. Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ (BASILEOS
DEMETRIOU) “Of King Demetrius” Bopearachchi 1F; cf. SNG
ANS 190 The elephant-skin headdress sported by Demetrius on
this remarkable series of coins serves the dual purpose of evoking
Alexander the Great (who is shown wearing a similar headdress
on coins of Ptolemy I) and trumpeting Demetrius’ own victories in
northern India, which greatly expanded the Greco-Roman realm
Demetrius started the invasion of northwestern India
from 180 BC, following the destruction of the Mauryan
dynasty by the general Pusyamitra Sunga, who then
founded the new Indian Sunga dynasty (185–78 BC).
The Mauryans had had diplomatic alliances with the
Greeks, and they may have been considered as allies by
the Greco-Bactrians.[5] The Greco-Bactrians may also
have invaded India in order to protect Greek populations
in the subcontinent.[6]
Demetrius may have first started to recover the province
of Arachosia, an area south of the Hindu Kush already
inhabited by many Greeks but ruled by the Mauryas
since the liberation of the territory by Chandragupta from
Seleucus. In his “Parthian stations”, Isidorus of Charax
mentions a colony named Demetrias, supposedly founded
by Demetrius himself:
“Beyond is Arachosia. And the Parthians call
this White India; there are the city of Biyt and
the city of Pharsana and the city of Choro-
choad and the city of Demetrias; then Alexan-
dropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia; it is
Greek, and by it flows the river Arachotus. As
far as this place the land is under the rule of
the Parthians.” “Parthians stations”, 1st cen-
tury BC[7]
CHAPTER 13. DEMETRIUS I OF BACTRIA
A Greek dedication inscribed on stone and discovered in
Kuliab, a hundred kilometers northeast of Ai-Khanoum,
also mentioned the victories of the prince Demetrius dur-
ing the reign of his father:
“Heliodotos dedicated this fragrant altar (...)
so that the greatest of all kings Euthydemus,
as well as his son, the glorious, victorious
and remarkable Demetrius, be preserved of all
pains, with the help of the Fortune with divine
thoughts”[8]
The Greek campaigns may have gone as far as the capital
Pataliputra in eastern India (today Patna):
“Those who came after Alexander went to the
Ganges and Pataliputra” (Strabo, XV.698)
“The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew
so powerful on account of the fertility of the
country that they became masters, not only of
Ariana, but also of India, as Apollodorus of
Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued
by them than by Alexander — by Menander
in particular (at least if he actually crossed
the Hypanis towards the east and advanced as
far as the Imaüs), for some were subdued by
him personally and others by Demetrius, the
son of Euthydemus the king of the Bactrians.”
(Strabo 11.11.1[9] )
It is generally considered that Demetrius ruled in Taxila
(where many of his coins were found in the archae-
ological site of Sirkap). The Indian records also de-
scribes Greek attacks on Saketa, Panchala, Mathura and
Pataliputra (Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana chapter). How-
ever, the campaigns to Pataliputra are generally attested
to the later king Menander I and Demetrius I probably
only invaded areas in Pakistan. Other kings may have
expanded the territory as well.
By ca 175 BC, the Indo-Greeks ruled parts of northwest-
ern India, while the Sungas remained in the Gangetic,
Central, and Eastern India. The Indo Greek presence in
the Northwest continued until the last petty principality
was absorbed by the Sakas around 20 BC.
The Hathigumpha inscription, written by the king of
Kalinga, Kharavela, has been interpreted to describe the
presence of the Greek king “Demetrius” with his army
13.4. DEMETRIUS AND BUDDHISM 41

Silver obol of Demetrius. Extremely small (12 millimeters in di-

ameter), but beautifully crafted.

Demetrius II was a later king, possibly a son or nephew

of his namesake, and he ruled in India only. Justin men-
tions him being defeated by the Bactrian king Eucratides,
an event which took place at the end of the latter’s reign,
possibly around 150 BC. Demetrius II left behind his gen-
erals Apollodotus and Menander I, who in turn became
Silver tetradrachm of Demetrius I. British Museum. kings of India and rulers of the Indo-Greek Kingdom fol-
lowing his death.
According to Ptolemy, a Demetriapolis was founded in
in eastern India, possibly as far as the city of Rajagriha Arachosia.
about 70 km southeast of Pataliputra and one of the fore-
most Buddhist sacred cities, but claims that Demetrius Demetrius is a legend as well as an enigma. He was men-
ultimately retreated to Mathura on hearing of Kharavela’s tioned by Geoffrey Chaucer (“D, lord of Ind”).
military successes further south:

“Then in the eighth year, (Kharavela) with a
large army having sacked Goradhagiri causes
pressure on Rajagaha (Rajagriha). On ac-
count of the loud report of this act of valour,
the Yavana (Greek) King Dimi[ta] retreated
to Mathura having extricated his demoralized
army.” Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XX.[10]
13.3 Aftermaths
13.4 Demetrius and Buddhism
Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and it
has been suggested by W.W. Tarn that their invasion of
India was not only intended to show their support for the
Mauryan empire. However, that persecution in turn is
debatable, with contemporary historians such as Romila
Thapar suggesting that some of the accounts might be
the product of exaggeration from Buddhist missionar-
ies. Thapar attributes purely economic motivations to the
Indo-Greek invasion of Southern Asia.[11]

Demetrius I died of unknown reasons, and the date 180

BC, is merely a suggestion aimed to allow suitable regnal 13.4.1 Coinage & connection with Bud-
periods for subsequent kings, of which there were sev- dhism
eral. Even if some of them were co-regents, civil wars
and temporary divisions of the empire are most likely. The coins of Demetrius are of four types. One bilingual
The kings Pantaleon, Antimachus, Agathocles and possi- type with Greek and Kharoshthi legends exists: it is nat-
bly Euthydemus II ruled after Demetrius I, and theories urally associated with the Indian Demetrius II. A series
about their origin include all of them being relatives of with the king in diadem are likely to be early issues of
Demetrius I, or only Antimachus. Eventually, the king- Demetrius I.
dom of Bactria fell to the able newcomer Eucratides. More interesting are the “elephant” coins: The first type
42 CHAPTER 13. DEMETRIUS I OF BACTRIA

dhist. His conquests did however influence the Buddhist

religion in India:

13.4.2 Greco-Buddhist art

There are several parallels between Demetrius and the
first representations of the Greek Buddha in human form.
Also in another parallel, the characteristic protector
deity of Demetrius (Herakles standing with his club
over his arm, as seen on the reverse of his coins), was
represented in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara as
the protector deity of the Buddha.

13.5 External links

• Coins of Demetrius
• More coins of Demetrius
• Catalogue of coins of Demetrius

13.6 See also

Greco-Buddhist representation of Buddha, Gandhara, 1st-2nd
century AD.
shows Demetrius (I) with elephant-crown, a well-known
symbol of India.
The other “elephant” type of Demetrius I represents a re-
joicing elephant, depicted on the front on the coin and
surrounded by the royal bead-and-reel decoration, and
therefore treated on the same level as a King. The ele-
phant, one of the symbols of Buddhism and the Gautama
Buddha, possibly represents the victory of Buddhism
brought about by Demetrius. The reverse of the coin 13.7
depicts the caduceus, symbol of reconciliation between
two fighting serpents, which is possibly a representation
of peace between the Greeks and the Sungas, and like-
wise between Buddhism and Hinduism.
Alternatively though, the elephant has also been de-
scribed as a possible symbol of the Indian capital of
Taxila (Tarn), or still as a symbol of India. Unambigu-
ous Buddhist symbols are found on later Greek coins, but
Demetrius I, who was born in the milieu of Bactria and
struck coins with Buddhist gods, personally was a Bud-
• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
• Seleucid Empire
• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians
• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Kushan Empire
Notes
[1] Demetrius is said to have founded Taxila (archaeologi-
cal excavations), and also Sagala in the Punjab, which
he seemed to have called Euthydemia, after his father
(“the city of Sagala, also called Euthydemia” (Ptolemy,
Geographia, VII 1))
[2] No undisputed coins of Demetrius I himself use this ti-
tle, but it is employed on one of the pedigree coins is-
sued by Agathocles, which bear on the reverse the clas-
sical profile of Demetrius crowned by the elephant scalp,
13.8. REFERENCES 43

with the legend DEMETRIOU ANIKETOU, and on the 13.8 References

reverse Herakles crowning himself, with the legend “Of
king Agathocles” (Boppearachchi, Pl 8). Coins of the sup- • “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-
posed Demetrius III also use the title “Invincible”, and
ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
therefore are attributed by some to the same Demetrius
(Whitehead and al.)
McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5
[3] Polybius 10.49, Battle of the Arius
• “Buddhism in Central Asia” by B.N. Puri (Motilal
[4] Polybius 11.34 Siege of Bactra Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000) ISBN 81-208-
0372-8
[5] • Description of the 302 BC marital alliance in
Strabo 15.2.1(9): “The Indians occupy [in part] • “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
some of the countries situated along the Indus, Cambridge University Press.
which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexan-
der deprived the Ariani of them, and established
there settlements of his own. But Seleucus I Nica-
tor gave them to Sandrocottus in consequence of a
marriage contract, and received in return five hun-
dred elephants.” The ambassador Megasthenes was
also sent to the Mauryan court on this occasion.
• In the Edicts of Ashoka, king Ashoka claims to
have sent Buddhist emissaries to the Hellenistic
west around 250 BC.
• When Antiochus III the Great, after having made
peace with Euthydemus, went to India in 209 BC,
he is said to have renewed his friendship with the
Indian king there and received presents from him:
“He crossed the Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and de-
scended into India; renewed his friendship with
Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received
more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty
altogether; and having once more provisioned his
troops, set out again personally with his army: leav-
ing Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking
home the treasure which this king had agreed to
hand over to him.”Polybius 11.39

[6] “Obviously, for the Greeks who survived in India and suf-
fered from the oppression of the Sunga (for whom they
were aliens and heretics), Demetrios must have appeared
as a saviour” Mario Bussagli, p. 101

[7] Mentioned in Bopearachchi, “Monnaies Greco-

Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques”, p52. Original text in
paragraph 19 of Parthian stations

[8] Heliodotos inscription, in “Afghanistan, ancien carrefour

entre l'Est et Ouest”, p133. ISBN 2-503-51681-5

[9] Strabo 11.11.1 full text

[10] Full text of the Hathigumpta inscription

[11] Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar,

Oxford University Press, 1960 P200
Chapter 14

Euthydemus II

14.2 References
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W. W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press.

14.3 External links

Silver coin of King Euthydemus II • Catalogue of Coins of Euthydemus II

Euthydemus II (Greek: Εὐθύδημος Β΄) was Graeco-

Bactrian king; the son of Demetrius I of Bactria, he
became king in the 180s BCE, either after his father’s
death or as a sub-king to him. The style and rare nickel
alloys of his coins associates him closely in time with
the king Agathocles but their precise relation remains
uncertain. Euthydemus is pictured as a boy on his coins
and most likely died very young.

14.1 See also

• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

• Seleucid Empire

• Greco-Buddhism

• Indo-Scythians

• Indo-Parthian Kingdom

• Kushan Empire

44
Chapter 15

Antimachus I

Anthimachus I Theos (Greek: Ἀντίμαχος Α΄ ὁ Θεός; month of Olous, in Asangorna, the guardian of
known as Antimakha in Indian sources) was one of the the law being... The tax collector Menodotus,
Greco-Bactrian kings, generally dated from around 185 in the presence of... who was also sent out by
BC to 170 BC. Demonax, the former... ,and of Simus who
was... by the agency of Diodorus, controller of
revenues, acknowledges receipt from... the son
15.1 Rule of Dataes from the priests... the dues relating
to the purchase.” A tax receipt from Hellenistic
Bactria.[1]
Tarn and numismatist Robert Senior place Antimachus
as a member of the Euthydemid dynasty and probably as
a son of Euthydemus and brother of Demetrius. Other That Antimachus would list his own associate kings ar-
historians, like Narain, mark him as independent of Eu- gues strongly against the suggestion that he was ap-
thydemid authority, and probably a scion of some relationpointed as a Northern associate ruler of Euthydemus and
to the Diodotid dynasty . He was king of an area coveringDemetrius, an idea that anyway is more or less unprece-
parts of Bactria and probably also Arachosia in southern dented among Hellenistic kings. Eumenes and Anti-
Afghanistan (see under coins). Antimachus I was either machus could be his heirs; it was standard by Ptolemaic
defeated during his resistance to the usurper Eucratides,and Seleucid kings to include their sons as joint regents,
or his main territory was absorbed by the latter upon hiswith variable formal or actual power. While Eumenes
death. never issued any coins; a king named Antimachus II
Nikephoros later appeared in India. It seems plausible
Apparently adding to the argument against direct Euthy-
that the Indian Antimachus was identical with the son of
demid familial connections, is a unique tax-receipt that
Antimachus I, but it is unclear whether his reign in India
states:
overlapped with his father' reign in Bactria.

15.2 Coins of Antimachus I

The tax receipt, Oxford, Ashmolean Museum.
“In the reign of Antimachos Theos and
Eumenes and Antimachos... the fourth year,
Antimachus I issued a numerous silver coinage on the
Attic standard, with his own image in a flat Macedo-
nian kausia hat, and on the reverse Poseidon with his tri-
dent. Poseidon was the god of the ocean and great rivers -
some scholars have here seen a reference to the provinces
around the Indus River, where Antimachus I may have
been a governor - but also the protector of horses, which
was perhaps a more important function in the hinterland
of Bactria.

45
46 CHAPTER 15. ANTIMACHUS I

iniscent of those of Demetrius I, as well as Apollodotus

I.
Other bronzes, square and rather crude, also portray a
walking elephant, but with a reverse of a thunderbolt.
These have been attributed by Bopearachchi (as well as
older scholars) to Arachosia. They are Indian in their
design, but the legend is only in Greek.

Silver coin of Antimachus I (171–160 BC).

Obv: Bust of Antimachus I.
Rev: Depiction of Poseidon, with Greek legend BASILEOS 15.3 Notes
THEOU ANTIMACHOU “of God-King Antimachus”.
[1] Thundering Zeus: the making of Hellenistic Bactria by
Frank Lee Holt p.176

15.4 References
• “The Greek in Bactria and India”, W. W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press

• “The Decline of the Indo-Greeks”, R. C. Senior and

D. MacDonald, Hellenistic Numismatic Society
Coin of Antimachus, Cabinet des Médailles, Paris.
• “The Indo-Greeks”, A. K. Narain, B.R. Publications

15.5 External links

• Coins of Antimachus

• More coins of Antimachus

Coin of Antimachus.

On his coinage, Antimachus called himself Theos, “The

God”, a first in the Hellenistic world. Just like his col-
league Agathocles, he issued commemorative coinage,
in his case silver tetradrachms honouring Euthydemus
I, also called “The God”, and Diodotus I, called “The
Saviour”. This indicates that Antimachus I might have
been instrumental in creating a royal state cult (see coin
description: ).
Antimachus I also issued round bronzes depicting an ele-
phant on the obverse, with a reverse showing the Greek
goddess of victory Nike holding out a wreath. The ele-
phant could be a Buddhist symbol. These coins are rem-
Chapter 16

Pantaleon

For other uses, see Pantaleon (disambiguation). 16.1 External links

Pantaleon (Greek: Πανταλέων) was a Greek king who
• Coins of Pantaleon

• Catalogue of coins of Pantaleon

Cupro-nickel coin of king Pantaleon.

Obv: Bust of Dionysos with a wreath of leaves.
Rev: Panther with a small bell around the neck, touching a vine
with the left leg. Greek legend: BASILEOS PANTALEONTOS
“Of King Pantaleon”.

reigned some time between 190–180 BCE in Bactria and

India. He was a younger contemporary or successor of
the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius, and is sometimes be-
lieved to have been his brother and/or subking. He was
the first Greek king to strike Indian coins, peculiar irreg-
ular bronzes which suggests he had his base in Arachosia
and Gandhara and wanted support from the native popu-
lation.
The limited size of his coinage indicates a short reign.
Known evidence suggests that he was replaced by his
(probable) brother or son Agathocles, by whom he was
commemorated on a “pedigree” coin. Some of his coins
(as well as those of Agathocles and Euthydemus II)
have another surprising characteristic: they are made of
copper-nickel alloy, a technology that would not be devel-
oped in the West until the 18th century, but was known by
the Chinese at the time. This suggests that exchanges of
the metallic alloy or technicians happened between China
and the region of Bactria.

47
Chapter 17

Agathocles of Bactria

Agathocles Dikaios (Greek: Ἀγαθοκλῆς ὁ Δίκαιος;

epithet meaning: “the Just”) was a Buddhist Indo-Greek
king, who reigned between around 190 and 180 BC.
He might have been a son of Demetrius and one of
his sub-kings in charge of the Paropamisade between
Bactria and India. In that case, he was a grandson of
Euthydemus whom he qualified on his coins as Βασιλεὺς
Θεός, Basileus Theos (Greek for “God-King”).
Agathocles was contemporary with or a successor of king
Pantaleon. He seems to have been attacked and killed by
the usurper Eucratides, who took control of the Greco-
Bactrian territory. Little is known about him, apart from
his extensive coinage.

17.1 Pedigree coinage

Pedigree coin of Agathocles with Demetrius I.
Agathocles issued a series of “pedigree” dynastic coins,
Obv: – Greek inscription reads: ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ ΑΝΙΚΗΤΟΥ
probably with the intent to advertise his lineage and i.e. “of Demetrius the Invincible”.
legitimize his rule, linking him to Alexander the
Great, a king Antiochus Nikator (Greek: extquoted-
blΝικάτωρ extquotedbl “Victorious”, probably intended
is Antiochus III), the founder of the Greco-Bactrian king- Euthydemids as well – in fact king Antiochus III had be-
dom Diodotus and his son Diodotus II, Euthydemus, sieged Bactra for almost three years before claiming vic-
Pantaleon, and Demetrius. tory over Euthydemus I. Nevertheless, Antiochus III is
known to have used the epithet “Nikator” ( extquoted-
blΝικάτωρ extquotedbl Greek for “Victorious”)[1]
17.2 Dynast or usurper? Finally, the association with Alexander was a standard
move for usurpers in the Hellenistic world, such as the
The pedigree coinage has been seen as a token of his an- pseudo-Seleucids Alexander Balas and the Syrian general
cestry, but a critical view might be considered. All the Diodotus Tryphon.
associations provide a contradictory image. The Euthy- All in all, the coins might well support the view of a
demid kings (Demetrius and Euthydemus) are not known usurper, or more probable a member of a minor branch
to be related to Diodotus – in fact, Euthydemus I over- of a dynasty, anxious to gather support from all quarters
threw Diodotus II! The Seleucids were enemies of the with his various memorial coins. However, the similar-

48
17.4. BILINGUAL COINAGE 49

ities between his coinage and that of Pantaleon make it

probable that Agathocles was indeed a relative of the lat-
ter, who in that case might have been a usurper as well.

• I)

• I) Pedigree coin of Agathocles with Alexander the

Great.

Obverse – Greek inscription reads: ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ

ΤΟΥ ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΥ i.e. “of Alexander son of Philip”.
Reverse – Greek inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΟΝΤΟΣ Indian coinage of Agathocles, with Buddhist lion and Lakshmi.
ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ i.e. “of Reign Agathocles
the Just”.
and displaying symbols of the various faiths in India, tend
to indicate a considerable willingness to accommodate
• II) Pedigree coin of Agathocles with Diodotus the local languages and beliefs, to an extent unseen in sub-
Saviour. sequent Indo-Greek kings. They may be indicative of
the considerable efforts of the first Indo-Greek kings to
Obverse – Greek inscription reads: ΔΙΟΔΟΤΟΥ secure support from Indian populations and avoid being
ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ i.e. “of Diodotus the Saviour”. perceived as invaders, efforts which may have subsided
Reverse – Greek inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΟΝΤΟΣ once the Indo-Greek kingdoms were more securely in
ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ i.e. “of Reign Agathocles place.
the Just”.

17.4.1 Buddhist coinage

17.3 Nickel coins
Also, Agathocles and Pantaleon, along with their con-
temporary Euthydemus II, are unique in the ancient
world, in that they were the first in the world to issue
copper-nickel (75/25 ratio) coins1 , an alloy technology
only known by the Chinese at the time (some weapons
from the Warring States period were in copper-nickel
alloy2 ). These coins are indicative of the existence of
trade links with China around that time (see Greco-
Bactrian kingdom). Copper-nickel would not be used
again in coinage until the 19th century in the United
States.
The Buddhist coinage of Agathocles is in the Indian stan-
dard (square or round copper coins) and depicts Bud-
dhist symbols such as the stupa, the “tree in railing”, or
the lion. These coins sometimes use Brahmi, and some-
times Kharoshthi, whereas later Indo-Greek kings only
used Kharoshthi.
• Buddhist coin of Agathocles, with Stupa, and tree in
railing.
• Buddhist coin of Agathocles, with stupa surmounted
by a star, and possibly Trisula symbol.
• Buddhist coin of Agathocles, with Lion.

17.4.2 Hinduist coinage

17.4 Bilingual coinage
The Hinduist coinage of Agathocles is few but spectacu-
At the same time, Agathocles issued an intriguing lar. Six Indian-standard silver drachmas were discovered
range of bilingual coinage, displaying what seems to be at Ai-Khanoum in 1970, which depict Hindu deities.
Buddhist as well as Hinduist symbolism. The coins, man- These are the first known representations of Vedic deities
ufactured according to the Indian standard, using either on coins, and they display early Avatars of Vishnu:
Brahmi, Greek or Kharoshthi (a first in the Greek world), Balarama-Sankarshana and Vasudeva-Krishna.
50 CHAPTER 17. AGATHOCLES OF BACTRIA

• Ancient Chinese weapons

• A halberd of copper-nickel alloy, from the Warring

States Period

Coin of Agathocles with Hindu deities: Vasudeva-Krishna and

Balarama-Samkarshana.

The dancing girls on some of the coins of Agathocles

and Pantaleon are also sometimes considered as repre-
sentations of Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu.

17.5 See also

• Indo-Greek Kingdom
• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians

17.6 Notes
[1] Chronographia, John of Malalas

17.7 References
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W. W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press
• “Bactria – the history of a forgotten empire”, H. G.
Rawlinson, Probhstain & co, London (1912)

17.8 External links

• Coins of Agatocles
• More coins of Agathocles
• Catalogue of the coins of Agathocles
• Copper-Nickel coinage in Greco-Bactria
Chapter 18
Demetrius II of India
Demetrius II (Greek: Δημήτριος Β΄) was a Greco-
Bactrian/Indo-Greek king who ruled brieftly during the
2nd century BC. Little is known about him and there are
different views about how to date him. Earlier authors
such as Tarn and Narain saw him as a son and sub-king
of Demetrius I, but this view is now abandoned.
Osmund Bopearachchi has suggested that he ruled in Bac-
tria and Arachosia c. 175–170 BC, but this has been chal-
lenged by later authors. R. C. Senior instead prefers c.
175–140 BC, and this is supported by L M Wilson[1] who
also assumes from numismatical clues and portrait like-
ness that Demetrius II was a relative of Eucratides the
Great. The later dating is supported by the circumstance
that no coins of Demetrius II have been found in the ruins
of Ai Khanoum, which was presumably destroyed during
the reign of Eucratides I.
18.1 The enigma of “Demetrius,
king of the Indians”
History records keep one reference to a king Demetrius
contemporary with Eucratides, and this reference is
highly problematic.
Roman historian Justin names a Demetrius, king of the
Indians,[2] who was an enemy of Eucratides the Great.
Justin’s Demetrius beleaguered the warlike Eucratides
with an army of 60,000 men against the latter’s garrison
of 300, but still — according to the probably exagger-
ated account — eventually was defeated. This episode is
referred to as occurring at the end of the reign of Eu-
cratides, hence dating the death of Justin’s Demetrius
around 150 BC. Justin’s Demetrius may have been a rel-
ative of the Indian king Apollodotus I or a fugitive prince
of the Euthydemid dynasty.
51
However, the king of Justin’s quote is not easily recon-
ciled with the numismatical evidence, and views are di-
vided as for how to interpret the various coinage series
bearing the name Demetrius. Bopearachchi (1991) has
singled out three kings named Demetrius. Demetrius I
reigned c. 200- 185 BC, well before the rise of Eu-
cratides, and Demetrius III was an Indian king who
is thought to have ruled much later, around 100 BC.
There remains Demetrius II, who Bopearachchi sug-
gested reigned around 170 BC.
Bopearachchi continues to identify Demetrius II with
Justin’s Demetrius of India, notwithstanding the fact that
Justin’s quote suggests a later reign. Furthermore, Bo-
pearachchi’s Demetrius II reigned in Bactria and not in
India, as he struck no coins with Indian legends. There-
fore, the identity of Justin’s Demetrius, king of the Indi-
ans, remains uncertain. The following hypotheses may
be considered:
• The account of Justin, who is a 2nd hand source, is
confused. Either Demetrius II was not king of India
but Bactria, or the account of the war is mixed up,
or the king’s name is wrong, Justin having confused
the name of another Indo-Greek king with that of
Demetrius I.
• Bopearachchi’s Demetrius III could be placed ear-
lier - this king’s coins are few and rather peculiar
- and Demetrius III was in fact Justin’s Demetrius
who ruled half a century earlier.
Even if Justin’s Demetrius, king of the Indians existed, this
does not exclude that Eucratides also had a son named
Demetrius, which was a common dynastic name at the
time. The prince may have been named after the Seleucid
Demetrius I Soter.
52 CHAPTER 18. DEMETRIUS II OF INDIA

18.2 Coins of Demetrius II

Demetrius II issued only silver and mostly tetradrachms,
another trait which he has in common with the last Bac-
trian kings. The obverse shows a diademed portrait, with
a standing Pallas Athene holding a spear on the reverse.
Unlike most of his contemporaries, he has no epithet.
Demetrius II is depicted as a young man, though his fea-
tures differs considerably between different issued. Sev-
eral coins are struck off-center and crude; this suggests
that Demetrius II used a number of temporary mints.

18.3 See also

• Indo-Greek Kingdom
• Seleucid Empire

• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians

• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Kushan Empire

18.4 References
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press.

18.5 Notes
[1] L M Wilson, “Demetrios II of Bactria and Hoards from
Ai Khanoum” (Oriental Numismatic Society newsletter nr
180)

[2] Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, XLI:6

Chapter 19

Eucratides I

Eucratides I (Greek: Εὐκρατίδης Α΄; reigned c. 170–

145 BC), sometimes called Eucratides the Great, was
one of the most important Greco-Bactrian kings, descen-
dants of dignitaries of Alexander the Great. He uprooted
the Euthydemid dynasty of Greco-Bactrian kings and re-
placed it with his own lineage. He fought against the
Indo-Greek kings, the easternmost Hellenistic rulers in
northwestern India, temporarily holding territory as far as
the Indus, until he was finally defeated and pushed back
to Bactria. Eucratides had a vast and prestigious coinage, Silver tetradrachm of King Eucratides I (171–145 BC)
suggesting a rule of considerable importance. Obv: Bust of Eucratides, helmet decorated with a bull’s horn and
ear, within bead and reel border.
Rev: Depiction of the Dioscuri, each holding palm in left hand,
19.1 Biography spear in righthand. Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ
ΕΥΚΡΑΤΙΔΟΥ (BASILEŌS MEGALOU EUKRATIDOU) “Of
Great King Eucratides”. Mint monogram below.
19.1.1 Coup d'etat Characteristics: Diameter 34 mm. Weight 16.96 g. Attic stan-
dard. One of the largest Hellenic coins ever minted.
Eucratides came to the throne by overthrowing the dy-
nasty of Euthydemus I in Bactria, whose son Demetrius
was conquering northwestern India. The king Eucratides
dethroned in Bactria was probably Antimachus I.
It is unclear whether Eucratides was a Bactrian official
who raised a rebellion, or, according to some scholars,[1]
a cousin of the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes
who was trying to regain the Bactrian territory. Justin ex-
plains that Eucratides acceeded to the throne at about the
same time as Mithridates, whose rule is accurately known
to have started in 171 BC, thereby giving an approximate
date for the accession of Eucratides: Bilingual coin of Eucratides in the Indian standard (Greek on the
obverse, Pali in the Kharoshthi script on the reverse).
“Around the same time, two great men started
to rule: Mithridates among the Parthians, and
Eucratides among the Bactrians” Justin XLI,6 parents, where his father is named Heliocles, and his
[2]
mother, who is thought to be Laodice,[3] is wearing a royal
diadem. Laodice may have been a member of the Seleu-
Some of the coins of Eucratides probably represent his cid imperial house.

53
54 CHAPTER 19. EUCRATIDES I

Having become master of Bactria, Eucratides also con- son Demetrius II), who hated his father so much that he
quered the western parts of the Indo-Greek kingdom. dragged his dead body after his chariot:
According to the single remaining source, Roman histo-
rian Justin, Eucratides defeated Demetrius of India, but “As Eucratides returned from India, he was
the identity of this king is uncertain: he could be either killed on the way back by his son, whom he had
Demetrius I, or Demetrius II. associated to his rule, and who, without hiding
his patricide, as if he didn't kill a father but
an enemy, ran with his chariot over the blood
“Eucratides led many wars with great courage,
of his father, and ordered the corpse to be left
and, while weakened by them, was put under
without a sepulture” Justin XLI,6 [5]
siege by Demetrius, king of the Indians. He
made numerous sorties, and managed to van- The murder of Eucratides probably brought about a civil
quish 60,000 enemies with 300 soldiers, and war amongst the members of the dynasty. The successors
thus liberated after four months, he put India to Eucratides were Eucratides II and Heliocles I (145–
under his rule” Justin XLI,6 [4] 130 BC), who was the last Greek king to reign in Bac-
tria. Once the Yuezhi tribes overpowered Heliocles, the
Numismatic evidence suggests that Eucratides I was a Greco-Bactrians lost control of the provinces north of the
contemporary of the Indo-Greek kings Apollodotus I, Hindu Kush.
Antimachus II and Menander I. In any case, Eucratides’
Two other members of the dynasty were Plato of Bac-
advances into India are proved by his abundant bilingual
tria and probably Demetrius II, who in that case was not
coinage. He was most probably a follower of Buddhism.
identical with the king Justin claimed was the enemy of
In the west the Parthian king Mithradates I began to en- Eucratides I.[6]
large his kingdom and attacked Eucratides; the city of
The rule of the Greco-Bactrians soon crumbled following
Herat fell in 167 BC and the Parthians succeeded in
these numerous wars:
conquering two provinces between Bactria and Parthia,
called by Strabo the country of Aspiones and Turiua. “The Bactrians, involved in various wars, lost
Eucratides I is most likely the founder of Eucratideia. not only their rule but also their freedom, as,
exhausted by their wars against the Sogdians,
The seal of Da Afghanistan Bank features a Eucratides
the Arachotes, the Dranges, the Arians and the
I-era coin.
Indians, they were finally crushed, as if drawn
of all their blood, by an enemy weaker than
them, the Parthians.” Justin, XLI,6 [5]
19.1.2 Death
However, the rule of the Indo-Greeks over territories
south of the Hindu Kush lasted for a further 150 years,
ultimately collapsing under the pressure of the Yüeh-chih
and Scythian (Saka) invasions in around 10 BC, with the
last Indo-Greek ruler Strato II.

19.2 See also

Coin of Eucratides with parents Heliokles and Laodike. • Heliocles I

Justin ends his account of Eucratides’ life by claiming that

the warlike king was murdered on his way back from In- 19.3 Notes
dia by his own son (either Eucratides II or Heliocles I, al-
though there are speculations that it could be his enemy’s [1] Tarn
19.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 55

• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W. W. Tarn,

Cambridge University Press.

19.5 External links

• Coins of Eucratides

• More coins of Eucratides

• Catalogue of the Coins of Eucratides I

Coin of Eucratides, holding a spear.

[2] “Eodem ferme tempore, sicut in Parthis Mithridates, ita

in Bactris Eucratides, magni uterque uiri regna ineunt.”
tml Justin XLI,6

[3] Astin, A. E. (1990). The Cambridge Ancient History.

Cambridge University Press. p. 401. ISBN 978-0-521-
23448-1.

[4] Justin on Demetrius: “Multa tamen Eucratides bella

magna uirtute gessit, quibus adtritus cum obsidionem
Demetrii, regis Indorum, pateretur, cum CCC militibus
LX milia hostium adsiduis eruptionibus uicit. Quinto
itaque mense liberatus Indiam in potestatem redegit.”
Justin XLI,6

[5] Justin XLI,6

[6] “Demetrios II of Bactria and Hoards from Ai Khanoum

extquotedbl by L.M. Wilson (Oriental Numismatic Soci-
ety newsletter nr 180)

19.4 References
• “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-
ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5

• “Buddhism in Central Asia” by B.N. Puri (Motilal

Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000) ISBN 81-208-
0372-8
Chapter 20

Plato of Bactria

• Seleucid Empire

• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians

• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Kushan Empire

Coin of Plato. 20.2 References

Obv: Diademed bust of Plato.
Rev: Sun divinity Helios, riding a four-horse chariot. Greek
legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΠΛΑΤΩΝΟΣ (BASILEOS • “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-
EPIPHANOYS PLATONOS) “Of King Plato, God-manifest”. ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5
Plato (Greek: Πλάτων) was a Greco-Bactrian king
who reigned for a short time in southern Bactria or the • “Buddhism in Central Asia” by B. N. Puri (Motilal
Paropamisade during the mid 2nd century BCE. The style Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000) ISBN 81-208-
of Plato’s coins suggests that he was a relative — most 0372-8
likely a brother since Plato is a middle-aged man on his
coins — of Eucratides the Great, whose rise to power is
dated to around 170–165 BCE.
Some of Plato’s coins have inscriptions which may be
possibly be interpreted as dates using the Indo-Greek
era which started around 186 BCE. In that case Plato
ruled around 140 BCE. This matches the dating given by
numismatician Bopearachchi, who places Plato between
145–140 BCE, since his coins are not found in the ru-
ins of Ai Khanoum, a Bactrian city which was destroyed
during the reign of Eucratides.

20.1 See also

• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

56
Chapter 21

Eucratides II

Eucratides II (Greek: Εὐκρατίδης Β΄) was a Greco-
Bactrian king who was a successor and probably a son of
Eucratides I. It seems likely that Eucratides II ruled for
a relatively short time after the murder of his namesake,
until he was dethroned in the dynastic civil war caused by
the same murder.
• “Buddhism in Central Asia” by B. N. Puri (Motilal
Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000) ISBN 81-208-
0372-8
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press.

During his earlier years, Eucratides II may have been a

co-regent of his father: on his later coins he adds the title
Soter (Saviour), which could be an indication that he now
ruled in his own right.
Soon after Eucratides’ II death, the last Bactrian king
Heliocles I (probably another member of the same
dynasty) was defeated by the Tocharian or Yuezhi tribes,
who expelled the Greek kings from Bactria.

21.1 See also

• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
• Seleucid Empire
• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians
• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Kushan Empire

21.2 References
• “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-
ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5

57
Chapter 22

Indo-Greek Kingdom

The Indo-Greek Kingdom or Graeco-Indian King- The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political en-
dom[1] was a Hellenistic kingdom covering various parts tity around 10 AD following the invasions of the Indo-
of the northwest regions of the Indian subcontinent (mod- Scythians, although pockets of Greek populations proba-
ern Afghanistan, Pakistan and North Western India) dur- bly remained for several centuries longer under the sub-
ing the last two centuries BC, and was ruled by more than sequent rule of the Indo-Parthians and Kushans.[7]
30 kings,[2] often in conflict with each other.
The kingdom was founded when the Graeco-Bactrian
king Demetrius invaded the subcontinent early in the 2nd 22.1 Background
century BC. The Greeks in South Asia were eventually
divided from the Graeco-Bactrians centered in Bactria
(now the border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan). 22.1.1 Preliminary Greek presence in
But, the Greeks failed to establish a united rule in north- South Asia
western India. The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was
Menander (Milinda). He had his capital at Sakala in
Punjab, modern Pakistan, and he successfully invaded the
Ganges-Yamuna doab.
The expression “Indo-Greek Kingdom” loosely describes
a number of various dynastic polities, traditionally asso-
ciated with a number of regional capitals like Taxila,[3]
(modern Punjab (Pakistan)), Pushkalavati and Sagala.[4]
Other potential centers are only hinted at; for instance,
Ptolemy's Geographia and the nomenclature of later
kings suggest that a certain Theophila in the south of Apollodotus I (180–160 BC) the first king who ruled in the sub-
the Indo-Greek sphere of influence may also have been continent only, [8] and therefore the founder of the proper Indo-
Greek kingdom.
a satrapal or royal seat at one time.
During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek
In 326 BC, Alexander the Great conquered the northwest-
kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and sym-
ern part of the Indian subcontinent as far as the Hyphasis
bols, as seen on their coins, and blended ancient Greek,
River, and established satrapies and founded several set-
Hindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the
tlements, including Bucephala; he turned south when his
archaeological remains of their cities and in the indica-
troops refused to go further east.[9] The Indian satrapies
tions of their support of Buddhism, pointing to a rich fu-
of the Punjab were left to the rule of Porus and Taxiles,
sion of Indian and Hellenistic influences.[5] The diffusion
who were confirmed again at the Treaty of Triparadisus
of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still
in 321 BC, and remaining Greek troops in these satrapies
felt today, particularly through the influence of Greco-
were left under the command of general Eudemus. Af-
Buddhist art.[6]
ter 321 BC Eudemus toppled Taxiles, until he left India

58
22.1. BACKGROUND 59

in 316 BC. Another general also ruled over the Greek

colonies of the Indus: Peithon, son of Agenor,[10] until
his departure for Babylon in 316 BC.
In 305 BC, Seleucus I led an army to the Indus, where
he encountered Chandragupta. The confrontation ended
with a peace treaty, and “an intermarriage agreement”
(Epigamia, Greek: Ἐπιγαμία), meaning either a dynastic
marriage or an agreement for intermarriage between In-
dians and Greeks. Accordingly, Seleucus ceded to Chan-
dragupta his northwestern territories, possibly as far as
Arachosia and received 500 war elephants (which played
a key role in the victory of Seleucus at the Battle of Ip-
sus):[11]

“The Indians occupy in part some of the

countries situated along the Indus, which Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from
formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander Kandahar. Kabul Museum (click image for translation).[18]
deprived the Ariani of them, and established
there settlements of his own. But Seleucus
Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus in conse- —Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika).
quence of a marriage contract, and received in
return five hundred elephants.”
—Strabo 15.2.1(9)[12] In his edicts, Ashoka mentions that he had sent Bud-
dhist emissaries to Greek rulers as far as the Mediter-
ranean (Edict No. 13),[22][23] and that he developed
Also several Greeks, such as the historian herbal medicine in their territories, [24]
for the welfare of hu-
[13]
Megasthenes, followed by Deimachus and Dionysius, mans and animals (Edict No. 2).
were sent to reside at the Mauryan court.[14] Presents The Greeks in India even seem to have played an ac-
continued to be exchanged between the two rulers.[15] tive role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of
The intensity of these contacts is testified by the existence the emissaries of Ashoka such as Dharmaraksita,[25] or
of a dedicated Mauryan state department for Greek the teacher Mahadharmaraksita,[26] are described in Pali
(Yavana) and Persian foreigners,[16] or the remains of sources as leading Greek ( extquotedblYona extquotedbl,
Hellenistic pottery that can be found throughout northern i.e., Ionian) Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist prose-
India.[17] lytism (the Mahavamsa, XII).[27] It is also thought that
On these occasions, Greek populations apparently re- Greeks contributed [28]
to the sculptural work of the Pillars
mained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent un- of Ashoka, and more generally to the blossoming of
[29]
der Mauryan rule. Chandragupta’s grandson Ashoka, Mauryan art.
who had converted to the Buddhist faith declared in the Again in 206 BC, the Seleucid emperor Antiochus led an
Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written army to the Kabul valley, where he received war elephants
in Greek,[19][20] that Greek populations within his realm and presents from the local king Sophagasenus:[30]
also had converted to Buddhism:[21]
“He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus
“Here in the king’s domain among the (Hindu Kush) and descended into India;
Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the
Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, king of the Indians; received more elephants,
the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere until he had a hundred and fifty altogether;
people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods’ and having once more provisioned his troops,
instructions in Dharma.” set out again personally with his army: leaving
60
Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking
home the treasure which this king had agreed
to hand over to him.”
—Polybius 11.39[31]
22.1.2 Greek rule in Bactria
Greco-Bactrian statue of an old man or philosopher, Ai
Khanoum, Bactria, 2nd century BC
Main article: Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
Alexander had also established several colonies in neigh-and self-proclaimed king Andragoras, was eliminated
bouring Bactria, such as Alexandria on the Oxus (mod-
ern Ai-Khanoum) and Alexandria of the Caucasus (me-
dieval Kapisa, modern Bagram). After Alexander’s death
in 323 BC, Bactria came under the control of Seleucus
I Nicator, who founded the Seleucid Empire. The Diodotus was succeeded by his son Diodotus II, who al-
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was founded when Diodotus lied himself with the Parthian Arsaces in his fight against
I, the satrap of Bactria (and probably the surrounding Seleucus II:
provinces) seceded from the Seleucid Empire around 250
BC. The preserved ancient sources (see below) are some-
what contradictory and the exact date of Bactrian inde-
CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM
pendence has not been settled. Somewhat simplified,
there is a high chronology (c. 255 BC) and a low chronol-
ogy (c. 246 BC) for Diodotos’ secession.[32] The high
chronology has the advantage of explaining why the Se-
leucid king Antiochus II issued very few coins in Bac-
tria, as Diodotos would have become independent there
early in Antiochus’ reign.[33] On the other hand, the low
chronology, from the mid-240s BC, has the advantage
of connecting the secession of Diodotus I with the Third
Syrian War, a catastrophic conflict for the Seleucid Em-
pire.
“Diodotus, the governor of the thousand cities
of Bactria (Latin: Theodotus, mille urbium
Bactrianarum praefectus), defected and pro-
claimed himself king; all the other people of the
Orient followed his example and seceded from
the Macedonians.” (Justin, XLI,4[34] )
The new kingdom, highly urbanized and considered as
one of the richest of the Orient (opulentissimum illud mille
urbium Bactrianum imperium “The extremely prosperous
Bactrian empire of the thousand cities” Justin, XLI,1[35] ),
was to further grow in power and engage into territorial
expansion to the east and the west:
“The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew
so powerful on account of the fertility of the
country that they became masters, not only of
Ariana, but also of India, as Apollodorus of
Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued
by them than by Alexander... Their cities were
Bactra (also called Zariaspa, through which
flows a river bearing the same name and emp-
tying into the Oxus), and Darapsa, and several
others. Among these was Eucratidia, which was
named after its ruler.” (Strabo, XI.XI.I[36] )
When the ruler of neighbouring Parthia, the former satrap
by Arsaces, the rise of the Parthian Empire cut off
the Greco-Bactrians from direct contact with the Greek
world. Overland trade continued at a reduced rate, while
sea trade between Greek Egypt and Bactria developed.
“Soon after, relieved by the death of Diodotus,
Arsaces made peace and concluded an alliance
22.1. BACKGROUND
with his son, also by the name of Diodotus;
some time later he fought against Seleucos who
came to punish the rebels, and he prevailed: the
Parthians celebrated this day as the one that
marked the beginning of their freedom” (Justin,
XLI,4)[37]
Euthydemus, a Magnesian Greek according to
Polybius[38] and possibly satrap of Sogdiana, over-
threw Diodotus II around 230 BC and started his own
dynasty. Euthydemus’s control extended to Sogdiana,
going beyond the city of Alexandria Eschate founded by
Alexander the Great in Ferghana:
“And they also held Sogdiana, situated above
Bactriana towards the east between the Oxus
River, which forms the boundary between the
Bactrians and the Sogdians, and the Iaxartes
River. And the Iaxartes forms also the bound-
ary between the Sogdians and the nomads.”
Strabo XI.11.2[39]
Coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus 230–200
BC. The Greek inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΥΘΥΔΗΜΟΥ
– extquotedbl(of) King Euthydemus”.
Euthydemus was attacked by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus
III around 210 BC. Although he commanded 10,000
horsemen, Euthydemus initially lost a battle on the
Arius[40] and had to retreat. He then successfully resisted
a three-year siege in the fortified city of Bactra (modern
Balkh), before Antiochus finally decided to recognize the
new ruler, and to offer one of his daughters to Euthy-
demus’s son Demetrius around 206 BC.[41] Classical ac-
counts also relate that Euthydemus negotiated peace with
Antiochus III by suggesting that he deserved credit for
overthrowing the original rebel Diodotus, and that he was
protecting Central Asia from nomadic invasions thanks to
his defensive efforts:
61
extquotedbl...for if he did not yield to this de-
mand, neither of them would be safe: seeing
that great hordes of Nomads were close at hand,
who were a danger to both; and that if they ad-
mitted them into the country, it would certainly
be utterly barbarised.” (Polybius, 11.34[38] )
Following the departure of the Seleucid army, the Bac-
trian kingdom seems to have expanded. In the west, areas
in north-eastern Iran may have been absorbed, possibly
as far as into Parthia, whose ruler had been defeated by
Antiochus the Great. These territories possibly are iden-
tical with the Bactrian satrapies of Tapuria and Traxiane.
To the north, Euthydemus also ruled Sogdiana and
Ferghana, and there are indications that from Alexandria
Eschate the Greco-Bactrians may have led expeditions as
far as Kashgar and Ürümqi in Chinese Turkestan, leading
to the first known contacts between China and the West
around 220 BC. The Greek historian Strabo too writes
that:
“they extended their empire even as far as
the Seres (Chinese) and the Phryni extquotedbl
(Strabo, XI.XI.I[36] ).
Several statuettes and representations of Greek soldiers
have been found north of the Tien Shan, on the doorstep
to China, and are today on display in the Xinjiang mu-
seum at Urumqi (Boardman[42] ).
Greek influences on Chinese art have also been suggested
(Hirth, Rostovtzeff). Designs with rosette flowers, ge-
ometric lines, and glass inlays, suggestive of Hellenistic
influences,[43] can be found on some early Han dynasty
bronze mirrors.[44]
Numismatics also suggest that some technology ex-
changes may have occurred on these occasions: the
Greco-Bactrians were the first in the world to issue cupro-
nickel (75/25 ratio) coins,[45] an alloy technology only
known by the Chinese at the time under the name “White
copper” (some weapons from the Warring States period
were in copper-nickel alloy[46] ). The practice of export-
ing Chinese metals, in particular iron, for trade is at-
tested around that period. Kings Euthydemus, Euthyde-
mus II, Agathocles and Pantaleon made these coin issues
around 170 BC and it has alternatively been suggested
that a nickeliferous copper ore was the source from mines
at Anarak.[47] Copper-nickel would not be used again in
coinage until the 19th century.
62 CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM

The presence of Chinese people in India from an- the traditional Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism, di-
cient times is also suggested by the accounts of the recting his efforts towards the Indian and the Hellenistic
extquotedblCiñas extquotedbl in the Mahabharata and worlds from around 250 BC. According to the Edicts of
the Manu Smriti. Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, he
The Han Dynasty explorer and ambassador Zhang Qian sent Buddhist emissaries to the Greek lands in Asia and
visited Bactria in 126 BC, and reported the presence of as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts name each of the
Chinese products in the Bactrian markets: rulers of the Hellenistic world at the time.

extquotedbl extquotedblWhen I was in Bactria
(Daxia) extquotedbl, Zhang Qian reported, “I
saw bamboo canes from Qiong and cloth made
in the province of Shu (territories of southwest-
ern China). When I asked the people how they
had gotten such articles, they replied, “Our mer-
chants go buy them in the markets of Shendu
(India). extquotedbl extquotedbl (Shiji 123,
Sima Qian, trans. Burton Watson).
“The conquest by Dharma has been won here,
on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas
(4,000 miles) away, where the Greek king
Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four
kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and
Alexander rule, likewise in the south among
the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as
Tamraparni.” (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock
Edict, S. Dhammika).

Upon his return, Zhang Qian informed the Chinese em- Some of the Greek populations that had remained in
peror Han Wudi of the level of sophistication of the ur- northwestern India apparently converted to Buddhism:
ban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria and Parthia, who
became interested in developing commercial relationship “Here in the king’s domain among the Greeks,
them: the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamk-
its, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and
“The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned the Palidas, everywhere people are following
thus: Ferghana (Dayuan) and the possessions Beloved-of-the-Gods’ instructions in Dharma.”
of Bactria (Daxia) and Parthia (Anxi) are large (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dham-
countries, full of rare things, with a population mika).
living in fixed abodes and given to occupations
somewhat identical with those of the Chinese
Furthermore, according to Pali sources, some of
people, and placing great value on the rich pro-
Ashoka’s emissaries were Greek Buddhist monks, indi-
duce of China” (Hanshu, Former Han History).
cating close religious exchanges between the two cul-
tures:
A number of Chinese envoys were then sent to Central
Asia, triggering the development of the Silk Road from
the end of the 2nd century BC.[48] “When the thera (elder) Moggaliputta, the il-
luminator of the religion of the Conqueror
The Indian emperor Chandragupta, founder of the (Ashoka), had brought the (third) council
Mauryan dynasty, had re-conquered northwestern India to an end… he sent forth theras, one here
upon the death of Alexander the Great around 322 BC. and one there: …and to Aparantaka (the
However, contacts were kept with his Greek neighbours “Western countries” corresponding to Gujarat
in the Seleucid Empire, a dynastic alliance or the recog- and Sindh) he sent the Greek (Yona) named
nition of intermarriage between Greeks and Indians were Dhammarakkhita... and the thera Ma-
established (described as an agreement on Epigamia in harakkhita he sent into the country of the Yona”.
Ancient sources), and several Greeks, such as the histo- (Mahavamsa XII).
rian Megasthenes, resided at the Mauryan court. Subse-
quently, each Mauryan emperor had a Greek ambassador Greco-Bactrians probably received these Buddhist emis-
at his court. saries (At least Maharakkhita, lit. “The Great Saved
Chandragupta’s grandson Asoka converted to the Bud- One”, who was “sent to the country of the Yona”) and
dhist faith and became a great proselytizer in the line of somehow tolerated the Buddhist faith, although little
22.2. HISTORY OF THE INDO-GREEK KINGDOM 63

proof remains. In the 2nd century AD, the Christian dog- persecution of Buddhists by Sungas are largely exagger-
matist Clement of Alexandria recognized the existence ated.
of Buddhist Sramanas among the Bactrians (“Bactrians”
meaning “Oriental Greeks” in that period), and even their
influence on Greek thought: 22.2 History of the Indo-Greek
“Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest util- kingdom
ity, flourished in antiquity among the barbar-
ians, shedding its light over the nations. And Main article: History of the Indo-Greek Kingdom
afterwards it came to Greece. First in its
ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; and
the Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the
Druids among the Gauls; and the Sramanas 22.2.1 Nature and quality of the sources
among the Bactrians ( extquotedblΣαρμαναίοι
Βάκτρων extquotedbl); and the philosophers Main article: Indo-Greeks (sources)
of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians,
who foretold the Saviour’s birth, and came into Some narrative history has survived for most of the Hel-
the land of Judea guided by a star. The In- lenistic world, at least of the kings and the wars;[54] this
dian gymnosophists are also in the number, is lacking for India. The main Greco-Roman source on
and the other barbarian philosophers. And the Indo-Greeks is Justin, who wrote an anthology drawn
of these there are two classes, some of them from the Roman historian Pompeius Trogus, who in turn
called Sramanas ( extquotedblΣαρμάναι ex- wrote, from Greek sources, at the time of Augustus Cae-
tquotedbl), and others Brahmins ( extquot- sar.[55] Justin tells the parts of Trogus’ history he finds
edblΒραφμαναι extquotedbl).” Clement of particularly interesting at some length; he connects them
Alexandria “The Stromata, or Miscellanies” by short and simplified summaries of the rest of the ma-
Book I, Chapter XV.[49] terial. In the process he has left 85% to 90% of Trogus
out; and his summaries are held together by phrases like
“meanwhile” (eodem tempore) and “thereafter” (deinde),
22.1.3 Rise of the Sungas (185 BC) which he uses very loosely. Where Justin covers peri-
ods for which there are other and better sources, he has
Main article: Sunga Empire occasionally made provable mistakes. As Develin, the re-
cent annotator of Justin, and Tarn both point out, Justin
In India, the Maurya Dynasty was overthrown around 185 is not trying to write history in our sense of the word; he
BC when Pusyamitra Sunga, the commander-in-chief of is collecting instructive moral anecdotes.[56] Justin does
Mauryan Imperial forces and a Brahmin, assassinated the find the customs and growth of the Parthians, which were
last of the Mauryan emperors Brhadrata.[50][51] Pusyami- covered in Trogus’ 41st book, quite interesting, and dis-
tra Sunga then ascended the throne and established the cusses them at length; in the process, he mentions four of
Sunga Empire, which extended its control as far west as the kings of Bactria and one Greek king of India.[57]
the Punjab. In addition to these dozen sentences, the geographer
Buddhist sources, such as the Asokavadana, mention that Strabo mentions India a few times in the course of
Pusyamitra was hostile towards Buddhists and allegedly his long dispute with Eratosthenes about the shape of
persecuted the Buddhist faith. A large number of Bud- Eurasia. Most of these are purely geographical claims,
dhist monasteries (viharas) were allegedly converted to but he does mention that Eratosthenes’ sources say that
Hindu temples, in such places as Nalanda, Bodhgaya, some of the Greek kings conquered further than Alexan-
Sarnath or Mathura. While it is established by secular der; Strabo does not believe them on this, but modern
sources that Hinduism and Buddhism were in competi- historians do; nor does he believe that Menander and
tion during this time, with the Sungas preferring the for- Demetrius son of Euthydemus conquered more tribes
mer to the latter, historians such as Etienne Lamotte[52] than Alexander[58] There is half a story about Menander
and Romila Thapar[53] argue that Buddhist accounts of in one of the books of Polybius which has not come down
64
Menander I (155–130 BC) is one of the few Indo-Greek kings
mentioned in both Graeco-Roman and Indian sources.
to us intact.[59]
There are Indian literary sources, ranging from the
Milinda Panha, a dialogue between a Buddhist sage
Nagasena and King Menander I, which includes some
incidental information on Menander’s biography and the
geography and institutions of his kingdom, down to a sen-
tence about Menander (presumably the same Menander)
and his attack on Pataliputra which happens to have sur-
vived as a standard example in grammar texts; none is
a narrative history. Names in these sources are consis-
tently Indianized, and there is some dispute whether, for
example, Dharmamitra represents “Demetrius” or is an
Indian prince with that name. There was also a Chinese
expedition to Bactria by Chang-k'ien under the Emperor
Wu of Han, recorded in the Records of the Grand His-
torian and Book of the Former Han, with additional evi-
dence in the Book of the Later Han; the identification of
places and peoples behind transcriptions into Chinese is
difficult, and several alternate interpretations have been
proposed.[60]
There is also significant archaeological evidence, includ-
ing some epigraphic evidence, for the Indo-Greek kings,
such as the mention of the “Yavana” embassy of king
Antialcidas on the Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha,[61] pri-
marily in Indic languages, which has the same problems
with names as the Indic literary evidence. But the chief
archaeological evidence is the coins.
There are coin finds of several dozen Indo-Greek rulers
in India; exactly how many is complicated to determine,
because the Greeks did not number their kings, and the
eastern Greeks did not date their coins. For example,
there are a substantial number of coin finds for a King
Demetrius, but authors have postulated one, two, or three
Demetriuses, and the same coins have been identified by
different enquirers as describing Demetrius I, Demetrius
II, or Demetrius III.[62] The following deductions have
CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM
been made from coins, in addition to mere existence:
• Kings who left many coins reigned long and pros-
perously.
• Hoards which contain many coins of the same king
come from his realm.
• Kings who use the same iconography are friendly,
and may well be from the same family,
• If a king overstrikes another king’s coins, this is
an important evidence to show that the overstriker
reigned after the overstruck. Overstrikes may indi-
cate that the two kings were enemies.
• Indo-Greek coins, like other Hellenistic coins, have
monograms in addition to their inscriptions. These
are generally held to indicate a mint official; there-
fore, if two kings issue coins with the same mono-
gram, they reigned in the same area, and if not im-
mediately following one another, have no long inter-
val between them.
All of these arguments are arguments of probability, and
have exceptions; one of Menander’s coins was found in
Wales.
The exact time and progression of the Bactrian expan-
sion into India is difficult to ascertain, but ancient au-
thors name Demetrius, Apollodotus, and Menander as
conquerors.[63]
22.2.2 Demetrius
Demetrius I was the son of Euthydemus I of Bactria;
there is an inscription from his father’s reign already of-
ficially hailing him as victorious. He also has one of
the few absolute dates in Indo-Greek history: after his
father held off Antiochus III for two years, 208–6 BC,
the peace treaty included the offer of a marriage be-
tween Demetrius and Antiochus’ daughter.[65] Coins of
Demetrius I have been found in Arachosia and in the
Kabul Valley; the latter would be the first entry of the
Greeks into India, as they defined it. There is also literary
evidence for a campaign eastward against the Seres and
the Phryni; but the order and dating of these conquests
is uncertain.[66] Demetrius I seems to have conquered
the Kabul valley, Arachosia and perhaps Gandhara;[67]
he struck no Indian coins, so either his conquests did not
penetrate that far into India or he died before he could
22.2. HISTORY OF THE INDO-GREEK KINGDOM 65

The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom Demetrius I (c. 205–

c. 170 BC), wearing the scalp of an elephant, symbol of his
conquests in India.[64]

Indo-Greek territory, with known campaigns and

consolidate them. On his coins, Demetrius I always car- battles.[72][73][74]
ries the elephant-helmet worn by Alexander, which seems
to be a token of his Indian conquests.[68] Bopearachchi
believes that Demetrius received the title of “King of In- Gandhara as well as western Punjab. Apollodotus I was
dia” following his victories south of the Hindu Kush.[69] succeeded by or ruled alongside Antimachus II, likely the
He was also given, though perhaps only posthumously, son of the Bactrian king Antimachus I.[77]
the title ανικητος (“Anicetos”, lit. Invincible) a cult ti- The next important Indo-Greek king was Menander
tle of Heracles, which Alexander had assumed; the later (from c. 165/155 BC) whose coins are frequently found
Indo-Greek kings Lysias, Philoxenus, and Artemidorus even in eastern Punjab. Menander seems to have begun
also took it.[70] Finally, Demetrius may have been the a second wave of conquests, and since he already ruled in
founder of a newly discovered Greek Era, starting in India, it seems likely that the easternmost conquests were
186/5 BC.[71] made by him.[78]
According to Apollodorus of Artemita, quoted by Strabo,
After Demetrius I the Indo-Greek territory for a while included the In-
dian coastal provinces of Sindh and possibly Gujarat.[79]
After the death of Demetrius, the Bactrian kings With archaeological methods, the Indo-Greek territory
Pantaleon and Agathocles struck the first bilingual coins can however only be confirmed from the Kabul Valley to
with Indian inscriptions found as far east as Taxila[75] the eastern Punjab, so Greek presence outside was prob-
so in their time (c. 185–170 BC) the Bactrian king- ably short-lived or less significant.
dom seems to have included Gandhara.[76] Several Bac- Some sources also claim that the Indo-Greeks may have
trian kings followed after Demetrius’ death, and it seems reached the Sunga capital Pataliputra in northeastern
likely that the civil wars between them made it possible India.[80] However, the nature of this expedition is a mat-
for Apollodotus I (from c. 180/175 BC) to make him- ter of controversy. One theory is that Indo-Greeks were
self independent as the first proper Indo-Greek king (who invited to join a raid led by local Indian kings down the
did not rule from Bactria). Large numbers of his coins Ganges river. The other is that it was a campaign likely
have been found in India, and he seems to have reigned in made by Menander. Irrespective it appears that Patalipu-
66 CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM

tra, if at all captured, was not held for long as the expe-
dition was forced to retreat, probably due to wars in their
own territories.[81] Menander’s reign saw the end of the
Indo-Greek expansion.
lie this side of the Hypanis, and also any parts
beyond the Hypanis of which an account has
been added by those who, after Alexander,
advanced beyond the Hypanis, to the Ganges
and Pataliputra.”
—Strabo, 15-1-27[86]

The seriousness of the attack is in some doubt: Menander

may merely have joined a raid led by Indian Kings down
the Ganges,[87] as Indo-Greek presence has not been con-
firmed this far east.
To the south, the Greeks may have occupied the areas of
the Sindh and Gujarat, including the strategic harbour of
Barygaza (Bharuch),[88] conquests also attested by coins
dating from the Indo-Greek ruler Apollodotus I and by
several ancient writers (Strabo 11; Periplus of the Ery-
thraean Sea, Chap. 41/47):[89]

“The Greeks... took possession, not only

of Patalene, but also, on the rest of the coast,
of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus
and Sigerdis.”
—Strabo 11.11.1[90]
An Indo-Greek stone palette showing Poseidon with attendants.
He wears a chiton tunic, a chlamys cape, and boots. 2nd–1st
century BC, Gandhara, Ancient Orient Museum.

The first conquests

Greek presence in Arachosia, where Greek populations

had been living since before the acquisition of the ter-
ritory by Chandragupta from Seleucus, is mentioned by
Isidore of Charax. He describes Greek cities there, one
of them called Demetrias, probably in honour of the con-
queror Demetrius.[82]
Apollodotus I (and Menander I) were mentioned by Pom-
pejus Trogus as important Indo-Greek kings.[83] It is the-
orized that Greek advances temporarily went as far as
the Sunga capital Pataliputra (today Patna) in eastern In-
dia. Senior considers that these conquests can only re-
fer to Menander:[84] Against this, John Mitchener con-
siders that the Greeks probably raided the Indian capital
of Pataliputra during the time of Demetrius,[85] though Menander I became the most important of the Indo-Greek
Mitchener’s analysis is not based on numismatic evi- rulers.[91]
dence.
Narain however dismisses the account of the Periplus as
“Of the eastern parts of India, then, there “just a sailor’s story”, and holds that coin finds are not nec-
have become known to us all those parts which essarily indicators of occupation.[92] Coin hoards suggest
22.2. HISTORY OF THE INDO-GREEK KINGDOM 67

that in Central India, the area of Malwa may also have But while this inscription may be interpreted as an in-
been conquered.[93] dication that Demetrius I was the king who made con-
Various Indian records describe Yavana attacks on quests in Punjab, it is still true that he never issued any
Mathura, Panchala, Saketa, and Pataliputra. The term Indian coins, and the restoration of his name in Kharosthi
Yavana is thought to be a transliteration of “Ionians” and on the Hathigumpha
[107]
inscription: Di-Mi-Ta, has been
is known to have designated Hellenistic Greeks (starting doubted. The “Di” is a reconstruction, and it may be
with the Edicts of Ashoka, where Ashoka writes about noted that the name of another Indo-Greek king, Amyn-
“the Yavana king Antiochus extquotedbl),[94] but may tas, is spelt A-Mi-Ta in Kharosthi and may fit in.
have sometimes referred to other foreigners as well af- Therefore, Menander remains the likeliest candidate for
ter the 1st century AD.[95] any advance east of Punjab.
Patanjali, a grammarian and commentator on Pāṇini
around 150 BC, describes in the Mahābhāsya, the in-
vasion in two examples using the imperfect tense of 22.2.3 Consolidation
Sanskrit, denoting a recent event:[96][97]

• extquotedblArunad Yavanah Sāketam extquotedbl

(“The Yavanas (Greeks) were besieging Saketa”)

• extquotedblArunad Yavano Madhyamikām

extquotedbl (“The Yavanas were besieging Mad-
hyamika” (the “Middle country”)).

Also the Brahmanical text of the Yuga Purana, which de-

scribes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy,
but is thought to be likely historical,[98][99][100] relates the
attack of the Indo-Greeks on the capital Pataliputra,[101]
a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates
according to Megasthenes,[102] and describes the ultimate
destruction of the city’s walls:[103]

“Then, after having approached Saketa

together with the Panchalas and the Mathuras, Eucratides I toppled the Greco-Bactrian Euthydemid dynasty,
the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach and attacked the Indo-Greeks from the west.
Kusumadhvaja (“The town of the flower-
standard”, Pataliputra). Then, once Puspapura
The important Bactrian king Eucratides seems to have
(another name of Pataliputra) has been
attacked the Indo-Greek kingdom during the mid 2nd
reached and its celebrated mud-walls cast
century BC. A Demetrius, called “King of the Indians”,
down, all the realm will be in disorder.”
seems to have confronted Eucratides in a four-month
—Yuga Purana, Paragraph 47–48, quoted in
siege, reported by Justin, but he ultimately lost.[108]
Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, 2002 edition
In any case, Eucratides seems to have occupied territory
as far as the Indus, between ca. 170 BC and 150 BC.[109]
Earlier authors such as Tarn have suggested that the raid His advances were[110] ultimately checked by the Indo-Greek
on Pataliputra was made by Demetrius. [104]
According king Menander I,
to Mitchener, the Hathigumpha inscription indicates the Menander is considered to have been probably the most
presence of the Greeks led by a “Demetrius” in eastern successful Indo-Greek king, and the conqueror of the
India (Magadha) during the 1st century BC,[105] although largest territory.[111] The finds of his coins are the most
this interpretation was previously disputed by Narain.[106] numerous and the most widespread of all the Indo-Greek
68
kings. Menander is also remembered in Buddhist liter-
ature, where he called Milinda, and is described in the
Milinda Panha as a convert to Buddhism:[112] he became
an arhat[113] whose relics were enshrined in a manner
reminiscent of the Buddha.[114][115] He also introduced
a new coin type, with Athena Alkidemos (“Protector of
the people”) on the reverse, which was adopted by most
of his successors in the East.[116]
Fall of Bactria and death of Menander
From the mid-2nd century BC, the Scythians and then
the Yuezhi, following a long migration from the border
of China, started to invade Bactria from the north.[117]
Around 130 BC the last Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles
was probably killed during the invasion and the Greco-
Bactrian kingdom proper ceased to exist. The Parthians
also probably played a role in the downfall of the Bactrian
kingdom.
Coin of Philoxenus (c. 100 BC), unarmed, making a blessing
gesture with the right hand.
The Indo-Greek states, shielded by the Hindu Kush
range, were saved from the invasions, but the civil wars
which had weakened the Greeks continued. Menander I
died around the same time, and even though the king him-
self seems to have been popular among his subjects, his
dynasty was at least partially dethroned (see discussion
under Menander I). Probable members of the dynasty of
Menander include the ruling queen Agathokleia, her son
CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM
Strato I, and Nicias, though it is uncertain whether they
ruled directly after Menander.[118] Other kings emerged,
usually in the western part of the Indo-Greek realm, such
as Zoilos I, Lysias, Antialcidas and Philoxenos.[119] These
rulers may have been relatives of either the Eucratid or
the Euthydemid dynasties. The names of later kings were
often new (members of Hellenistic dynasties usually in-
herited family names) but old reverses and titles were fre-
quently repeated by the later rulers.
While all Indo-Greek kings after Apollodotus I mainly
issued bilingual (Greek and Kharoshti) coins for circula-
tion in their own territories, several of them also struck
rare Greek coins which have been found in Bactria. The
later kings probably struck these coins as some kind of
payment to the Scythian or Yuezhi tribes who now ruled
there, though if as tribute or payment for mercenaries
remains unknown.[120] For some decades after the Bac-
trian invasion, relationships seem to have been peaceful
between the Indo-Greeks and these relatively hellenised
nomad tribes.
There are however no historical recordings of events in
the Indo-Greek kingdom after Menander’s death around
130 BC, since the Indo-Greeks had now become very iso-
lated from the rest of the Graeco-Roman world. The later
history of the Indo-Greek states, which lasted to around
the shift BC/AD, is reconstructed almost entirely from
archaeological and numismatical analyses.[121]
22.2.4 Later History
Throughout the 1st century BC, the Indo-Greeks pro-
gressively lost ground to the Indians in the east, and
the Scythians, the Yuezhi, and the Parthians in the
West. About 20 Indo-Greek king are known during this
period,[122] down to the last known Indo-Greek ruler, a
king named Strato II, who ruled in the Punjab region un-
til around 55 BC.[123] Other sources, however, place the
end of Strato II’s reign as late as 10 AD – see below in
the list of coins.
Loss of Eastern territories (circa 100 BC)
The Indo-Greeks may have ruled as far as the area of
Mathura until the 1st century BC: the Maghera inscrip-
tion, from a village near Mathura, records the dedica-
tion of a well “in the one hundred and sixteenth year of
the reign of the Yavanas”, which could be as late as 70
22.2. HISTORY OF THE INDO-GREEK KINGDOM
Coin of the Yaudheyas.
Karttikeya with Vel and Seval (peacock), coin of the Yaudheyas.
BC.[124] Soon however Indian kings recovered the area
of Mathura and south-eastern Punjab(modern day South-
ern Haryana), west of the Yamuna River, and started
to mint their own coins. The Arjunayanas (area of
Mathura) and Yaudheyas mention military victories on
their coins (“Victory of the Arjunayanas”, “Victory of the
Yaudheyas”). During the 1st century BC, the Trigartas,
Audumbaras[125] and finally the Kunindas[126] also started
to mint their own coins, usually in a style highly reminis-
69
cent of Indo-Greek coinage.[127][128][129][130]
The Western king Philoxenus briefly occupied the whole
remaining Greek territory from the Paropamisadae to
Western Punjab between 100 to 95 BC, after what the
territories fragmented again. The western kings regained
their territory as far west as Arachosia, and eastern kings
continued to rule on and off until the beginning of our
era.
Scythian invasions (80 BC-20 AD)
Main article: Indo-Scythians
Around 80 BC, an Indo-Scythian king named Maues,
Tetradrachm of Hippostratos, reigned circa 65–55 BC.
Silver coin of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II (r. c. 35–12 BC).
possibly a general in the service of the Indo-Greeks, ruled
for a few years in northwestern India before the Indo-
Greeks again took control. He seems to have been mar-
ried to an Indo-Greek princess.[131] King Hippostratos
(65–55 BC) seems to have been one of the most suc-
cessful subsequent Indo-Greek kings until he lost to the
Indo-Scythian Azes I, who established an Indo-Scythian
dynasty.[132] Various coins seem to suggest that some
sort of alliance may have taken place between the Indo-
Greeks and the Scythians.[133]
70 CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM

Although the Indo-Scythians clearly ruled militarily AD in the name of a king Theodamas, from the Bajaur
and politically, they remained surprisingly respectful of area of Gandhara, in modern Pakistan. No coins of him
Greek and Indian cultures. Their coins were minted are known, but the signet bears in kharoshthi script the in-
in Greek mints, continued using proper Greek and scription “Su Theodamasa”, “Su” being explained as the
Kharoshthi legends, and incorporated depictions of Greek transliteration of the ubiquitous Kushan royal title
Greek deities, particularly Zeus.[134] The Mathura lion “Shau” ( extquotedblShah extquotedbl, “King”).[138]
capital inscription attests that they adopted the Buddhist
faith, as do the depictions of deities forming the vitarka
mudra on their coins. Greek communities, far from being 22.3 Ideology
exterminated, probably persisted under Indo-Scythian
rule. There is a possibility that a fusion, rather than a con-
frontation, occurred between the Greeks and the Indo-
Scythians: in a recently published coin, Artemidoros
presents himself as “son of Maues”,[135] and the Buner
reliefs show Indo-Greeks and Indo-Scythians reveling in
a Buddhist context.
The Indo-Greeks continued to rule a territory in the east-
ern Punjab, until the kingdom of the last Indo-Greek king
Strato was taken over by the Indo-Scythian ruler Rajuvula
around 10 AD.[136]
Bilingual silver drachm of Menander I (160–135 BC). With ob-
verse in Greek “BASILEOS SOTĒROS MENANDROY” and re-
Western Yuezhi or Saka expansion (70 BC-)
verse in Kharosthi “MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA ex-
tquotedbl: “Of The Saviour King Menander”. Reverse shows
Main article: Yuezhi Athena advancing left, with thunderbolt and shield.

Around eight “western” Indo-Greek kings are known;

most of them are distinguished by their issues of Attic
coins for circulation in the neighbouring region.
One of the last important kings in the Paropamisadae was
Hermaeus, who ruled until around 80 BC; soon after his
death the Yuezhi or Sakas took over his areas from neigh-
bouring Bactria. When Hermaeus is depicted on his coins
riding a horse, he is equipped with the recurve bow and
bow-case of the steppes and RC Senior believes him to be
of partly nomad origin. The later king Hippostratus may
however also have held territories in the Paropamisadae. Indian-standard coin of Apollodotus I (180–160 BC).
After the death of Hermaeus, the Yuezhi or Saka no- Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and
mads became the new rulers of the Paropamisadae, and their rule, especially that of Menander, has been re-
minted vast quantities of posthumous issues of Hermaeus membered as benevolent. It has been suggested, al-
up to around 40 AD, when they blend with the coinage though direct evidence is lacking, that their invasion of
of the Kushan king Kujula Kadphises.[137] The first docu- India was intended to show their support for the Mauryan
mented Yuezhi prince, Sapadbizes, ruled around 20 BC, empire which may have had a long history of mari-
and minted in Greek and in the same style as the western tal alliances,[139] exchange of presents,[140] demonstra-
Indo-Greek kings, probably depending on Greek mints tions of friendship,[141] exchange of ambassadors[142] and
and celators. religious missions[143] with the Greeks. The historian
The last known mention of an Indo-Greek ruler is sug- Diodorus even wrote that the king of Pataliputra had
gested by an inscription on a signet ring of the 1st century “great love for the Greeks”.[144][145]
22.4. RELIGION 71

The Greek expansion into Indian territory may have been 22.4 Religion
intended to protect Greek populations in India,[146] and
to protect the Buddhist faith from the religious persecu- Main article: Religions of the Indo-Greeks
tions of the Sungas.[147] The city of Sirkap founded by See also: Greco-Buddhism
Demetrius combines Greek and Indian influences with- In addition to the worship of the Classical pantheon of
out signs of segregation between the two cultures.
The first Greek coins to be minted in India, those of
Menander I and Appolodotus I bear the mention “Saviour
king” (ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ), a title with high value in
the Greek world which indicated an important deflective
victory. For instance, Ptolemy I had been Soter (saviour)
because he had helped save Rhodes from Demetrius the
Besieger, and Antiochus I because he had saved Asia Mi-
nor from the Gauls. The title was also inscribed in Pali
as (“Tratarasa”) on the reverse of their coins. Menander
and Apollodotus may indeed have been saviours to the
Greek populations residing in India, and to some of the
Indians as well.[148]
Also, most of the coins of the Greek kings in India were
bilingual, written in Greek on the front and in Pali on
the back (in the Kharosthi script, derived from Aramaic, A Jain Temple at Sirkap, part of the Indo-Greek kingdom, near
rather than the more eastern Brahmi, which was used modern day Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan
only once on coins of Agathocles of Bactria), a tremen-
dous concession to another culture never before made in
the Hellenic world.[149] From the reign of Apollodotus
II, around 80 BC, Kharosthi letters started to be used as
mintmarks on coins in combination with Greek mono-
grams and mintmarks, suggesting the participation of lo-
cal technicians to the minting process.[150] Incidentally,
these bilingual coins of the Indo-Greeks were the key in
the decipherment of the Kharoshthi script by James Prin-
sep (1799–1840).[151] Kharoshthi became extinct around
the 3rd century AD.
In Indian literature, the Indo-Greeks are described as Indian-standard coinage of Menander I with an eight-spoked
Yavanas (in Sanskrit),[152][153][154] or Yonas (in Pali)[155] wheel and a palm of victory on the reverse (British Museum).
both thought to be transliterations of extquotedblIonians
extquotedbl. In the Harivamsa the “Yavana” Indo- the Greek deities found on their coins (Zeus, Herakles,
Greeks are qualified, together with the Sakas, Kambojas, Athena, Apollo...), the Indo-Greeks were involved with
Pahlavas and Paradas as Kshatriya-pungava i.e. foremost local faiths, particularly with Buddhism, but also with
among the Warrior caste, or Kshatriyas. The Majjhima Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.[157]
Nikaya explains that in the lands of the Yavanas and
Kambojas, in contrast with the numerous Indian castes, After the Greco-Bactrians militarily occupied parts of
there were only two classes of people, Aryas and Dasas northern India from around 180 BC, numerous in-
(masters and slaves). stances of interaction between Greeks and Buddhism are
recorded. Menander I, the “Saviour king”, seems to have
converted to Buddhism,[158] and is described as a great
benefactor of the religion, on a par with Ashoka or the
future Kushan emperor Kanishka.[159] The wheel he rep-
resented on some of his coins was probably Buddhist,[160]
72
Evolution of the Butkara stupa, a large part of which occurred
during the Indo-Greek period, through the addition of Hellenistic
architectural elements.[156]
and he is famous for his dialogues with the Buddhist
monk Nagasena, transmitted to us in the Milinda Panha,
which explain that he became a Buddhist arhat:
“And afterwards, taking delight in the
wisdom of the Elder, he (Menander) handed
over his kingdom to his son, and abandoning
the household life for the house-less state,
grew great in insight, and himself attained to
Arahatship! extquotedbl
—The Questions of King Milinda, Translation
by T. W. Rhys Davids.
Another Indian text, the Stupavadana of Ksemendra,
mentions in the form of a prophecy that Menander will
build a stupa in Pataliputra.[161]
Plutarch also presents Menander as an example of benev-
olent rule, and explains that upon his death, the honour
of sharing his remains was claimed by the various cities
under his rule, and they were enshrined in “monuments”
(μνημεία, probably stupas), in a parallel with the historic
Buddha:[162]
“But when one Menander, who had
reigned graciously over the Bactrians, died
afterwards in the camp, the cities indeed by
common consent celebrated his funerals; but
coming to a contest about his relics, they were
difficultly at last brought to this agreement,
that his ashes being distributed, everyone
CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM
should carry away an equal share, and they
should all erect monuments to him.”
—Plutarch, “Political Precepts” Praec. reip.
ger. 28, 6).[163]
The Butkara stupa was “monumentalized” by the addi-
tion of Hellenistic architectural decorations during Indo-
Greek rule in the 2nd century BC.[156]
22.5 Art
Main article: Art of the Indo-Greeks
In general, the art of the Indo-Greeks is poorly doc-
Greek Buddhist devotees, holding plantain leaves, in purely Hel-
lenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, Buner relief, Victoria
and Albert Museum.
umented, and few works of art (apart from their coins
and a few stone palettes) are directly attributed to them.
The coinage of the Indo-Greeks however is generally
considered as some of the most artistically brilliant of
Antiquity.[164] The Hellenistic heritage (Ai-Khanoum)
and artistic proficiency of the Indo-Greek world would
suggest a rich sculptural tradition as well, but traditionally
very few sculptural remains have been attributed to them.
On the contrary, most Gandharan Hellenistic works of
art are usually attributed to the direct successors of the
Indo-Greeks in India in 1st century AD, such as the no-
madic Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians and, in an al-
ready decadent state, the Kushans[165] In general, Gand-
haran sculpture cannot be dated exactly, leaving the exact
chronology open to interpretation.
The possibility of a direct connection between the Indo-
Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art has been reaffirmed re-
cently as the dating of the rule of Indo-Greek kings has
been extended to the first decades of the 1st century
AD, with the reign of Strato II in the Punjab.[166] Also,
Foucher, Tarn, and more recently, Boardman, Bussagli
22.5. ART 73

Hellenistic culture in the Indian subcontinent: Greek clothes,

amphoras, wine and music (Detail of Chakhil-i-Ghoundi stupa,
Hadda, Gandhara, 1st century AD).

and McEvilley have taken the view that some of the

most purely Hellenistic works of northwestern India and
Afghanistan, may actually be wrongly attributed to later
centuries, and instead belong to a period one or two cen-
turies earlier, to the time of the Indo-Greeks in the 2nd–
1st century BC:[167]
. This is particularly the case of some purely Hel-
lenistic works in Hadda, Afghanistan, an area which
“might indeed be the cradle of incipient Buddhist sculp-
ture in Indo-Greek style”.[169] Referring to one of the
Buddha triads in Hadda, in which the Buddha is sided
by very Classical depictions of Herakles/Vajrapani and
Tyche/Hariti, Boardman explains that both figures “might
at first (and even second) glance, pass as, say, from Asia
Minor or Syria of the first or second century BC (...)
these are essentially Greek figures, executed by artists
fully conversant with far more than the externals of the
Classical style”.[170]
Alternatively, it has been suggested that these works of art
may have been executed by itinerant Greek artists during
the time of maritime contacts with the West from the 1st
to the 3rd century AD.[171]
The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, beyond the om-
nipresence of Greek style and stylistic elements which
might be simply considered as an enduring artistic Standing Bodhisattva Gandhara at Guimet Museum, Paris,
tradition,[172] offers numerous depictions of people in France. Ancient Greeks (Indo-Greeks) may have been the earli-
Greek Classical realistic style, attitudes and fashion est features for the Buddhist culture in India.[168]
(clothes such as the chiton and the himation, similar in
form and style to the 2nd century BC Greco-Bactrian
statues of Ai-Khanoum, hairstyle), holding contraptions “kantaros” Greek drinking cups), in situations which
which are characteristic of Greek culture (amphoras, can range from festive (such as Bacchanalian scenes) to
74
Buddhist-devotional.[173][174]
Seated Boddhisatva, Gandhara, 2nd century (Ostasiatische Mu-
seum, Berlin)
Uncertainties in dating make it unclear whether these
works of art actually depict Greeks of the period of
Indo-Greek rule up to the 1st century BC, or remaining
Greek communities under the rule of the Indo-Parthians
or Kushans in the 1st and 2nd century AD. Benjamin
Rowland thinks that the Indo-Greeks, rather than the
Indo-Scythians or the Kushans, may have been the mod-
els for the Bodhisattva statues of Gandhara[175]
22.6 Economy
Very little is known about the economy of the
Indo-Greeks, although it seems to have been rather
vibrant.[176][177] The abundance of their coins would tend
to suggest large mining operations, particularly in the
mountainous area of the Hindu-Kush, and an important
monetary economy. The Indo-Greek did strike bilin-
gual coins both in the Greek “round” standard and in
the Indian “square” standard,[178] suggesting that mon-
etary circulation extended to all parts of society. The
CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM
adoption of Indo-Greek monetary conventions by neigh-
bouring kingdoms, such as the Kunindas to the east and
the Satavahanas to the south,[179] would also suggest that
Indo-Greek coins were used extensively for cross-border
trade.
22.6.1 Tribute payments
Stone palette depicting a mythological scene, 2nd–1st century BC.
It would also seem that some of the coins emitted by the
Indo-Greek kings, particularly those in the monolingual
Attic standard, may have been used to pay some form of
tribute to the Yuezhi tribes north of the Hindu-Kush.[120]
This is indicated by the coins finds of the Qunduz hoard
in northern Afghanistan, which have yielded quantities
of Indo-Greek coins in the Hellenistic standard (Greek
weights, Greek language), although none of the kings
represented in the hoard are known to have ruled so far
north.[180] Conversely, none of these coins have ever been
found south of the Hindu-Kush.[181]
22.6.2 Trade with China
The Indo-Greek kings in Southern Asia issued the first
known cupro-nickel coins, with Euthydemus II, dating
from 180 to 170 BC, and his younger brothers Pantaleon
and Agathocles around 170 BC. As only China was able
to produce cupro-nickel at that time, and as the alloy ra-
tios are exclusively similar, it has been suggested that the
22.7. ARMED FORCES 75

the time Indo-Greek rule was ending, up to 120 ships

were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India
(Strabo Geog. II.5.12).[184]

22.7 Armed forces

Cupro-nickel coins of king Pantaleon point to a Chinese origin of

the metal.[182]

metal was the result of exchanges between China and

Bactria.[182]
An indirect testimony by the Chinese explorer Zhang
Qian, who visited Bactria around 128 BC, suggests that
intense trade with Southern China was going through
northern India. Zhang Qian explains that he found Chi-
nese products in the Bactrian markets, and that they were
transiting through northwestern India, which he inciden-
tally describes as a civilization similar to that of Bactria:

“When I was in Bactria”, Zhang Qian

reported, “I saw bamboo canes from Qiong
and cloth (silk?) made in the province of
Shu. When I asked the people how they
had gotten such articles, they replied: “Our
merchants go buy them in the markets of
Shendu (northwestern India). Shendu, they
told me, lies several thousand li southeast of
Bactria. The people cultivate land, and live
much like the people of Bactria”.
—Sima Qian, “Records of the Great Histo-
rian”, trans. Burton Watson, p. 236.

22.6.3 Indian Ocean trade

Maritime relations across the Indian ocean started in the
3rd century BC, and further developed during the time
of the Indo-Greeks together with their territorial expan-
Athena in the art of Gandhara.
sion along the western coast of India. The first con-
tacts started when the Ptolemies constructed the Red Sea
ports of Myos Hormos and Berenike, with destination the The coins of the Indo-Greeks provide rich clues on their
Indus delta, the Kathiawar peninsula or Muziris. Around uniforms and weapons. Typical Hellenistic uniforms are
130 BC, Eudoxus of Cyzicus is reported (Strabo, Geog. depicted, with helmets being either round in the Greco-
II.3.4)[183] to have made a successful voyage to India and Bactrian style, or the flat kausia of the Macedonians
returned with a cargo of perfumes and gemstones. By (coins of Apollodotus I).
76 CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM

22.7.1 Military technology

Their weapons were spears, swords, longbow (on the

coins of Agathokleia) and arrows. Interestingly, around
130 BC, the Central Asian recurve bow of the steppes
with its gorytos box started to appear for the first time on
the coins of Zoilos I, suggesting strong interactions (and
apparently an alliance) with nomadic peoples, either the
Yuezhi or the Scythians.[185] The recurve bow becomes
a standard feature of Indo-Greek horsemen by 90 BC, as
seen on some of the coins of Hermaeus.
Generally, Indo-Greek kings are often represented riding
horses, as early as the reign of Antimachus II around 160
BC. The equestrian tradition probably goes back to the
Greco-Bactrians, who are said by Polybius to have faced
a Seleucid invasion in 210 BC with 10,000 horsemen.[186]
Although war elephants are never represented on coins, a
harness plate (phalera) dated to the 3–2nd century BC, to-
day in the Hermitage Museum, depicts a helmetted Greek
combatant on an Indian war elephant.
The Milinda Panha, in the questions of Nagasena to king
Menander, provides a rare glimpse of the military meth-
ods of the period:

extquotedbl(Nagasena) Has it ever happened

to you, O king, that rival kings rose up against
you as enemies and opponents?
-(Menander) Yes, certainly.
-Then you set to work, I suppose, to have moats
dug, and ramparts thrown up, and watch tow-
ers erected, and strongholds built, and stores of
food collected?
-Not at all. All that had been prepared before-
hand.
-Or you had yourself trained in the manage-
ment of war elephants, and in horsemanship,
and in the use of the war chariot, and in archery
and fencing?
-Not at all. I had learnt all that before.
-But why?
-With the object of warding off future danger.”
(Milinda Panha, Book III, Chap 7)
The Milinda Panha also describes the structure of
Menander’s army:
Indo-Greek officer (on a coin of Menander II), circa 90 BC, with
a cuirass, lamellar armour for the thighs, and leg protections
(cnemids), making a blessing gesture.[187]
“Now one day Milinda the king proceeded
forth out of the city to pass in review the in-
numerable host of his mighty army in its four-
fold array (of elephants, cavalry, bowmen, and
soldiers on foot).” (Milinda Panha, Book I)
22.7.2 Size of Indo-Greek armies
The armed forces of the Indo-Greeks engaged in impor-
tant battles with local Indian forces. The ruler of Kalinga,
Kharavela, claims in the Hathigumpha inscription that
he led a “large army” in the direction of Demetrius’
own “army” and “transports”, and that he induced him
to retreat from Pataliputra to Mathura. The Greek am-
bassador Megasthenes took special note of the military
strength of Kalinga in his Indica in the middle of the 3rd
century BC:
“The royal city of the Calingae (Kalinga)
22.8. LEGACY OF THE INDO-GREEKS 77

22.8 Legacy of the Indo-Greeks

Main article: Legacy of the Indo-Greeks
From the 1st century AD, the Greek communities of cen-

The Greco-Bactrian king Eucratides (171–145 BC) is said to

have vanquished 60,000 Indo-Greeks, before being himself de- The Indo-Scythian Taxila copper plate uses the Macedonian
feated by Menander. month of extquotedblPanemos extquotedbl for calendrical pur-
poses (British Museum).[192]

tral Asia and northwestern India lived under the control of

is called Parthalis. Over their king 60,000
the Kushan branch of the Yuezhi, apart from a short-lived
foot-soldiers, 1,000 horsemen, 700 elephants
invasion of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom.[193] The Kushans
keep watch and ward in “procinct of war.”
founded the Kushan Empire, which was to prosper for
—Megasthenes fragm. LVI. in Plin. Hist.
several centuries. In the south, the Greeks were under
Nat. VI. 21. 8–23. 11.[188]
the rule of the Western Kshatrapas. The Kalash tribe of
the Chitral Valley claim to be descendants of the Indo-
Greeks.
An account by the Roman writer Justin gives another hint
of the size of Indo-Greek armies, which, in the case of
the conflict between the Greco-Bactrian Eucratides and
the Indo-Greek Demetrius II, he numbers at 60,000 (al-
though they allegedly lost to 300 Greco-Bactrians):

extquotedblEucratides led many wars with

great courage, and, while weakened by them,
was put under siege by Demetrius, king of
the Indians. He made numerous sorties, and
managed to vanquish 60,000 enemies with
300 soldiers, and thus liberated after four
months, he put India under his rule”
—Justin, XLI,6[189]

These are considerable numbers, as large armies dur-

ing the Hellenistic period typically numbered between
20,000 to 30,000.[190]
The Indo-Greeks were later confronted by the nomadic
tribes from Central Asia (Yuezhi and Scythians). Ac-
cording to Zhang Qian, the Yuezhi represented a consid-
erable force of between 100,000 and 200,000 mounted Hellenistic couple from Taxila (IV).
archer warriors,[191] with customs identical to those of the
Xiongnu. It is unclear how much longer the Greeks managed to
78
maintain a distinct presence in the Indian sub-continent.
The legacy of the Indo-Greeks was felt however for sev-
eral centuries, from the usage of the Greek language and
calendrical methods,[194] to the influences on the numis-
matics of the Indian subcontinent, traceable down to the
period of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century.[195]
The Indo-Greeks may also have had some influence on
the religious plane as well, especially in relation to the
developing Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism
has been described as “the form of Buddhism which (re-
gardless of how Hinduized its later forms became) seems
to have originated in the Greco-Buddhist communities of
India, through a conflation of the Greek Democritean–
Sophistic–Skeptical tradition with the rudimentary and
unformalized empirical and skeptical elements already
present in early Buddhism”.[196]
22.9 List of the Indo-Greek kings
and their territories
Today 36 Indo-Greek kings are known. Several of
them are also recorded in Western and Indian historical
sources, but the majority are known through numismatic
evidence only. The exact chronology and sequencing of
their rule is still a matter of scholarly inquiry, with ad-
justments regular being made with new analysis and coin
finds (overstrikes of one king over another’s coins being
the most critical element in establishing chronological se-
quences). The system used here is adapted from Osmund
Bopearachchi, supplemented by the views of R C Senior
and occasionally other authorities.[197]
22.10 Footnotes
[1] As in other compounds such as “African-American”, the
area of origin usually comes first, and the area of arrival
comes second, so that “Greco-Indian” is normally a more
accurate nomenclature than “Indo-Greek”. The latter
however has become the general usage, especially since
the publication of Narain’s book “The Indo-Greeks”.
[2] Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius 11.34, a
Magnesian Greek. His son, Demetrius I, founder of the
Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek ethnicity at
least by his father. A marriage treaty was arranged for
the same Demetrius with a daughter of the Seleucid ruler
Antiochus III (who had some Persian descent). Polybius
CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM
11.34. The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less
clear (“Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and India”. W.
W. Tarn. Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 22 (1902),
pp. 268–293). For example, Artemidoros (80 BC) may
have been of Indo-Scythian ascendency. Some level of
inter-marriage may also have occurred, as exemplified by
Alexander III of Macedon (who married Roxana of Bac-
tria) or Seleucus (who married Apama).
[3] Mortimer Wheeler Flames over Persepolis (London,
1968). Pp. 112 ff. It is unclear whether the Hellenistic
street plan found by Sir John Marshall’s excavations dates
from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would
have encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179)
ascribes the initial move of Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to
Demetrius I, but sees this as “not a Greek city but an In-
dian one extquotedbl; not a polis or with a Hippodamian
plan.
[4] “Menander had his capital in Sagala” Bopearachchi,
“Monnaies”, p.83. McEvilley supports Tarn on both
points, citing Woodcock: “Menander was a Bactrian
Greek king of the Euthydemid dynasty. His capital (was)
at Sagala (Sialkot) in the Punjab, “in the country of the
Yonakas (Greeks) extquotedbl.” McEvilley, p.377. How-
ever, “Even if Sagala proves to be Sialkot, it does not seem
to be Menander’s capital for the Milindapanha states that
Menander came down to Sagala to meet Nagasena, just as
the Ganges flows to the sea.”
[5] “A vast hoard of coins, with a mixture of Greek profiles
and Indian symbols, along with interesting sculptures and
some monumental remains from Taxila, Sirkap and Sir-
sukh, point to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic in-
fluences”, India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.130
[6] Ghose, Sanujit (2011). “Cultural links between India and
the Greco-Roman world”. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
[7] “When the Greeks of Bactria and India lost their kingdom
they were not all killed, nor did they return to Greece.
They merged with the people of the area and worked
for the new masters; contributing considerably to the cul-
ture and civilization in southern and central Asia.” Narain,
“The Indo-Greeks” 2003, p.278
[8] Jairazbhoy, Rafique Ali (1995). Foreign influence in an-
cient Indo-Pakistan. Sind Book House. p. 100. ISBN
969-8281-00-2. “Apollodotus, founder of the Graeco- In-
dian kingdom (c. 160 BC).”
[9] India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p. 92-93
[10] “To the colonies settled in India, Python, the
son of Agenor, was sent.” Justin XIII.4
[11] India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p. 106-107
22.10. FOOTNOTES
[12] “Strabo 15.2.1(9) extquotedbl.
[13] India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.108-109
[14] “Three Greek ambassadors are known by name: Megas-
thenes, ambassador to Chandragupta; Deimachus, ambas-
sador to Chandragupta’s son Bindusara; and Dyonisius,
whom Ptolemy Philadelphus sent to the court of Ashoka,
Bindusara’s son”, McEvilley, p.367
[15] Classical sources have recorded that following their treaty,
Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as
when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:
“And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of
wondrous efficacy in such matters as to make people more
amorous. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to
some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the
Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms
in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some,
on the contrary, were to banish love” Athenaeus of Nau-
cratis, extquotedblThe deipnosophists extquotedbl Book
I, chapter 32 Ath. Deip. I.32. Mentioned in McEvilley,
p.367
[16] “The very fact that both Megasthenes and Kautilya refer
to a state department run and maintained specifically for
the purpose of looking after foreigners, who were mostly
Yavanas and Persians, testifies to the impact created by
these contacts.”, Narain, “The Indo-Greeks”, p.363
[17] “It also explains (...) random finds from the Sarnath,
Basarth, and Patna regions of terra-cotta pieces of dis-
tinctive Hellenistic or with definite Hellenistic motifs and
designs”, Narain, “The Indo-Greeks” 2003, p. 363
[18] “A minor rock edict, recently discovered at Kandahar, was
inscribed in two scripts, Greek and Aramaic”, India, the
Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p. 112
[19] “The second Kandahar edict (the purely Greek one) of
Asoka is a part of the “corpus” known as the “Fourteen-
Rock-Edicts extquotedbl extquotedbl Narain, “The Indo-
Greeks” 2003, p.452
[20] “It is also in Kandahar that were found the fragments of
a Greek translation of Edicts XII and XIII, as well as the
Aramean translation of another edict of Ashoka”, Bus-
sagli, p.89
[21] “Within Ashoka’s domain Greeks may have had spe-
cial privileges, perhaps ones established by the terms
of the Seleucid alliance. Rock Edict Thirteen indicates
the existence of a Greek principality in the northwest
of Ashoka’s empire -perhaps Kandahar, or Alexandria-
of-the-Arachosians- which was not ruled by him and for
which he troubled to send Buddhist missionaries and pub-
lished at least some of his edicts in Greek”, McEvilley, p.
368
79
[22] “Thirteen, the longest and most important of the edicts,
contains the claim, seemingly outlandish t first glance,
that Ashoka had sent missions to the lands of the Greek
monarchs -not only those of Asia, such as the Seleucids,
but those back in the Mediterranean also”, McEvilley,
p.368
[23] “When Ashoka was converted to Buddhism, his first
thought was to despatch missionaries to his friends, the
Greek monarchs of Egypt, Syria, and Macedonia”, Rawl-
inson, Intercourse between India and the Western world,
p.39, quoted in McEvilley, p.368
[24] “In Rock Edict Two Ashoka even claims to have estab-
lished hospitals for men and beasts in the Hellenistic king-
doms”, McEvilley, p. 368
[25] “One of the most famous of these emissaries, Dharmarak-
sita, who was said to have converted thousands, was a
Greek (Mhv.XII.5 and 34) extquotedbl, McEvilley, p.370
[26] “The Mahavamsa tells that “the celebrated Greek teacher
Mahadharmaraksita in the second century BC led a
delegation of 30,000 monks from Alexandria-of-the-
Caucasus (Alexandra-of-the-Yonas, or of-the-Greeks, the
Ceylonese text actually says) to the opening of the great
Ruanvalli Stupa at Anuradhapura extquotedbl extquot-
edbl, McEvilley, p. 370, quoting Woodcock, “The Greeks
in India”, p.55
[27] Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter XII
[28] “The finest of the pillars were executed by Greek or Perso-
Greek sculptors; others by local craftsmen, with or with-
out foreign supervision” Marshall, “The Buddhist art of
Gandhara”, p4
[29] “A number of foreign artisans, such as the Persians or
even the Greeks, worked alongside the local craftsmen,
and some of their skills were copied with avidity” Burjor
Avari, “India, The ancient past”, p. 118
[30] “Antiochos III, after having made peace with Euthydemus
I after the aborted siege of Bactra, renewed with Sopha-
gasenus the alliance concluded by his ancestor Seleucos
I”, Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.52
[31] “Polybius 11.39”.
[32] J. D. Lerner, The Impact of Seleucid Decline on the East-
ern Iranian Plateau: the Foundations of Arsacid Parthia
and Graeco-Bactria, (Stuttgart 1999)
[33] F. L. Holt, Thundering Zeus (Berkeley 1999)
[34] Justin XLI, paragraph 4
[35] Justin XLI, paragraph 1
80
[36] Strabo XI.XI.I
[37] Justin XLI
[38] Polybius 11.34
[39] Strabo 11.11.2
[40] Polybius 10.49, Battle of the Arius
[41] Polybius 11.34 Siege of Bactra
[42] On the image of the Greek kneeling warrior: “A bronze
figurine of a kneeling warrior, not Greek work, but wear-
ing a version of the Greek Phrygian helmet.. From a
burial, said to be of the 4th century BC, just north of the
Tien Shan range”. Ürümqi Xinjiang Museum. (Board-
man “The diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity”)
[43] Notice of the British Museum on the Zhou vase (2005, at-
tached image): “Red earthenware bowl, decorated with a
slip and inlaid with glass paste. Eastern Zhou period, 4th–
3rd century BC. This bowl was probably intended to copy
a more precious and possibly foreign vessel in bronze or
even silver. Glass was little used in China. Its popularity
at the end of the Eastern Zhou period was probably due
to foreign influence.”
[44] “The things which China received from the Graeco-
Iranian world-the pomegranate and other “Chang-Kien”
plants, the heavy equipment of the cataphract, the traces
of Greeks influence on Han art (such as) the famous white
bronze mirror of the Han period with Graeco-Bactrian de-
signs (...) in the Victoria and Albert Museum” (Tarn, The
Greeks in Bactria and India, pp. 363-364)
[45] Copper-Nickel coinage in Greco-Bactria.
[46] Ancient Chinese weapons A halberd of copper-nickel al-
loy, from the Warring States Period.
[47] A.A. Moss pp317-318 Numismatic Chronicle 1950
[48] C.Michael Hogan, Silk Road, North China, Megalithic
Portal, ed. A. Burnham
[49] Clement of Alexandria “The Stromata, or Miscellanies”
Book I, Chapter XV
[50] “General Pusyamitra, who is at the origin of the Sunga
dynasty. He was supported by the Brahmins and even be-
came the symbol of the Brahmanical turnover against the
Buddhism of the Mauryas. The capital was then trans-
ferred to Pataliputra (today’s Patna) extquotedbl, Bus-
sagli, p.99
[51] Pushyamitra is described as a “senapati” (Commander-in-
chief) of Brhadrata in the Puranas
CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM
[52] E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orien-
taliste, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988 (1958), p. 109.
[53] Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar,
Oxford University Press, 1960 p. 200
[54] See Polybius, Arrian, Livy, Cassius Dio, and Diodorus.
Justin, who will be discussed shortly, provides a summary
of the histories of Hellenistic Macedonia, Egypt, Asia,
and Parthia.
[55] For the date of Trogus, see the OCD on “Trogus” and
Yardley/Develin, p. 2; since Trogus’ father was in charge
of Julius Caesar's diplomatic missions before the history
was written (Justin 43.5.11), Senior’s date in the following
quotation is too early: “The Western sources for accounts
of Bactrian and Indo-Greek history are: Polybius, a Greek
born c.200 BC; Strabo, a Roman who drew on the lost
history of Apollodoros of Artemita (c. 130-87 BC), and
Justin, who drew on Trogus, a post 87 BC writer”, Senior,
Indo-Scythian coins IV, p.x; the extent to which Strabo is
citing Apollodorus is disputed, beyond the three places he
names Apollodorus (and he may have those through Er-
atosthenes). Polybius speaks of Bactria, not of India.
[56] Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Tro-
gus translated by J. C. Yardley, notes and introduction by
Robert Develin. (Atlanta 1994). The source for these
paragraphs, and the next insofar as it is not Justin, is the
Introduction pp. 1–11. See also Tarn (1951) p.50.
[57] Justin, 41.4.5, 41.4.8–9, 41.6.1–5, ed. cit.; The names of
Theodotus I and II; Eucratides and his unnamed parricidal
son; and “Demetrius, king of the Indians” (so Yardley: In-
dorum rex, Develin’s note implies this is Demetrius II, but
suggests that Demetrius I and II may be the same person.)
Theodotus in Justin’s text is clearly an error for Diodotus;
the two prefixes both mean “God”, no coins support his
existence, and Trogus’ tables of contents (the so-called
prologues) survive (Develin and Yardley, p.284) saying
Diodotus; they also include Indicae quoque res additae,
gestae per Apollodotum et Menandrum, reges eorum “some
Indian matters, namely the achievements of the Indian
kings, Apollodotus and Menander.”, although Justin does
not mention Apollodotus. Tarn, Narain, and Bopearchchi
all correct to Diodotus.
[58] Strabo, Geographia 11.11.1 p.516 Casaubon. 15.1.2, p.
686 Casaubon, “tribes” is Jones’ version of ethne (Loeb)
[59] For a list of classical testimonia, see Tarn’s Index II; but
this covers India, Bactria, and several sources for the Hel-
lenstic East as a whole.
[60] Tarn, App. 20; Narain (1957) pp. 136, 156 et alii.
22.10. FOOTNOTES
[61] “The Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription witnesses to the
presence of the Yavana Heliodorus son of Dion in Vidisa
as an envoy from Taxila of king Antialkidas around 140
BC”, Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, p.64
[62] Tarn and Narain postulate two Demetriuses; the former
thinks the Demetrius Anicetus coins describe Demetrius
I, although actually made by Demetrius II; the latter that
they are entirely by Demetrius II, and have nothing to do
with Demetrius I. Bopearachchi ascribes one more recent
find to Agathocles, but depicting Demetrius I; he postu-
lates a much later Demetrius III for the previously known
coins; this result is now fairly widely accepted by numis-
matists. The possibility of one Demetrius is attested by
Develin and Brill’s New Pauly, “Demetrius [4] extquot-
edbl
[63] This reconstruction is adapted mainly from the works of
Bopearachchi. Bopearachchi (1991,1998)
[64] Senior, Indo-Scythian coins, p.xii
[65] Polybius 11.34
[66] The first conquests of Demetrius have usually been held
to be during his father’s lifetime; the difference has been
over the actual date. Tarn and Narain agreed on having
them begin around 180; Bopearachchi moved this back to
200, and has been followed by much of the more recent
literature, but see Brill’s New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the
Ancient World (Boston, 2006) “Demetrius” §10, which
places the invasion “probably in 184”. D.H. MacDowall,
“The Role of Demetrius in Arachosia and the Kabul Val-
ley”, published in the volume: O. Bopearachchi, Landes
(ed), Afghanistan Ancien Carrefour Entre L'Est Et L'Ouest,
(Brepols 2005) discusses an inscription dedicated to Eu-
thydemus, “Greatest of all kings” and his son Demetrius,
who is not called king but “Victorious” (Kallinikos). This
is taken to indicate that Demetrius was his father’s gen-
eral during the first conquests. It is uncertain whether
the Kabul valley or Arachosia were conquered first, and
whether the latter province was taken from the Seleu-
cids after their defeat by the Romans in 190 BC. Peculiar
enough, more coins of Euthydemus I than of Demetrius
I have been found in the mentioned provinces. The cal-
endar of the “Yonas” is proven by an inscription giving
a triple synchronism to have begun in 186/5 BC; what
event is commemorated is itself uncertain. Richard Sa-
lomon “The Indo-Greek era of 186/5 B.C. in a Buddhist
reliquary inscription”, in Afghanistan, Ancien Carrefour
cited.
[67] “Demetrius occupied a large part of the Indus delta,
Saurashtra and Kutch”, Burjor Avari, p.130
81
[68] “It would be impossible to explain otherwise why in all his
portraits Demetrios is crowned with an elephant scalp”,
Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.53
[69] “We think that the conquests of these regions south of the
Hindu Kush brought to Demetrius I the title of “King of
India” given to him by Apollodorus of Artemita.” Bopear-
achchi, p.52
[70] For Heracles, see Lillian B. Lawler extquotedblOrchesis
Kallinikos extquotedbl Transactions and Proceedings of
the American Philological Association, Vol. 79. (1948),
pp. 254–267, p. 262; for Artemidorus, see K. Wal-
ton Dobbins extquotedblThe Commerce of Kapisene and
Gandhāra after the Fall of Indo-Greek Rule extquotedbl
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Ori-
ent, Vol. 14, No. 3. (Dec., 1971), pp. 286–302 (Both
JSTOR). Tarn, p.132, argues that Alexander did not as-
sume as a title, but was only hailed by it, but see Peter
Green, The Hellenistic Age, p.7; see also Senior, Indo-
Scythian coins, p.xii. No undisputed coins of Demetrius
I himself use this title, but it is employed on one of the
pedigree coins issued by Agathocles, which bear on the
reverse the classical profile of Demetrius crowned by the
elephant scalp, with the legend DEMETRIOS ANIKE-
TOS, and on the reverse Herakles crowning himself, with
the legend “Of king Agathocles” (Boppearachchi, “Mon-
naies”, p.179 and Pl 8). Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and
India, Chap IV.
[71] “It now seems most likely that Demetrios was the founder
of the newly discovered Greek Era of 186/5”, Senior,
Indo-Scythian coins IV
[72] Davies, Cuthbert Collin (1959). An Historical Atlas of the
Indian Peninsula. Oxford University Press.
[73] Narain, A.K. (1976). The Coin Types of the Indo-Greek
Kings. Ares. ISBN 0-89005-109-7.
[74] Hans Erich Stier, Georg Westermann Verlag, Ernst
Kirsten, and Ekkehard Aner. Grosser Atlas zur Welt-
geschichte: Vorzeit. Altertum. Mittelalter. Neuzeit. West-
ermann, 1978, ISBN 3-14-100919-8.
[75] MacDowall, 2004
[76] “The only thing that seems reasonnably sure is that Tax-
ila was part of the domain of Agathocles”, Bopearachchi,
Monnaies, p.59
[77] Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.63
[78] “There is certainly some truth in Apollodorus and Strabo
when they attribute to Menander the advances made by
the Greeks of Bactria beyond the Hypanis and even as
far as the Ganges and Palibothra (...) That the Yavanas
82
advanced even beyond in the east, to the Ganges-Jamuna
valley, about the middle of the second century BC is sup-
ported by the cumulative evidence provided by Indian
sources”, Narain, “The Indo-Greeks” p.267.
[79] “The Greeks... took possession, not only of Patalena, but
also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the king-
dom of Saraostus and Sigerdis.” Strabo 11.11.1 (Strabo
11.11.1)
[80] The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places Edu-
cational Britannica Educational p.156
[81] “The combination of textual and numismatic evidence al-
lows to see what was the conflict between Eucratides and
Menander. When Menander was engaged in a bloody con-
quest of the Ganges valley, Eucratides I would have taken
advantage of this opportunity to invade his kingdom. This
would be the “civil war” mentioned in the Yuga Purana;
this would explain that Menander had to stop his conquest
of the Ganges valley, and had to return hastily to face the
aggressor”, Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.85
[82] In the 1st century BC, the geographer Isidorus of Charax
mentions Parthians ruling over Greek populations and
cities in Arachosia: “Beyond is Arachosia. And the
Parthians call this White India; there are the city of Biyt
and the city of Pharsana and the city of Chorochoad and
the city of Demetrias; then Alexandropolis, the metropo-
lis of Arachosia; it is Greek, and by it flows the river Ara-
chotus. As far as this place the land is under the rule of
the Parthians.” “Parthians stations”, 1st century BC. Men-
tioned in Bopearachchi, “Monnaies Greco-Bactriennes et
Indo-Grecques”, p52. Original text in paragraph 19 of
Parthian stations
[83] Pompeius Trogus, Prologue to Book XLI.
[84] “When Strabo mentions that “Those who after Alexan-
der advanced beyond the Hypanis to the Ganges and Poli-
bothra (Pataliputra) extquotedbl this can only refer to the
conquests of Menander.”, Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and
history, p.XIV
[85] Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, 2000, p.65: “In line with
the above discussion, therefore, we may infer that such
an event (the incursions to Pataliputra) took place, after
the reign of Salisuka Maurya (c.200 BC) and before that
of Pusyamitra Sunga (187 BC). This would accordingly
place the Yavana incursions during the reign of the Indo-
Greek kings Euthydemus (c.230–190 BC) or Demetrios
(c.205-190 as co-regent, and 190–171 BC as supreme
ruler”.
[86] According to Tarn, the word used for “advance” (Proelon-
thes) can only mean a military expedition. The word gen-
erally means “going forward extquotedbl; according to the
CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM
LSJ this can, but need not, imply a military expedition.
See LSJ, sub προέρχομαι. Strabo 15-1-27
[87] A.K. Narain and Keay 2000
[88] “Menander became the ruler of a kingdom extending
along the coast of western India, including the whole of
Saurashtra and the harbour Barukaccha. His territory also
included Mathura, the Punjab, Gandhara and the Kabul
Valley”, Bussagli p101)
[89] Tarn, p.147-149
[90] Strabo on the extent of the conquests of the Greco-
Bactrians/Indo-Greeks: “They took possession, not only
of Patalena, but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is
called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis. In short,
Apollodorus says that Bactriana is the ornament of Ariana
as a whole; and, more than that, they extended their em-
pire even as far as the Seres and the Phryni.” Strabo
11.11.1 (Strabo 11.11.1)
[91] “Numismats and historians all consider that Menander
was one of the greatest, if not the greatest, and the most il-
lustrious of the Indo-Greek kings”, Bopearachchi, “Mon-
naies”, p.76
[92] “the account of the Periplus is just a sailor’s story”, Narain
(p.118-119)
[93] “A distinctive series of Indo-Greek coins has been found
at several places in central India: including at Dewas,
some 22 miles to the east of Ujjain. These therefore add
further definite support to the likelihood of an Indo-Greek
presence in Malwa” Mitchener, “The Yuga Purana”, p.64
[94] “Because the Ionians were either the first ot the most
dominant group among the Greeks with whom people in
the east came in contact, the Persians called all of them
Yauna, and the Indians used Yona and Yavana for them”,
Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p.249
[95] “The term (Yavana) had a precise meaning until well into
the Christian era, when gradually its original meaning was
lost and, like the word Mleccha, it degenerated into a gen-
eral term for a foreigner” Narain, p.18
[96] “Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in
the Smithsonian institution”, Bopearachchi, p16.
[97] Tarn, p.145-146
[98] “But the real story of the Indo-Greek invasion becomes
clear only on the analysis of the material contained in the
historical section of the Gargi Samhita, the Yuga Purana”
Narain, p110, The Indo-Greeks. Also “The text of the
Yuga Purana, as we have shown, gives an explicit clue
to the period and nature of the invasion of Pataliputra
 22.10. FOOTNOTES 83

in which the Indo-Greeks took part, for it says that the when the siege happened. Some scholars believe that it
Pancalas and the Mathuras were the other powers who at- was Demetrius I. extquotedbl(Demetrius I) was probably
tacked Saketa and destroyed Pataliputra”, Narain, p.112 the Demetrius who besieged Eucratides for four months”,
D.W. Mac Dowall, p.201-202, Afghanistan, ancien car-
[99] “For any scholar engaged in the study of the presence of refour entre l'est et l'ouest. This analysis goes against Bo-
the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Scythians before the Christian pearachchi, who has suggested that Demetrius I died long
Era, the Yuga Purana is an important source material” before Eucratides came to power.
Dilip Coomer Ghose, General Secretary, The Asiatic So-
ciety, Kolkata, 2002 [109] Bopearachchi, p.72
[100] extquotedbl..further weight to the likelihood that this ac- [110] “As Bopearachchi has shown, Menander was able to re-
count of a Yavana incursion to Saketa and Pataliputra-in group and take back the territory that Eucratides I had
alliance with the Pancalas and the Mathuras- is indeed his- conquered, perhaps after Eucratides had died (1991, pp.
torical” Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, p. 65. 84–6). Bopearachchi demonstrates that the transition in
Menander’s coin designs were in response to changes in-
[101] “The advance of the Greek to Pataliputra is recorded from
troduced by Eucratides”.
the Indian side in the Yuga-purana”, Tarn, p.145

[102] “The greatest city in India is that which is called Palim- [111] “Numismats and historians are unanimous in consider-
bothra, in the dominions of the Prasians ... Megasthenes ing that Menander was one of the greatest, if not the
informs us that this city stretched in the inhabited quar- greatest, and the most famous of the Indo-Greek kings.
ters to an extreme length on each side of eighty stadia, The coins to the name of Menander are incomparably
and that its breadth was fifteen stadia, and that a ditch more abundant than those of any other Indo-Greek king”
encompassed it all round, which was six hundred feet in Bopearachchi, “Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-
breadth and thirty cubits in depth, and that the wall was Grecques”, p. 76.
crowned with 570 towers and had four-and-sixty gates.”
[112] “Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems
Arr. Ind. 10. “Of Pataliputra and the Manners of the
to have been a Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list of
Indians.”, quoting Megasthenes Text
important royal patrons of Buddhism along with Ashoka
[103] “The text of the Yuga Purana, as we have shown, gives an and Kanishka”, McEvilley, p. 375.
explicit clue to the period and nature of the invasion of
[113] extquotedbl(In the Milindapanha) Menander is declared
Pataliputra in which the Indo-Greeks took part, for it says
an arhat”, McEvilley, p. 378.
that the Pancalas and the Mathuras were the other powers
who attacked Saketa and destroyed Pataliputra”, Narain,
[114] “Plutarch, who talks of the burial of Menander’s relics un-
The Indo-Greeks, p. 112.
der monuments or stupas, had obviously read or heard
[104] Tarn, pp. 132–133. some Buddhist account of the Greek king’s death”,
McEvilley, p. 377.
[105] “The name Dimita is almost certainly an adaptation of
“Demetrios”, and the inscription thus indicates a Yavana [115] “The statement of Plutarch that when Menander died “the
presence in Magadha, probably around the middle of the cities celebrated (...) agreeing that they should divide
1st century BC.” Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, p. 65. ashes equally and go away and should erect monuments
to him in all their cities”, is significant and reminds one
[106] “The Hathigumpha inscription seems to have nothing of the story of the Buddha”, Narain, “The Indo-Greeks”
to do with the history of the Indo-Greeks; certainly it 2003, p. 123, “This is unmistakably Buddhist and recalls
has nothing to do with Demetrius I”, Narain, The Indo- the similar situation at the time of the Buddha’s passing
Greeks, p. 50. away”, Narain, “The Indo-Greeks” 2003, p. 269.

[107] P.L.Gupta: Kushâna Coins and History, D.K.Printworld, [116]
1994, p.184, note 5
[117]
[108] “Justin refers to an incident in which Eucratides with
a small force of 300 was besieged for four months by
“Demetrius, king of the Indians” with a large army of
60,000. The numbers are obviously an exaggeration. [118]
Eucratides managed to break out and went on to con-
quer India.” It is uncertain who this Demetrius was, and [119]
Bopearachchi, “Monnaies”, p. 86.
“By about 130 BC nomadic people from the Jaxartes re-
gion had overrun the northern boundary of Bactria itself”,
McEvilley, p. 372.
Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.88
Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history IV, p.xi
 84 CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM

[120] “P.Bernard thinks that these emissions were destined to [132] G.K. Jenkins, using overstrikes and monograms, showed
commercial exchanges with Bactria, then controlled by
the Yuezhi, and were post-Greek coins remained faith-
ful to Greco-Bactrian coinage. In a slightly different per-
spective (...) G. Le Rider considers that these emission
were used to pay tribute to the nomads of the north, who
were thus incentivized not to pursue their forays in the di-
rection of the Indo-Greek realm”, Bopearachchi, “Mon-
naies”, p.76.
[121] Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history IV, p.xxxiii
[122] “During the century that followed Menander more than
twenty rulers are known to have struck coins”, Narain,
“The Indo-Greeks” 2003, p.270
that, contrary to what Narai would write two years later,
Apoloodotus II and Hippostratus were posterior, by far,
to Maues. (...) He reveals an overstike if Azes I over
Hippostratus. (...) Apollodotus and Hippostratus are thus
posterior to Maues and anterior to Azes I, whose era we
now starts in 57 BC.” Bopearachchi, p.126-127.
[133] “It is curious that on his copper Zoilos used a Bow and
quiver as a type. A quiver was a badge used by the
Parthians (Scythians) and had been used previously by
Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them.
Did Zoilos use Scythian mercenaries in his quest against
Menander perhaps? extquotedbl Senior, Indo-Scythian
coins, p.xxvii

[123] Bernard (1994), p. 126. [134] “The Indo-Scythian conquerors, who, also they adopted
the greek types, minted money with their own names”.
[124] The Sanskrit inscription reads “Yavanarajyasya soda- Bopearachchci, “Monnaies”, p.121
suttare varsasate 100 10 6”. R.Salomon, “The Indo-Greek
era of 186/5 B.C. in a Buddhist reliquary inscription”, in [135] Described in R. C. Senior “The Decline of the Indo-
“Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest”, p373 Greeks” . See also this source.

[125] “The coinage of the former (the Audumbaras) to whom [136] “Around 10 AD, with the joint rule of Straton II and his
their trade was of importance, starts somewhere in the son Straton in the area of Sagala, le last Greek kingdom
first century BC; they occasionally imitate the types of succumbed to the attacks of Rajuvula, the Indo-Scythian
Demetrius and Apollodotus I”, Tarn, p. 325. satrap of Mathura.”, Bopearachchi, “Monnaies”, p.125

[126] The Kunindas must have been included in the Greek em- [137] “Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire, suc-
pire, not only because of their geographical position, but ceeded there (in the Paropamisadae) to the nomads who
because they started coining at the time which saw the minted imitations of Hermaeus” Bopearachchi, “Mon-
end of Greek rule and the establishment of their indepen- naies”, p.117
dence”, Tarn, p. 238.
[138] “We get two Greeks of the Parthian period, the first half
[127] “Further evidence of the commercial success of the Greek of the first century AD, who used the Indian form of their
drachms is seen in the fact that they influenced the coinage names, King Theodamas on his signet-ring found in Ba-
of the Audumbaras and the Kunindas”, Narain The Indo- jaur, and Thedorus son of Theoros on two silver bowls
Greeks, p.114 from Taxila.” Tarn, p. 389.

[128] “The wealthy Audumbaras (...) some of their coins after [139] Marital alliances:
Greek rule ended imitated Greek types”, Tarn, p. 239.
• Discussion on the dynastic alliance in Tarn,
[129] “Most of the people east of the Ravi already noticed pp. 152–153: “It has been recently sug-
as within Menander’s empire -Audumbaras, Trigartas, gested that Asoka was grandson of the Seleu-
Kunindas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas- began to coins in the cid princess, whom Seleucus gave in marriage to
first century BC, which means that they had become in- Chandragupta. Should this far-reaching suggestion
dependent kingdoms or republics.”, Tarn, p. 324. be well founded, it would not only throw light on
the good relations between the Seleucid and Maurya
[130] “Later, in the first century a ruler of the Kunindas, Amo- dynasties, but would mean that the Maurya dynasty
gabhuti, issued a silver coinage “which would compete in was descended from, or anyhow connected with,
the market with the later Indo-Greek silver extquotedbl Seleucus... when the Mauryan line became extinct,
extquotedbl, Tarn, p. 325. he (Demetrius) may well have regarded himself, if
not as the next heir, at any rate as the heir near-
[131] “Maues himself issued joint coins with Machene, (...) est at hand”. Also: “The Seleucid and Maurya lines
probably a daughter of one of the Indo-Greek houses” Se- were connected by the marriage of Seleucus’ daugh-
nior, Indo-Scythians, p.xxxvi ter (or niece) either to Chandragupta or his son
 22.10. FOOTNOTES 85

Bindusara” John Marshall, Taxila, p20. This the- • When Antiochos III, after having made peace with
sis originally appeared in “The Cambridge Shorter Euthydemus, went to India in 209 BC, he is said
History of India extquotedbl: “If the usual orien- to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king
tal practice was followed and if we regard Chan- there and received presents from him: “He crossed
dragupta as the victor, then it would mean that a the Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and descended into In-
daughter or other female relative of Seleucus was dia; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the
given to the Indian ruler or to one of his sons, so king of the Indians; received more elephants, un-
that Asoka may have had Greek blood in his veins.” til he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and hav-
The Cambridge Shorter History of India, J. Allan, ing once more provisioned his troops, set out again
H. H. Dodwell, T. Wolseley Haig, p33 Source. personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of
• Description of the 302 BC marital alliance in Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which
Strabo 15.2.1(9): “The Indians occupy in part some this king had agreed to hand over to him.”Polybius
of the countries situated along the Indus, which 11.39
formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander de- [142] Ambassadors:
prived the Ariani of them, and established there
settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave • Known ambassadors to India are Megasthenes,
them to Sandrocottus in consequence of a mar- Deimakos and Dionysius.
riage contract, and received in return five hundred
[143] Religious missions:
elephants.” The ambassador Megasthenes was also
sent to the Mauryan court on this occasion. • In the Edicts of Ashoka, king Ashoka claims to
have sent Buddhist emissaries to the Hellenistic
[140] Exchange of presents: west around 250 BC.
• Classical sources have recorded that Chandragupta [144] The historian Diodorus wrote that the king of Pataliputra,
sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: “And apparently a Mauryan king, “loved the Greeks extquot-
Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of edbl: “Iambulus, having found his way to a certain vil-
wondrous efficacy in such matters as to make peo- lage, was then brought by the natives into the presence of
ple more amourous. And Phylarchus confirms him, the king of Palibothra, a city which was distant a jour-
by reference to some of the presents which San- ney of many days from the sea. And since the king loved
drakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleu- the Greeks (“Philhellenos”) and devoted to learning he
cus; which were to act like charms in producing a considered Iambulus worthy of cordial welcome; and at
wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the length, upon receiving a permission of safe-conduct, he
contrary, were to banish love” Athenaeus of Nau- passed over first of all into Persia and later arrived safe in
cratis, extquotedblThe deipnosophists extquotedbl Greece” Diodorus ii,60.
Book I, chapter 32 Ath. Deip. I.32
[145] “Diodorus testifies to the great love of the king of Pal-
• Ashoka claims he introduced herbal medicine in the ibothra, apparently a Mauryan king, for the Greeks”
territories of the Greeks, for the welfare of humans Narain, “The Indo-Greeks”, p. 362.
and animals (Edict No2).
[146] “Obviously, for the Greeks who survived in India and suf-
• Bindusara asked Antiochus I to send him some
fered from the oppression of the Sunga (for whom they
sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist: “But dried figs
were aliens and heretics), Demetrios must have appeared
were so very much sought after by all men (for re-
as a saviour” Mario Bussagli, p. 101
ally, as Aristophanes says, “There’s really nothing
nicer than dried figs”), that even Amitrochates, the [147] “We can now, I think, see what the Greek 'conquest'
king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus, entreating meant and how the Greeks were able to traverse such
him (it is Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and extraordinary distances. To parts of India, perhaps to
send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and large parts, they came, not as conquerors, but as friends
a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in an- or 'saviours’; to the Buddhist world in particular they ap-
swer, “The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send peared to be its champions” (Tarn, p. 180)
you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in
Greece” Athenaeus, extquotedblDeipnosophistae [148] Tarn p. 175. Also: “The people to be 'saved' were in fact
extquotedbl XIV.67 Athenaeus, “Deipnosophistae” usually Buddhists, and the common enmity of Greek and
XIV.67 Buddhists to the Sunga king threw them into each other’s
arms”, Tarn p. 175. “Menander was coming to save them
[141] Treaties of friendship: from the oppression of the Sunga kings”,Tarn p. 178.
 86
[149] Whitehead, “Indo-Greek coins”, p 3-8
[150] Bopearachchi p. 138
[151] Whitehead, p. vi.
[152] “These Indo-Greeks were called Yavanas in ancient In-
dian litterature” p.9 + note 1 “The term had a precise
meaning until well into the Christian era, when gradually [161] Stupavadana, Chapter 57, v15. Quotes in E.Seldeslachts.
its original meaning was lost and, like the word Mleccha,
it degenerated into a general term for a foreigner” p.18, [162] McEvilley, p.377
Narain “The Indo-Greeks”
[153] “All Greeks in India were however known as Yavanas”,
Burjor Avari, “India, the ancient past”, p.130
[154] “The term Yavana may well have been first applied by the
Indians to the Greeks of various cities of Asia Minor who
were settled in the areas contiguous to north-west India”
Narain “The Indo-Greeks”, p.227
[155] “Of the Sanskrit Yavana, there are other forms and deriva-
tives, viz. Yona, Yonaka, Javana, Yavana, Jonon or
Jononka, Ya-ba-na etc... Yona is a normal Prakrit form
from Yavana”, Narain “The Indo-Greeks”, p.228
[156] “De l'Indus à l'Oxus: archéologie de l'Asie Centrale”,
Pierfrancesco Callieri, p212: “The diffusion, from the [166] “The survival into the 1st century AD of a Greek admin-
second century BC, of Hellenistic influences in the ar-
chitecture of Swat is also attested by the archaeological
searches at the sanctuary of Butkara I, which saw its stupa
“monumentalized” at that exact time by basal elements
and decorative alcoves derived from Hellenistic architec-
ture”.
[157] Tarn, p. 391: “Somewhere I have met with the zhole-
hearted statement that every Greek in India ended by be-
coming a Buddhist (...) Heliodorus the ambassador was a
Bhagavatta, a worshiper of Vshnu-Krishna as the supreme
deity (...) Theodorus the meridrarch, who established
some relics of the Buddha “for the purpose of the secu-
rity of many people”, was undoubtedly Buddhist”. Images
of the Zoroastrian divinity Mithra – depicted with a radi-
ated phrygian cap – appear extensively on the Indo-Greek
coinage of the Western kings. This Zeus-Mithra is also
the one represented seated (with the gloriole around the
head, and a small protrusion on the top of the head repre-
senting the cap) on many coins of Hermaeus, Antialcidas
or Heliokles II.
[158] “It is not unlikely that “Dikaios”, which is translated Dhra-
maika in the Kharosthi legend, may be connected with
his adoption of the Buddhist faith.” Narain, “The Indo-
Greeks” 2003, p.124
[159] “Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems
to have been a Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list
CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM
of important royal patrons of Buddhism along with Asoka
and Kanishka”, McEvilley, p.375
[160] “It is probable that the wheel on some coins of Menander
is connected with Buddhism”, Narain, The Indo-Greeks,
p.122
[163] Plutarch “Political precepts”, p147–148 Full text
[164] “The extraordinary realism of their portraiture. The por-
traits of Demetrius, Antimachus and of Eucratides are
among the most remarkable that have come down to us
from antiquity” Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee,
p134
[165] “Just as the Frank Clovis had no part in the development
of Gallo-Roman art, the Indo-Scythian Kanishka had no
direct influence on that of Indo-Greek Art; and besides,
we have now the certain proofs that during his reign this
art was already stereotyped, of not decadent” Hellenism
in Ancient India, Banerjee, p147
istration and presumably some elements of Greek culture
in the Punjab has now to be taken into account in any dis-
cussion of the role of Greek influence in the development
of Gandharan sculpture”, The Crossroads of Asia, p14
[167] On the Indo-Greeks and the Gandhara school:
• 1) “It is necessary to considerably push back the
start of Gandharan art, to the first half of the first
century BC, or even, very probably, to the preced-
ing century.(...) The origins of Gandharan art...
go back to the Greek presence. (...) Gandharan
iconography was already fully formed before, or at
least at the very beginning of our era” Mario Bus-
sagli “L'art du Gandhara”, p331–332
• 2) “The beginnings of the Gandhara school have
been dated everywhere from the first century B.C.
(which was M.Foucher’s view) to the Kushan pe-
riod and even after it” (Tarn, p. 394). Foucher’s
views can be found in “La vieille route de l'Inde,
de Bactres a Taxila”, pp340–341). The view is also
supported by Sir John Marshall (“The Buddhist art
of Gandhara”, pp5–6).
• 3) Also the recent discoveries at Ai-Khanoum
confirm that “Gandharan art descended directly
from Hellenized Bactrian art” (Chaibi Nustamandy,
“Crossroads of Asia”, 1992).
 22.10. FOOTNOTES 87

• 4) On the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art: “It
was about this time (100 BC) that something took
place which is without parallel in Hellenistic his-
tory: Greeks of themselves placed their artistic skill
at the service of a foreign religion, and created for
it a new form of expression in art” (Tarn, p. 393).
“We have to look for the beginnings of Gandha-
ran Buddhist art in the residual Indo-Greek tradi-
tion, and in the early Buddhist stone sculpture to
the South (Bharhut etc...) extquotedbl (Boardman,
1993, p. 124). “Depending on how the dates are
worked out, the spread of Gandhari Buddhism to
the north may have been stimulated by Menander’s
royal patronage, as may the development and spread
of the Gandharan sculpture, which seems to have
accompanied it” McEvilley, 2002, “The shape of
ancient thought”, p. 378.
the Kushans as we know them from their coins and frag-
mentary portrait statues.”, Benjamin Rowland JR, fore-
word to “The Dyasntic art of the Kushan”, John Rosen-
field, 1967.
[176] “Those tiny territories of the Indo-Greek kings must have
been lively and commercially flourishing places”, India:
The ancient past, Burjor Avari, p.130
[177] “No doubt the Greeks of Bactria and India presided over
a flourishing economy. This is clearly indicated by their
coinage and the monetary exchange they had established
with other currencies.” Narain, “The Indo-Greeks” 2003,
p. 275.
[178] Bopearachchi, “Monnaies”, p.27
[179] Rapson, clxxxvi-

[168] Benjamin Rowland JR, foreword to “The Dyasntic art of [180] Bopearachchi, “Monnaies”, p. 75.
the Kushan”, John Rosenfield, 1967
[181] Fussman, JA 1993, p. 127 and Bopearachchi, “Graeco-
[169] Boardman, p. 141 Bactrian issues of the later Indo-Greek kings”, Num.
Chron. 1990, pp. 79–104)
[170] Boardman, p. 143.
[182] Science and civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical
[171] “Others, dating the work to the first two centuries A.D., technology by Joseph Needham, Gwei-Djen Lu p. 237ff
after the waning of Greek autonomy on the Northwest,
connect it instead with the Roman Imperial trade, which [183] “Strabo II.3.4‑5 on Eudoxus”.
was just then getting a foothold at sites like Barbaricum
[184] “Since the merchants of Alexandria are already sailing
(modern Karachi) at the Indus-mouth. It has been pro-
with fleets by way of the Nile and of the Persian Gulf
posed that one of the embassies from Indian kings to Ro-
as far as India, these regions also have become far bet-
man emperors may have brought back a master sculp-
ter known to us of today than to our predecessors. At any
torto oversee work in the emerging Mahayana Buddhist
rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied
sensibility (in which the Buddha came to be seen as a
him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the fron-
kind of deity), and that “bands of foreign workmen from
tiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hun-
the eastern centres of the Roman Empire extquotedbl
dred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos
were brought to India” (Mc Evilley “The shape of an-
for India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a
cient thought”, quoting Benjamin Rowland “The art and
very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on
architecture of India” p121 and A.C. Soper “The Roman
traffic in Indian merchandise.” Strabo II.5.12
Style in Gandhara” American Journal of Archaeology 55
(1951) pp. 301–319) [185] “It is curious that on his copper Zoilos used a Bow and
quiver as a type. A quiver was a badge used by the
[172] Boardman, p.115
Parthians (Scythians) and had been used previously by
[173] McEvilley, p.388-390 Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them.
Did Zoilos use Scythian mercenaries in his quest against
[174] Boardman, 109–153 Menander perhaps? extquotedbl Senior, Indo-Scythian
coins, p.xxvii
[175] “It is noteworthy that the dress of the Gandharan Bod-
hisattva statues has no resemblance whatever to that of [186] “Polybius 10.49, Battle of the Arius”.
the Kushan royal portrait statues, which has many affilia-
[187] Photographic reference on a coin of Menander II, circa 90
tions with Parthian costume. The finery of the Gandhara
BC: Image:MenanderIIQ.jpg
images must be modeled on the dress of local native no-
bility, princes of Indian or Indo-Greek race, who had no [188] “Megasthenes Indica”.
blood connection with the Scythian rulers. It is also evi-
dent that the facial types are unrelated to the features of [189] “Justin XLI”.
 88 CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM

[190] On the size of Hellenistic armies, see accounts of Hel- • Indo-Parthian Kingdom
lenistic battles by Diodorus, books XVIII and XIX
• Kushan Empire
[191] “They are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place
with their herds, and their customs are like those of the • Roman commerce
Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer
warriors... The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between • Timeline of Indo-Greek Kingdoms
the Qilian or Heavenly mountains and Dunhuang, but after
they were defeated by the Xiongnu they moved far away to
the west, beyond Dayuan, where they attacked and con-
quered the people of Daxia (Bactria) and set up the court 22.12 References
of their king on the northern bank of the Gui (Oxus) river”
( extquotedblRecords of the Great Historian extquotedbl,
• Avari, Burjor (2007). India: The ancient past. A
Sima Qian, trans. Burton Watson, p234)
history of the Indian sub-continent from c. 7000 BC
[192] Tarn, p. 494. to AD 1200. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-35616-4.
[193] “Though the Indo-Greek monarchies seem to have ended • Banerjee, Gauranga Nath (1961). Hellenism in an-
in the first century BC, the Greek presence in India and cient India. Delhi: Munshi Ram Manohar Lal.
Bactria remained strong”, McEvilley, p.379 OCLC 1837954 ISBN 0-8364-2910-9.
[194] “The use of the Greek months by the Sakas and later
rulers points to the conclusion that they employed a system • Bernard, Paul (1994). “The Greek Kingdoms of
of dating started by their predecessors.” Narain, “Indo- Central Asia.” In: History of civilizations of Central
Greeks” 2003, p.190 Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and
nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, pp. 99–
[195] “Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign 129. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO
of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins Publishing. ISBN 92-3-102846-4.
which are more directly imitated from those of the West-
ern Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscrip- • Boardman, John (1994). The Diffusion of Classical
tions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they sub-
Art in Antiquity. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
stitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with
University Press. ISBN 0-691-03680-2.
crescent and star.” in Rapson “A catalogue of Indian coins
in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...”, p.cli
• Bopearachchi, Osmund (1991). Monnaies Gréco-
[196] McEvilley, “The Shape of Ancient Thought”, p503. Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné
(in French). Bibliothèque Nationale de France.
[197] Under each king, information from Bopearachchi is taken
from Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Cat-
ISBN 2-7177-1825-7.
alogue Raisonné (1991) or occasionally SNG9 (1998).
Senior’s chronology is from The Indo-Greek and Indo-
• Bopearachchi, Osmund (1998). SNG 9. New York:
Scythian king sequences in the second and first centuries
BC, ONS179 Supplement (2004), whereas the comments
American Numismatic Society. ISBN 0-89722-
(down to the time of Hippostratos) are from The decline 273-3.
of the Indo-Greeks (1998).
• Bopearachchi, Osmund (2003). De l'Indus à l'Oxus,
Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale (in French). Lat-
tes: Association imago-musée de Lattes. ISBN 2-
22.11 See also 9516679-2-2.

• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom • Bopearachchi, Osmund; Smithsonian Institution,

National Numismatic Collection (U.S.) (1993).
• Seleucid Empire Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins
• Greco-Buddhism in the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Na-
tional Numismatic Collection, Smithsonian Institu-
• Indo-Scythians tion. OCLC 36240864.
22.13. EXTERNAL LINKS
• Bussagli, Mario; Francine Tissot; Béatrice Arnal
(1996). L'art du Gandhara (in French). Paris: Li-
brairie générale française. ISBN 2-253-13055-9.
• Cambon, Pierre (2007). Afghanistan, les trésors
retrouvés (in French). Musée Guimet. ISBN 978-
2-7118-5218-5.
• Errington, Elizabeth; Joe Cribb; Maggie Claring-
bull; Ancient India and Iran Trust; Fitzwilliam Mu-
seum (1992). The Crossroads of Asia: transfor-
mation in image and symbol in the art of ancient
Afghanistan and Pakistan. Cambridge: Ancient In-
dia and Iran Trust. ISBN 0-9518399-1-8.
• Faccenna, Domenico (1980). Butkara I (Swāt, Pak-
istan) 1956–1962, Volume III 1. Rome: IsMEO (Is-
tituto Italiano Per Il Medio Ed Estremo Oriente).
• Foltz, Richard (2010). Religions of the Silk Road:
premodern patterns of globalization. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1.
• Keown, Damien (2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism.
New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
860560-9.
• Lowenstein, Tom (2002). The vision of the Buddha:
Buddhism, the path to spiritual enlightenment. Lon-
don: Duncan Baird. ISBN 1-903296-91-9.
• Marshall, Sir John Hubert (2000). The Buddhist
art of Gandhara: the story of the early school, its
birth, growth, and decline. New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal. ISBN 81-215-0967-X.
• Marshall, John (1956). Taxila. An illustrated ac-
count of archaeological excavations carried out at
Taxila (3 volumes). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
• McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The Shape of Ancient
Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian
Philosophies. Allworth Press and the School of Vi-
sual Arts. ISBN 1-58115-203-5.
• Mitchiner, John E.; Garga (1986). The Yuga Pu-
rana: critically edited, with an English translation
and a detailed introduction. Calcutta, India: Asiatic
Society. OCLC 15211914 ISBN 81-7236-124-6.
22.13 External links
• Narain, A.K. (1957). The Indo-Greeks. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
89
--- reprinted by Oxford, 1962, 1967, 1980; reis-
sued (2003), “revised and supplemented”, by
B. R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.
• Narain, A.K. (1976). The coin types of the Indo-
Greeks kings. Chicago, USA: Ares Publishing.
ISBN 0-89005-109-7.
• Puri, Baij Nath (2000). Buddhism in Central Asia.
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0372-8.
• Rosenfield, John M. (1967). The Dynastic Arts of
the Kushans. Berkeley, California: University of
California Press. ISBN 81-215-0579-8.
• Salomon, Richard. The “Avaca” Inscription and the
Origin of the Vikrama Era 102.
• Seldeslachts, E. (2003). The end of the road for the
Indo-Greeks?. (Also available online): Iranica An-
tica, Vol XXXIX, 2004.
• Senior, R. C. (2006). Indo-Scythian coins and his-
tory. Volume IV. Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.
ISBN 0-9709268-6-3.
• Tarn, W. W. (1938). The Greeks in Bactria and In-
dia. Cambridge University Press.
--- Second edition, with addenda and corrigenda,
(1951). Reissued, with updating preface by
Frank Lee Holt (1985), Ares Press, Chicago
ISBN 0-89005-524-6
• Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest (in
French/English). Belgium: Brepols. 2005. ISBN
2-503-51681-5.
• (Tokyo Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan);
(Hyogo Kenritsu Bijutsukan) (2003).
Alexander the Great: East-West cultural contacts
from Greece to Japan. Tokyo: (Tokyo
Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan). OCLC 53886263.
• Vassiliades, Demetrios (2000). The Greeks in In-
dia – A Survey in Philosophical Understanding. New
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Lim-
ited. ISBN 81-215-0921-1.
• Indo-Greek history and coins
90 CHAPTER 22. INDO-GREEK KINGDOM

• Ancient coinage of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-

Greek kingdoms
• Text of Prof. Nicholas Sims-Williams (University
of London) mentioning the arrival of the Kushans
and the replacement of Greek Language.

• Wargame reconstitution of Indo-Greek armies

• Files dealing with Indo-Greeks & a genealogy of the
Bactrian kings
• The impact of Greco-Indian Culture on Western
Civilisation
• Some new hypotheses on the Greco-Bactrian and
Indo-Greek kingdoms by Antoine Simonin
• Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kingdoms in An-
cient Texts
Chapter 23

Apollodotus I

Apollodotus I Soter (Greek: Ἀπολλόδοτος Α΄ ὁ
Σωτήρ; the epithet means the “Saviour extquotedbl;
Sanskrit: , “maharajasa apala-
datasa tratarasa”) was an Indo-Greek king between 180
BCE and 160 BCE or between 174 and 165 BCE (first
dating Osmund Bopearachchi and R. C. Senior, second
dating Boperachchi[1] ) who ruled the western and south-
ern parts of the Indo-Greek kingdom, from Taxila in
Punjab to the areas of Sindh and possibly Gujarat.[2]
23.2 Coinage
“To the present day ancient drachmae
are current in Barygaza, coming from this
country, bearing inscriptions in Greek letters,
and the devices of those who reigned after
Alexander, Apollodorus [sic] and Menander.”
—Periplus Chap. 47.[5]

23.1 Ruler of the Indo-Greek king-

dom

Apollodotus was not the first to strike bilingual coins out-

side of Bactria, but he was the first king who ruled in
India only, and therefore the founder of the proper Indo-
Greek kingdom. According to W. W. Tarn, Apollodotus
I was one of the generals of Demetrius I of Bactria, the
Greco-Bactrian king who invaded northwestern India af-
ter 180 BCE. Tarn was uncertain whether he was a mem-
Indian-standard coin of Apollodotus I.
ber of the royal house. Later authors largely agree with Obv: Sacred elephant with decorative belt and Greek legend
Tarn’s analysis,[3] though with perhaps even more uncer- ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΠΟΛΛΟΔΟΤΟΥ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ, “of Saviour King
tainty regarding who the king was, for his coins do not Apollodotus”.
give many hints. Rev: Zebu bull with Kharoshti legend
(MAHARAJASA APALADATASA TRATARASA),[6] “Saviour
Apollodotus was either succeeded in India by
King Apollodotus”.
Antimachus II, or the two kings were contempo-
Actual size: 15 mm, 1.4 grams.
rary, Antimachus II ruling the more western territories
closer to Bactria. Eventually Apollodotus I was suc- The coinage of Apollodotus is, together with that of
ceeded by Menander I, and the two kings are mentioned Menander, one of the most abundant of the Indo-Greek
by Pompejus Trogus as important Indo-Greek rulers.[4] kings. It is found mainly in the provinces of Punjab,
The 1st-2nd century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Sindh and Gujarat, indicating the southern limit of the
further testifies to the reign of Apollodotus I and the in- Indo-Greek expansion in India. This is also suggested
fluence of the Indo-Greeks in India: by the Periplus, a 1st-century CE document on trade in

91
92
Indian coin of Apollodotus I.
the Indian Ocean, which describes the remnants of Greek
presence (shrines, barracks, wells, coinage) in the strate-
gic port of Barygaza (Bharuch) in Gujarat. Strabo (XI)
also describes the occupation of Patalene (Indus Delta
country). While Sindh may have come under his posses-
sion, it is not known as to whether Apollodotus advanced
to Gujarat, where the Satavahanas ruled.
Apollodotus also issued a great number of bilingual
Indian-standard square coins. Beside the usual royal ti-
tle, the exact significance of the animals depicted on the
coins is unclear. The sacred elephant may be the symbol
of the city of Taxila, or possibly the symbol of the white
elephant who reputedly entered in dream the womb the
mother of the Buddha, Queen Maya, which would make
it a symbol of Buddhism, one of the main religions of the
Indo-Greek territories.
Similarly, the sacred bull on the reverse may be a symbol
of a city (Pushkhalavati), or a depiction of Shiva, mak-
ing it a symbol of Hinduism, the other major religion at
that time. The bull is often represented in a clearly erec-
tile state, which reinforces its interpretation as a repre-
sentation of Shiva. Conversely, this also reinforces the
interpretation of the elephant as a religious symbol. Al-
ternatively, the Bull, according to Foucher, represents the
birth of the Buddha, as it happened during the month of
Vaicakha (April–May), known to Buddhists as Vesak,
under the zodiacal sign of the Taurus, during the full
moon.[7] The enlightenment and passing of the Buddha
also occurred during the Taurus full moon.
Before their design was eventually simplified, some of
the earlier coins of king Apollodotus directly associate
the elephant with Buddhist symbolism, such as the stupa
hill surmounted by a star, also seen, for example on
the coins of the Mauryan Empire or those of the later
Kuninda kingdom. Apollodotus experimented with dif-
ferent coin standards for his silver, until he settled for a
CHAPTER 23. APOLLODOTUS I
standard lighter than the Attic which would prevail for
centuries, though later rulers usually struck round coins
instead of the square (typically Indian) shape of most of
Apollodotus’ silver. He issued a number of bronzes with
Apollo /tripod, that also were repeated for centuries.
23.2.1 Bactrian coins
Apollodotus also issued a small series of monolingual At-
tic tetradrachms, intended for export into Bactria. For
these, Apollodotus I clearly used Bactrian celators to
strike an exquisite realistic portrait of the king as an aged
man in the Macedonian hat called kausia, with a reverse
of sitting Pallas Athene holding Nike, a common Hel-
lenistic motif introduced by the Diadoch Lysimachus. On
these coins, he used no epithet.
23.3 See also
• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
• Seleucid Empire
• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians
• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Kushan Empire
23.4 References
[1] Bopearachchi (1998) and (1991), respectively. Bopear-
achchi kept the earlier dating was as an alternative in
SNG9, a later, though less comprehensive work.
[2] The 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea de-
scribes numerous Greek buildings and fortifications in
Barigaza, although mistakenly attributing them to Alexan-
der (who never went this far south), and the circulation of
Indo-Greek coinage in the region:
“The metropolis of this country is Min-
nagara, from which much cotton cloth is
brought down to Barygaza. In these places
there remain even to the present time signs
of the expedition of Alexander, such as an-
cient shrines, walls of forts and great wells.”
Periplus, Chap. 41
23.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 93

“To the present day ancient Drachmae are

current in Barygaza, coming from this coun-
try, bearing inscriptions in Greek letters,
and the devices of those who reigned af-
ter Alexander the Great, Apollodotus I and
Menander.” Periplus Chap. 47 Periplus

[3] A.K. Narain did not believe in the existence of Apol-

lodotus I, but credited his coins to Apollodotus II. Later
analyses of their coins, as well as the finding of coins with
portraits of Apollodotus I, have proved this view unten-
able.

[4] Pompejus Trogus, Prologues, recorded by Justin in Epit-

ome of Pompejus Trogus.

[5] Full text, Schoff’s 1912 translation

[6] http://gandhari.org/a_coin.php?catid=CKC0020

[7] “The beginnings of Buddhist Art” Alfred Foucher, Plate

I.

23.5 Sources
• Tarn, William Woodthorpe. The Greeks in Bactria
and India. Cambridge University Press, 1938.

23.6 External links

• Coins of Apollodotus

• More coins of Apollodotus

Chapter 24
Antimachus II
Antimachus II Nikephoros (Greek: Ἀντίμαχος Β΄ ὁ
Νικηφόρος; the epithet means “the Victorious”) was an
Indo-Greek king. He ruled on a vast territory from the
Hindu-Kush to the Punjab around 170 BCE. He was
almost certainly identical with the eponymous son of
Antimachus I, who is known from a unique preserved tax-
receipt.[1] Bopearachchi dated Antimachus II to 160–155
BCE on numismatical grounds, but changed this to 174–
165 BCE after the tax-receipt was revealed to synchro-
nise his reign with that of Antimachus I.[2] R. C. Senior
has not dated Antimachus II but thinks that his coins were
possibly Indian issues of Antimachus I, despite their dif-
ferent epithets and coin types.
In both of Boperachchi’s reconstructions, Antimachus II
was succeeded by Menander I who inherited three of his
four monograms. Antimachus II probably fought with the
Bactrian king Eucratides I, who had dethroned his father
in Bactria.
24.1 Coins of Antimachus II
Coin Antimachos II Nikephoros with Gorgone and victory
wreath.
Just like his predecessor or contemporary Apollodotus I,
94
Antimachus II did not strike a portrait on his coins, likely
since this was not custom in India. Neither did the early
kings strike tetradrachms. Antimachus II struck a large
number of bilingual drachms on the same lighter Indian
standard as Apollodotus I, though round in shape. On the
obverse is Nike, and on the reverse a king on horseback.
He also issued bilingual bronzes with aegis / laurel wreath
and palm. Both these and the goddess Nike seem to al-
lude to his epithet “the Victorious”.
24.2 Notes
[1] Rea, J. R., Senior, R. C. and Hollis, A. S., “A tax receipt
from Hellenistic Bactria”, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und
Epigraphik 104 (1994)
[2] Boperarachchi (1991) and (1998), respectively.
24.3 See also
• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians
24.4 Sources
• Rea, J. R.; R. C. Senior and A. S. Hollis (1994).
“A Tax Receipt from Hellenistic Bactria” (PDF).
Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 104:
261–280. Retrieved 2006-12-13.
• Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1966). The Greeks in
Bactria and India (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
24.4. SOURCES 95

• “Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum 9”, American Nu-

mismatic Society, New York, 1997.
Chapter 25

Menander I

Menander I Soter (Ancient Greek: Μένανδρος Α΄ ὁ

Σωτήρ, Ménandros A' ho Sōtḗr, “Menander I the Saviour
extquotedbl; known in Indian Pali sources as Milinda)
was a Greek of the Indo-Greek kingdom (165/[2] /155[2]
BC-130 BC) who established a large empire in South
Asia and became a patron of Buddhism.
Menander was born in the Caucasus, and was initially a
king of Bactria. He eventually established an empire in
the Indian subcontinent stretching from the Kabul River
valley in the west to the Ravi River in the east, and
from the Swat River valley in the north to Arachosia (the
Helmand Province). Ancient Indian writers indicate that
he launched expeditions southward into Rajasthan and
as far east down the Ganges River Valley as Pataliputra
(Patna), and the Greek geographer Strabo wrote that
he “conquered more tribes than Alexander the Great.”
(though they were probably just small tribes, which does
not guarantee a greater victory or area)
Large numbers of Menander’s coins have been unearthed,
attesting to both the flourishing commerce and duration
of his realm. Menander was also a patron of Buddhism,
and his conversations with the Buddhist sage Nagasena Indo-Greek territory, with known campaigns and battles.[3][4][5]
are recorded in the important Buddhist work, the Milinda
Panha (“The Questions of Milinda”). After his death in
130 BC, he was succeeded by his wife Agathokleia who 25.1 Indo-Greek ruler
ruled as regent for his son Strato I. Buddhist tradition re-
lates that he handed over his kingdom to his son and re-
tired from the world, but Plutarch relates that he died in His territories covered the eastern dominions of the di-
camp while on a military campaign, and that his remains vided Greek empire of Bactria (modern day ‫ولایت‬
were divided equally between the cities to be enshrined ‫بلخ‬or Bactria Province) and extended to India (modern
in monuments, probably stupas, across his realm. day regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab in Pakistan
and Punjab, Haryana and parts of Himachal Pradesh and
the Jammu region) in present day India.
His capital is supposed to have been Sagala, a prosperous
city in northern Punjab (believed to be modern Sialkot),
Pakistan.

96
25.1. INDO-GREEK RULER
He is one of the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek
authors, among them Apollodorus of Artemita, quoted
by Strabo, who claims that the Greeks from Bactria were
even greater conquerors than Alexander the Great, and The Indian records also describe Greek attacks on
that Menander was one of the two Bactrian kings, with Mathura, Panchala, Saketa, and Pataliputra. This is
Demetrius, who extended their power farthest into India: particularly the case of some mentions of the invasion
The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt
grew so powerful on account of the fertility of
the country that they became masters, not only
of Ariana, but also of India, as Apollodorus of
Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued
by them than by Alexander-- by Menander in
particular (at least if he actually crossed the
Hypanis towards the east and advanced as far
as the Imaüs), for some were subdued by him
personally and others by Demetrius, the son
of Euthydemus the king of the Bactrians; and
they took possession, not only of Patalena,
but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is
called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis.
In short, Apollodorus says that Bactriana is
the ornament of Ariana as a whole; and, more
than that, they extended their empire even as
far as the Seres and the Phryni.
—Strabo, Geographica [6]
2. Silver drachm of Menander I (155-130 BC).
Obv: Greek legend, ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ
(BASILEOS SOTEROS MENANDROU) lit. “Of Saviour King
Menander”.
Rev: Kharosthi legend: MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA
“Saviour King Menander”. Athena advancing right, with thun-
derbolt and shield. Taxila mint mark.
Strabo also suggests that these Greek conquests went as
far as the capital Pataliputra in northeastern India (today
Patna):
“Those who came after Alexander went to the
97
Ganges and Pataliputra extquotedbl (Strabo,
15.698).
by Patanjali around 150 BC, and of the Yuga Purana,
which describes Indian historical events in the form of
a prophecy:
“After having conquered Saketa, the country
of the Panchala and the Mathuras, the Yavanas
(Greeks), wicked and valiant, will reach
Kusumadhvaja. The thick mud-fortifications
at Pataliputra being reached, all the provinces
will be in disorder, without doubt. Ultimately,
a great battle will follow, with tree-like engines
(siege engines).” (Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana
chapter, No5).
In the West, Menander seems to have repelled the inva-
sion of the dynasty of Greco-Bactrian usurper Eucratides,
and pushed them back as far as the Paropamisadae,
thereby consolidating the rule of the Indo-Greek kings
in the northern part of the Indian Subcontinent.
The Milinda Panha gives some glimpses of his military
methods:
“Has it ever happened to you, O king, that rival
kings rose up against you as enemies and oppo-
nents?
-Yes, certainly.
-Then you set to work, I suppose, to have moats
dug, and ramparts thrown up, and watch tow-
ers erected, and strongholds built, and stores of
food collected?
-Not at all. All that had been prepared before-
hand.
-Or you had yourself trained in the management
of war elephants, and in horsemanship, and in
the use of the war chariot, and in archery and
fencing?
-Not at all. I had learnt all that before.
-But why?
-With the object of warding off future danger.”
(Milinda Panha, Book III, Chap 7)
98 CHAPTER 25. MENANDER I

His reign was long and successful. Generous findings of

coins testify to the prosperity and extension of his empire
(with finds as far as Britain): the finds of his coins are the
most numerous and the most widespread of all the Indo-
Greek kings. Precise dates of his reign, as well as his ori-
gin, remain elusive however. Guesses among historians
have been that Menander was either a nephew or a for-
mer general of the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I, but
the two kings are now thought to be separated by at least
thirty years. Menander’s predecessor in Punjab seems to
have been the king Apollodotus I.
Menander’s empire survived him in a fragmented manner
until the last Greek king Strato II disappeared around 10
AD.
The 1st-2nd century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
further testifies to the reign of Menander and the influence King Milinda asks questions.
of the Indo-Greeks in India:

“To the present day ancient drachmae

are current in Barygaza, coming from this
country, bearing inscriptions in Greek letters,
and the devices of those who reigned after
Alexander, Apollodorus [sic] and Menander.”
—Periplus Chap. 47.[7]

Menander was the first Indo-Greek ruler to introduce the

representation of Athena Alkidemos (“Athena, saviour
of the people”) on his coins, probably in reference to a
similar statue of Athena Alkidemos in Pella, capital of
Macedon. This type was subsequently used by most of
the later Indo-Greek kings.
3. Bronze coin of Menander I with a Buddhist eight-spoked
wheel.
Obv: Greek legend, ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ
(BASILEOS SOTEROS MENANDROU) lit. “Of Saviour King
Menander” with eight-spoked wheel.
Rev: Kharosthi legend MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA
“Saviour King Menander”, with palm of victory.

25.2 Menander and Buddhism

“sozo”, it is important for Buddhists to understand the
cultural context in which this discussion was held.
25.2.1 The Milinda Panha
In the Milindanpanha, Menander is introduced as
Main article: Milinda Panha
According to tradition, Menander embraced the “King of the city of Sâgala in India,
Buddhist faith, as described in the Milinda Panha, a Milinda by name, learned, eloquent, wise, and
classical Pali Buddhist text (the original Sanskrit text able; and a faithful observer, and that at the
has been lost) on the discussions between Milinda right time, of all the various acts of devo-
and the Buddhist sage Nāgasena. He is described as tion and ceremony enjoined by his own sa-
constantly accompanied by a guard of 500 Greek ( cred hymns concerning things past, present,
extquotedblYonaka extquotedbl) soldiers, and two of his and to come. Many were the arts and sci-
counsellors are named Demetrius and Antiochus. This ences he knew--holy tradition and secular law;
type of discussion was known to ancient Greeks as a the Sânkhya, Yoga, Nyâya, and Vaisheshika
25.2. MENANDER AND BUDDHISM 99

systems of philosophy; arithmetic; music;

medicine; the four Vedas, the Purânas, and
the Itihâsas; astronomy, magic, causation,
and magic spells; the art of war; poetry;
conveyancing in a word, the whole nineteen.
As a disputant he was hard to equal, harder still
to overcome; the acknowledged superior of all
the founders of the various schools of thought.
And as in wisdom so in strength of body, swift-
ness, and valour there was found none equal to
Milinda in all India. He was rich too, mighty
in wealth and prosperity, and the number of
his armed hosts knew no end.” (The Questions
of King Milinda, Translation by T. W. Rhys
Davids, 1890).

Buddhist tradition relates that, following his discussions

with Nāgasena, Menander adopted the Buddhist faith:

“May the venerable Nâgasena accept me as a

supporter of the faith, as a true convert from to-
day onwards as long as life shall last! extquot-
edbl (The Questions of King Milinda, Transla-
tion by T. W. Rhys Davids, 1890).

He then handed over his kingdom to his son and retired

from the world:

“And afterwards, taking delight in the wisdom

of the Elder, he handed over his kingdom to his
son, and abandoning the household life for the
houseless state, grew great in insight, and him-
self attained to Arahatship! extquotedbl (The
Indian relief of probable Indo-Greek king, possibly Menander,
Questions of King Milinda, Translation by T.
with Buddhist triratana symbol on his sword. Bharhut, 2nd cen-
W. Rhys Davids, 1890)
tury BC. Indian Museum, Calcutta (drawing).
There is however little besides this testament to indicate
that Menander in fact abdicated his throne in favor of his
Indian Museum in Calcutta), represents a foreign
son. Based on numismatic evidence, Sir Tarn believes
soldier with the curly hair of a Greek and the royal
that he in fact died, leaving his wife Agathocleia to rule
headband with flowing ends of a Greek king, and
as a regent, until his son Strato could rule properly in his
may be a depiction of Menander. In his right hand,
stead. Despite the success of his reign, it is clear that
he holds a branch of ivy, symbol of Dionysos. Also
after his death, his “loosely hung” empire splintered into
parts of his dress, with rows of geometrical folds,
a variety of Indo-Greek successor kingdoms, of various
are characteristically Hellenistic in style. On his
size and stability.
sword appears the Buddhist symbol of the three jew-
els, or Triratana.
25.2.2 Other Indian accounts
• A Buddhist reliquary found in Bajaur bears a ded-
• A 2nd century BC relief from a Buddhist stupa in icatory inscription referring to “the 14th day of the
Bharhut, in eastern Madhya Pradesh (today at the month of Kārttika” of a certain year in the reign of
100 CHAPTER 25. MENANDER I

“Mahārāja Minadra” (“Great King Menander”):

“Minadrasa maharajasa Kati-

assa divasa 4 4 4 11 pra[na]-
[sa]me[da]... (prati)[thavi]ta
pranasame[da]... Sakamunisa”
“On the 14th day of Kārttika, in
the reign of Mahārāja Minadra, (in
the year ...), (the corporeal relic) of
Sakyamuni, which is endowed with
4. Silver coin of Menander, with Athena on reverse. British Mu-
life... has been established” [8] seum.

• According to an ancient Sri Lankan source,

the Mahavamsa, Greek monks seem to have
been active proselytizers of Buddhism dur-
ing the time of Menander: the Yona (Greek)
Mahadhammarakkhita (Sanskrit: Mahadharma-
raksita) is said to have come from “Alasandra”
(thought to be Alexandria of the Caucasus, the
city founded by Alexander the Great, near today’s
Kabul) with 30,000 monks for the foundation
ceremony of the Maha Thupa (“Great stupa ex-
5. Attic Tetradrachm of Menander I in Greco-Bactrian style
tquotedbl) at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, during (Alexandria-Kapisa mint).
the 2nd century BC: Obv: Menander throwing a spear.
Rev: Athena with thunderbolt. Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ
“From Alasanda the city of the Yonas came the ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ (BASILEOS SOTEROS MENAN-
thera (“elder”) Yona Mahadhammarakkhita DROU), “Of King Menander, the Saviour”.
with thirty thousand bhikkhus.” (Mahavamsa,
XXIX [9] )
obverse Athena and on the reverse her attribute
the owl. The weight and monograms of this series
These elements tend to indicate the importance of Bud- match those of earlier king Antimachus II, indicat-
dhism within Greek communities in northwestern India, ing that Menander succeeded Antimachus II.
and the prominent role Greek Buddhist monks played in
them, probably under the sponsorship of Menander. • On the next series, Menander introduces his own
portrait, a hitherto unknown custom among In-
dian rulers. The reverse features his dynastical
25.3 Coins of Menander trademark: the so called Athena Alkidemos throw-
ing a thunderbolt, an emblem used by many of
Menander’s successors and also the emblem of the
Menander has left behind an immense corpus of silver
Antigonid kings of Macedonia.
and bronze coins, more so than any other Indo-Greek
king. During his reign, the fusion between Indian and • In a further development, Menander changed the
Greek coin standards reached its apogee. The coins legends from circular orientation to the arrangement
feature the legend (Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ seen on coin 4 to the right. This modification en-
ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ (BASILEOS SOTEROS MENAN- sured that the coins could be read without being ro-
DROU)/ Kharoshthi: MAHARAJA TRATARASA tated, and was used without exception by all later
MENADRASA). Indo-Greek kings.

• According to Bopearachchi, his silver coinage be- These alterations were possibly an adaption on Menan-
gins with a rare series of drachms depicting on the der’s part to the Indian coins of the Bactrian Eucratides
25.5. MENANDER’S DEATH
I, who had conquered the westernmost parts of the Indo-
Greek kingdom, and are interpreted by Bopearachchi as
an indication that Menander recaptured these western ter-
ritories after the death of Eucratides.
• Menander also struck very rare Attic standard
coinage with monolingual inscriptions (coin 5),
which were probably intended for use in Bactria
(where they have been found), perhaps thought to
demonstrate his victories against the Bactrian kings,
as well as Menander’s own claim to that the king- However, modern numismatists as Bopearachchi and
dom.
• The bronze coins of Menander featuring a manifold
variation of Olympic, Indian and other symbols. It
seems as though Menander introduced a new weight
standard for bronzes.
25.4 Menander II, a separate Bud-
dhist ruler
Main article Menander the Just
Coin of Menander the Just Obv: Menander wearing a diadem.
Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ (of King
Menander the Just).
Rev: Winged figure bearing diadem and palm, with halo,
probably Nike. The Kharoshthi legend reads MAHARAJASA
DHARMIKASA MENADRASA (Great King, Menander, follower
of the Dharma, Menander).
A second king named Menander with the epithet Dikaios,
“the Just” ruled in the Punjab after 100 BCE. Earlier
scholars, such as A.Cunningham and W.W.Tarn, be-
lieved there were only one Menander and assumed that
the king had changed his epithet and/or was expelled
from his western dominions. A number of coincidences Despite his many successes, Menander’s last years may
led them to this assumption: have been fraught with another civil war, this time against
101
• The portraits are relatively similar, and Menander II
usually looks older than Menander I.
• The coins of Menander II feature several Buddhist
symbols, which were interpreted as proof of the
conversion mentioned in Milinda panha.
• The epithet Dikaios was translated into Kharosthi
as Dharmikasa, which means “Follower of the
Dharma” and was interpreted likewise.
R.C. Senior have shown, by difference in coin findings,
style and monograms, that there were indeed two dis-
tinct rulers. The second Menander could have been a de-
scendant of the first, and his Buddhist symbols a means
of alluding to his great ancestor’s conversion. With this
distinction, the numismatical evidence for the Milinda
panha is all but gone. The first Menander only struck a
rare bronze series with a Buddhist wheel (coin 3).
25.5 Menander’s death
Plutarch reports that Menander died in camp while on
campaign, thereby differing with the version of the Milin-
dapanha. Plutarch gives Menander as an example of
benevolent rule, contrasting him with disliked tyrants
such as Dionysius, and goes on explaining that his subject
towns disputed about the honour of his burial, ultimately
sharing his ashes among them and placing them in “mon-
uments” (possibly stupas), in a manner reminiscent of the
funerals of the Buddha.[10]
But when one Menander, who had reigned
graciously over the Bactrians, died afterwards
in the camp, the cities indeed by common
consent celebrated his funerals; but coming to
a contest about his relics, they were difficultly
at last brought to this agreement, that his
ashes being distributed, everyone should carry
away an equal share, and they should all erect
monuments to him.
—Plutarch, Moralia: Praecepta gerendae
reipublicae[11][12]
102 CHAPTER 25. MENANDER I

Zoilos I who reigned in Gandhara. This is indicated by crown. Strato I used the same reverse as Menander I,
the fact that Menander probably overstruck a coin of Zoi- Athena hurling a thunderbolt, and also the title Soter.
los. According to this scenario, Agathocleia and Straton I
The Milinda Panha might give some support the idea that only managed to maintain themselves in the eastern
Menander’s position was precarious, since it describes parts of the kingdom, Punjab and at times Gandhara.
him as being somewhat cornered by numerous enemies Paropamisadae and Pushkalavati were taken over by
into a circumscribed territory: Zoilos I, perhaps because some of Agathocleia’s subjects
may have been reluctant to accept an infant king with a
queen regent.
b) Against this, R.C. Senior and other numismatics such
as David Bivar have suggested that Straton I ruled sev-
eral decades after Menander: they point out that Straton’s
and Agathocleia’s monograms are usually different from
Menander’s, and overstrikes and hoard findings also as-
sociates them with later kings.
In this scenario, Menander was briefly succeeded by his
son Thrason, of whom a single coin is known. After
Coin of Strato I and Agathokleia. Thrason was murdered, competing kings such as Zoilos
Obv: Conjugate busts of Strato and Agathokleia. Greek leg- I or Lysias may have taken over Menander’s kingdom.
end: BASILEOS SOTEROS STRATONOS KAI AGATOKLEIAS
Menander’s dynasty was thus dethroned and did not re-
“Of King Strato the Saviour and Agathokleia”.
Rev: Athena throwing thunderbolt. Kharoshthi legend: MA-
turn to power until later, though his relative Nicias may
HARAJASA TRATASARA DHARMIKASA STRATASA “King have ruled a small principality in the Kabul valley.
Strato, Saviour and Just (= extquotedblof the Dharma”) extquot-
edbl.

25.6 Legacy
After their long discussion “Nagasaka
asked himself “though king Milinda is pleased,
he gives no signs of being pleased”. Menander 25.6.1 Buddhism
says in reply: “As a lion, the king of beasts,
when put in a cage, though it were of gold, is Main article: Greco-Buddhism
still facing outside, even so do I live as master After the reign of Menander I, Strato I and several
in the house but remain facing outside. But if I subsequent Indo-Greek rulers, such as Amyntas, Nicias,
were to go forth from home into homelessness I Peukolaos, Hermaeus, and Hippostratos, depicted them-
would not live long, so many are my enemies”. selves or their Greek deities forming with the right hand a
—Quoted in Bopearachchi, Milinda Panha, symbolic gesture identical to the Buddhist vitarka mudra
Book III, Chapter 7[13] (thumb and index joined together, with other fingers ex-
tended), which in Buddhism signifies the transmission of
the Buddha’s teaching. At the same time, right after the
death of Menander, several Indo-Greek rulers also started
25.5.1 Theories of Menander’s successors to adopt on their coins the Pali title of “Dharmikasa”,
meaning “follower of the Dharma extquotedbl (the ti-
Menander was the last Indo-Greek king mentioned by an- tle of the great Indian Buddhist king Ashoka was Dhar-
cient historians, and the development after his death is maraja “King of the Dharma”). This usage was adopted
therefore difficult to trace. by Strato I, Zoilos I, Heliokles II, Theophilos, Peukolaos
a) The traditional view, supported by W.W. Tarn and and Archebios.
Boperachchi, is that Menander was succeeded by his Altogether, the conversion of Menander to Buddhism
Queen Agathokleia, who acted as regent to their infant suggested by the Milinda Panha seems to have triggered
son Strato I until he became an adult and took over the the use of Buddhist symbolism in one form or another on
25.6. LEGACY
Vitarka Mudra gestures on Indo-Greek coinage. Top: Divinities
Tyche and Zeus. Bottom: Depiction of Indo-Greek kings Nicias
and Menander II.
the coinage of close to half of the kings who succeeded
him. Especially, all the kings after Menander who are
recorded to have ruled in Gandhara (apart from the little-
known Demetrius III) display Buddhist symbolism in one
form or another.
Both because of his conversion and because of his un-
equaled territorial expansion, Menander may have con-
tributed to the expansion of Buddhism in Central Asia.
Although the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and
Northern Asia is usually associated with the Kushans, a
century or two later, there is a possibility that it may have
been introduced in those areas from Gandhara “even ear-
lier, during the time of Demetrius and Menander extquot- Another possibility is that just as the Indo-Greeks rou-
edbl (Puri, “Buddhism in Central Asia”).
103
25.6.2 Representation of the Buddha
Main article: Greco-Buddhist art
The anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha
One of the first known representations of the Buddha, Gandhara.
is absent from Indo-Greek coinage, suggesting that the
Indo-Greek kings may have respected the Indian an-
iconic rule for depictions of the Buddha, limiting them-
selves to symbolic representation only. Consistently
with this perspective, the actual depiction of the Buddha
would be a later phenomenon, usually dated to the 1st
century, emerging from the sponsorship of the syncretic
Kushan Empire and executed by Greek, and, later, Indian
and possibly Roman artists. Datation of Greco-Buddhist
statues is generally uncertain, but they are at least firmly
established from the 1st century.
tinely represented philosophers in statues (but certainly
104 CHAPTER 25. MENANDER I

patronage, as may have the development and spread of

Gandharan sculpture, which seems to have accompanied
it” (Mc Evilly, “The shape of ancient thought”, p378)

25.6.3 Geography
In Classical Antiquity, from at least the 1st century, the
“Menander Mons”, or “Mountains of Menander”, came
to designate the mountain chain at the extreme east of
the Indian subcontinent, today’s Naga Hills and Arakan,
as indicated in the Ptolemy world map of the 1st century
geographer Ptolemy.

25.7 Notes
[1] “Menander”. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Detail of Asia in the Ptolemy world map. The “Menander Mons” Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 Septem-
are in the center of the map, at the east of the Indian subcontinent, ber 2012.
right above the Malaysian Peninsula.
[2] Bopearachchi (1998) and (1991), respectively. The first
date is estimated by Osmund Bopearachchi and R. C. Se-
nior, the other Boperachchi
not on coins) in Antiquity, the Indo-Greek may have ini-
[3] Davies, Cuthbert Collin (1959). An Historical Atlas of the
tiated anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha
Indian Peninsula. Oxford University Press.
in statuary only, possibly as soon as the 2nd-1st century
BC, as advocated by Foucher and suggested by Chinese [4] Narain, A.K. (1976). The Coin Types of the Indo-Greek
murals depicting Emperor Wu of Han worshipping Bud- Kings. Ares. ISBN 0-89005-109-7.
dha statues brought from Central Asia in 120 BC (See [5] Hans Erich Stier, Georg Westermann Verlag, Ernst
picture) ). An Indo-Chinese tradition also explains that Kirsten, and Ekkehard Aner. Grosser Atlas zur Welt-
Nagasena, also known as Menander’s Buddhist teacher, geschichte: Vorzeit. Altertum. Mittelalter. Neuzeit. West-
created in 43 BC in the city of Pataliputra a statue of the ermann, 1978, ISBN 3-14-100919-8.
Buddha, the Emerald Buddha, which was later brought to
Thailand. [6] (Greek) Strabo (1877). “11.11.1”. In Meineke, A. Geo-
graphica (in Greek). Leipzig: Teubner.
Stylistically, Indo-Greek coins generally display a very Jones, H. L., ed. (1924). “11.11.1”. Jones, H. L., ed.
high level of Hellenistic artistic realism, which declined (1903). “11.11.1”. At the Perseus Project.
drastically around 50 BC with the invasions of the Indo-
[7] Full text, Schoff’s 1912 translation
Scythians, Yuezhi and Indo-Parthians. The first known
statues of the Buddha are also very realistic and Hellenis- [8] “Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in
tic in style and are more consistent with the pre-50 BC the Smithsonian institution”, Smithsonian Institution, Bo-
artistic level seen on coins. pearachchi, p19, quoting the analysis of N.G. Majumdar,
D.C. Sicar, S.Konow
This would tend to suggest that the first statues were cre-
ated between 130 BC (death of Menander) and 50 BC, [9] Chapter XXIX of the Mahavamsa: Text
precisely at the time when Buddhist symbolism appeared [10] A passage in the “Mahā-parinibbâna sutta” of the
on Indo-Greek coinage. From that time, Menander and extquotedblDighanikaya extquotedbl relates the dispute
his successors may have been the key propagators of Bud- of Indian kings over the ashes of the Buddha, which they
dhist ideas and representations: “the spread of Gandhari finally shared between themselves and enshrined in a se-
Buddhism may have been stimulated by Menander’s royal ries of stupas.
25.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 105

[11] Plutarch. “28, 6”. Morals: Political Precepts. The Online
Library of Liberty. pp. 147–148.
[12] (Greek) Bernardakis, Gregorius N., ed. (1893). “821d”.
Moralia: Praecepta gerendae reipublicae (in Greek).
Leipzig: Teubner.
Fowler, Harold North, ed. (1936). “28, 6”. Goodwin,
William W., ed. (1874). “28, 6”. At the Perseus Project.
• “The Crossroads of Asia. Transformation in Image
and symbol”, 1992, ISBN 0-9518399-1-8
• “Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian
coins in the Smithsonian institution”, Smithsonian
Institution, Bopearachchi, 1993

[13] “Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in 25.10 External links

the Smithsonian institution”, Smithsonian Institution, Bo-
pearachchi, p33
• Coins of King Menander
• More coins of Menander
25.8 See also
• Kapisa coinage of Menander
• Kanishka • The Debate of King Milinda
• Indo-Greek Kingdom • The Questions of King Milinda
• Greco-Buddhism • Catalogue of the coins of Menander
• Indo-Scythians

25.9 References
• “Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques,
Catalogue Raisonné extquotedbl, Osmund Bopear-
achchi, 1991, Bibliothèque Nationale de France,
ISBN 2-7177-1825-7.
• “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-
ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5
• “Buddhism in Central Asia” by B.N. Puri (Motilal
Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000) ISBN 81-208-
0372-8
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press.
• “Dictionary of Buddhism” Damien Keown, Oxford
University Press ISBN 0-19-860560-9
• “De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Cen-
trale”, Osmund Bopearachchi, Christine Sachs,
ISBN 2-9516679-2-2
• “The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity” by
John Boardman (Princeton University Press, 1994)
ISBN 0-691-03680-2
Chapter 26
Zoilos I
“Zoilos” redirects here. For other meanings, see
Zoilos (disambiguation).
Zoilus I Dikaios (Greek: Ζωίλος Α΄ ὁ Δίκαιος; epithet
means “the Just”) was an Indo-Greek king who ruled
in Afghanistan and Pakistan and occupied the areas
of the Paropamisade and Arachosia previously held by
Menander I. He may have belonged to the dynasty of
Euthydemus I.
26.1 Time of reign
Zoilos used to be dated after the death of Menander,
c. 130–120 BCE (Bopearachchi). Two coins of Zoilus
I were however overstruck by Menander I [1] so Zoilos
came to power while Menander was still alive and was
perhaps his enemy. R. C. Senior has suggested some time
between 150–135 BCE.
26.2 Coin types of Zoilos I
Zoilos I uses a silver coin type similar to that of
Euthydemus II, son of Demetrius: Crowned Herakles
standing, holding a wreath or diadem in his right hand,
and a club and the lion skin in his left hand. On some
of the coins, which are of lower artistic quality, Herak-
les is crowned by a small Nike. Zoilos I also struck rare
gold-plated silver coins with portrait and Heracles.
The Indian-standard coins of Zoilos I also bear the Pali
title “Dhramikasa” (“Follower of the Dharma extquot-
edbl), probably related to Buddhism, appearing for the
first time on Indo-Greek coinage. A few monolingual
Attic tetradrachms of Zoilos I have been found. Zoilos
106
inherited (or took) several monograms from Menander I.
His bronze coins are square and original in that they com-
bine the club of Herakles with a Scythian-type bowcase
(for a short recurve bow) inside a victory wreath, sug-
gesting contacts or even an alliance with horse-mounted
people originating from the steppes, possibly either the
Scythians (future Indo-Scythians), or the Yuezhi who had
invaded Greco-Bactria. This bow can be contrasted to the
traditional Hellenistic long bow depicted on the coins of
the eastern Indo-Greek queen Agathokleia.
• Zoilos I and Herakles.
• Zoilos I and Herakles, with Nike on his shoulder
crowning him.
•
26.3 See also
• Indo-Greek Kingdom
• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians
26.4 References
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W. W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press
26.5 Notes
[1] Senior R.C., MacDonald, D.: The Decline of the Indo-
Greeks, Monographs of the Hellenic Numismatic Society,
26.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 107

Athens (1998)

26.6 External links

• Main coins of Zoilus I
• Catalog of the coins of Zoilus I
Chapter 27

Agathokleia

For the 3rd century BC mistress of Ptolemy IV the daughter of a king, though she was probably too late
Philopator, see Agathoclea to have been a daughter of the Bactrian king Agathocles.

Agathokleia Theotropos (Greek: Ἀγαθόκλεια Θεό-

τροπος; the epithet possibly means the Goddess-like) was 27.2 Coinage
an Indo-Greek queen who ruled in parts of northern India
as regent for her son Strato I.

27.1 Date and genealogy

The traditional view, introduced by Tarn and defended as
late as 1998 by Bopearachchi, is that Agathokleia was the
widow of Menander I. In the civil wars after Menander’s
death, the Indo-Greek empire was divided, with Agath-
okleia and her young son Strato maintaining themselves
in the eastern territories of Gandhara and Punjab. Coin of Strato I and Agathokleia.
Obv: Conjugate busts of Strato and Agathokleia. Greek leg-
The modern view, embraced by R. C. Senior and proba- end: BASILEOS SOTEROS STRATONOS KAI AGATOKLEIAS
bly more solid since it is founded on numismatical analy- “Of Saviour King Strato, and Agathokleia”.
ses, suggests that Agathokleia was a later queen, perhaps Rev: Athena throwing thunderbolt. Kharoshthi legend: MA-
ruling from 110 BC–100 BC or slightly later. In this case, HARAJASA TRATASARA DHARMIKASA STRATASA “King
Agathokleia was likely the widow of another king, possi- Strato, Saviour and Just (= extquotedblof the Dharma”) extquot-
bly Nicias or Theophilus. In either case, Agathokleia was edbl.
among the first women to rule a Hellenistic Kingdom, in
the period following the reign of Alexander the Great. The coins of Agathokleia and Strato were all bilingual,
and Agathokleia’s name appears more often in the Greek
Some of her subjects may have been reluctant to accept legend than in the Indian.
an infant king with a queen regent: unlike the Seleucid
and Ptolemaic Kingdoms, almost all Indo-Greek rulers (See Strato I for details of legends.)
were depicted as grown men. This was probably because Most of Agathokleia’s coins were struck jointly with her
the kings were required to command armies, as can be son Strato, though on their first issues, he is not featured
seen on their coins where they are often depicted with hel- on the portrait.
mets and spears. Agathokleia seems to have associated
herself with Athena, the goddess of war. Athena was also Silver: Bust of Agathokleia/walking king
the dynastic deity of the family of Menander, and Agath- Bust of Strato and Agathokleia conjoined/Athena
okleia’s prominent position suggests that she was herself Alkidemos

108
27.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 109

Bronzes: Bust of either helmeted Athena or Agathokleia

as a personification of this goddess/sitting Herakles
The later king Heliokles II overstruck some of Agathok-
leia’s coins.

27.3 See also

• Greco-Buddhism

• Indo-Scythians

27.4 Sources
• W.W. Tarn. The Greeks in Bactria and India. Third
Edition. Cambridge: University Press, 1966.

27.5 External links

• Main coins of Agathokleia
Chapter 28
Lysias Anicetus
Lysias Anicetus (Greek: Λυσίας ὁ Ἀνίκητος; epithet
means “the Invincible”) was an Indo-Greek king.
28.1 Time of reign
According to numismatist Bopearachchi, Lysias was a
close successor to Menander I and Zoilos I, and there-
fore may have ruled around 130–120 BCE. R. C. Senior
suggests a similar date.
Bopearachchi suggests that Lysias’ territory covered the
areas of the Paropamisade and Arachosia, but his coins
have been found in the Punjab and it is possible that
Lysias ruled most of the Indo-Greek territory for a pe-
riod, though perhaps in cooperation with Antialcidas,
with whom he shared most of his monograms.
Lysias apparently claimed to be a descendant of
Demetrius, using a similar reverse of Heracles crowning
himself, Demetrius’ epithet Invincible, and sometimes
the elephant crown always worn by this king. A simi-
lar reverse was also used by Zoilus I, who may have ruled
some decade earlier and was likely an enemy of Menan-
der.
Lysias rule seems to have begun after the murder of
Menander’s infant son Thrason, and since his coins do
not resemble Menander’s it seems as though he, just as
Zoilus, belonged to a competing line. Despite his mag-
nificent coinage, his policies were probably rather defen-
sive. The Bactrian kingdom had recently fallen to in-
vading nomads and though the Indo-Greeks managed to
avoid the same fate, they became isolated from the Hel-
lenistic world.
110
28.2 Coin types
Coin of king Lysias (r. c. 120–110 BCE).
Obv. King Lysias in armour. Greek legend BASILEOS ANIKE-
TOU LYSIOU “Of Invincible King Lysias”.
Rev. Nude Herakles standing facing, crowning himself, holding
club, lion’s skin, and palm (variation of Demetrius I type. Mono-
grams. Kharoshti legend, translation of the Greek.
Lysias issued a number of bilingual Indian coins. On
his silver portrait types he appears either diademed or
dressed in various types of head-gear worn by earlier
kings: the elephant scalp of Demetrios I, a bull’s horns
helmet or Corinthian helmet with scales, and the Greek
flat hat “kausia”. He also appeared throwing a spear.
The reverse is always Herakles crowning himself, and
holding his club, with the new addition of a palm to sig-
nify victory.
He also issued a series of Attic tetradrachms, and even
smaller denominations (a hemidrachm is known) for cir-
culation in Bactria.
His Indian type square bronzes show a bust of
Herakles/elephant.
28.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 111

28.3 “Mule coins” (overstrikes)

There is a bronze which features the obverse of Lysias and
the reverse of Antialcidas. This was interpreted by Tarn
and other earlier scholars as though the two kings might
have forged some kind of alliance, but later, a bronze with
the opposite arrangement was found.
The modern view is that these coin were “mules; extquot-
edbl in other words, an impoperly overstruck issue of one
of the pertinent rulers. While not signs of an alliance,
they still suggest that Lysias’ and Antialcidas’ reigns were
adjacent.

• Lysias with elephant scalp and Herakles.

• Lysias with kausia, and Herakles.

• Coin of Lysias, with bust of Herakles with club, and

elephant in reverse.

28.4 See also

• Indo-Greek Kingdom
• Greco-Buddhism

• Indo-Scythians

28.5 References
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W. W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press

28.6 External links

• Coins of Lysias
• More coins of Lysias

• Catalog of the coins of Lysias

Chapter 29

Strato I

This article is about the Indo-Greek king. For the air- • Strato Epiphanes Soter (Greek: ΣΤΡΑΤΩΝ
plane called Strato 1, see Grob/E-Systems/AlliedSignal Ο ΕΠΙΦΑΝΗΣ ΣΩΤΗΡ “Strato the illustrious,
Egrett. saviour”), was a middle-aged king who may have
been Agathokleia’s brother and ruled in western
Strato I (Greek: Στράτων Α΄), was an Indo-Greek king Punjab.
who was the son of the Indo-Greek queen Agathokleia,
who presumably acted as his regent during his early years This theory was based on difference in titles, in mono-
after Strato’s father, another Indo-Greek king, was killed. grams and coin types between the two.

29.1 Date and genealogy 29.2 Events during his reign

Until recently, consensus was that he ruled between c. Agathocleia’s importance was gradually downplayed on
130–110 BCE in Northern India and that his father was the coins, so presumably her guardianship ended when
the great king Menander I. Menander ruled the entire Strato came of age. Strato I was also the only Indo-Greek
Indo-Greek empire, but in this scenario, the western parts king to appear bearded, probably to indicate that he was
including Paropamisade and Arachosia, gained indepen- no longer an infant. Strato I, or the two Stratos, fought
dence after the death of Menander I, pushing Strato and for hegemony in Punjab with the king Heliokles II, who
Agathokleia eastwards to Gandhar and Punjab. This view overstruck several of their coins. There were very likely
was introduced by Tarn and defended as late as 1998 by wars with other kings as well. The middle-aged Strato,
Bopearachchi. according to the third theory, was succeeded by his son
Polyxenios, who ruled only for a short time.
The modern view, embraced by R. C. Senior and proba-
bly more solid since it is founded on numismatical analy- A hoard of Strato’s coins was found in Mathura outside
ses, suggests that Strato I was a later king, perhaps ruling New Delhi, which may have been the easternmost outpost
from 110–85 BCE, though perhaps still a descendant of of the Indo-Greek territory.
Agathokleia. In this case, Agathokleia was the widow of
another king, possibly Nicias or Theophilus.
A third hypothesis was presented in 2007 by J. 29.3 Coins
Jakobsson:[1] according to this, the coins of Strato in fact
belong to two kings who both may have ruled around The coins of Strato show portraits aging from a youth to
105–80 BCE, though in different territories: middle-aged. They have been divided into the following
periods, where period 8 may belong to the second king.
• Strato Soter and Dikaios (Greek: ΣΤΡΑΤΩΝ ^
Ο ΣΩΤΗΡ ΚΑΙ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΣ “Strato the saviour and
just/righteous”), was Agathokleia’s son. • Period 1 (Only Agathokleia):

112
29.3. COINS 113

• Period 2:

Silver: Agathokleia’s portrait / walking king forming

benediction gesture.
Obverse - Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΙΑΣ “of
queen Agathokleia”
Reverse - Pali: Maharajasa tratarasa dhramikasa
Stratasa “The Great king Strato, saviour and followers of
the Dharma”

• Period 3:

Silver: Bust of adolescent Strato / Athena holding Nike.

Obverse - Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ ΚΑΙ
ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΣΤΡΑΤΩΝΟΣ “of king saviour and
just/righteous Strato”
Reverse - Pali: Maharajasa tratarasa Dhramikasa
Stratasa “Great saviour king Strato, follower of the
Dharma”

• Period 4:

Silver: Adolescent Strato jointly with Agatokleia /

Athena Alkidemos left.
Obverse - Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ
ΣΤΡΑΤΩΝΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΙΑΣ “of king saviour
Strato, and Agathokleia”
Reverse - Pali: Maharajasa tratarasa
Stratasa/Agathukriae “Great saviour king Strato,
and Agathokleia”

• Period 5-7:

Silver: Strato alone, diademed, helmeted or spear-

throwing, sometimes bearded / Athena Alkidemos (left,
right or forward).
Bronzes: Heracles / Nike
Obverse - (5-6) Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ
ΣΤΡΑΤΩΝΟΣ “of king saviour Strato”
Coin of Strato I. (7) Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ
ΣΤΡΑΤΩΝΟΣ “of king saviour and Just/Righteous
Strato”
Bronzes: Athena / seated Heracles. Reverse - (5) Pali: Maharajasa tratarasa Stratasa “Great
Obverse - Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ ΘΕΟΤΡΟΠΟΥ saviour king Strato”
ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΙΑΣ “of queen Godlike Agathokleia” (6) Pali: Maharajasa tratarasa dhramikasa Stratasa
Reverse - Pali: Maharajasa tratarasa dhramikasa “Great saviour king Strato, follower of the dharma”
Agathukriae “Queen Agathokleia, saviour and follower (7) Pali: Maharajasa tratarasa dhramikasa Stratasa
of the dharma” “Great saviour king Strato, follower of the dharma”
114 CHAPTER 29. STRATO I

• Period 8:

Silver: Middle-aged Strato diademed or helmeted /

Athena Alkidemos left.
Bronzes: Apollo / Sacrificial tripod
Obverse - Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ
ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ ΣΤΡΑΤΩΝΟΣ “of king illustrious saviour
Strato”
Reverse - Pali: Maharajasa pracachasa tratarasa
Stratasa “Great saviour king Strato, the illustrious”

29.4 See also

• Greco-Buddhism

• Indo-Scythians

29.5 Notes
[1] Jakobsson, J. Relations between the Indo-Greek kings after
Menander I, part 2, Journal of the Oriental Numismatic
Society 193, 2007

29.6 References
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India” W.W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press

29.7 See also

• Coins of Strato I
• More coins of Strato I
Chapter 30

Antialcidas

Antialcidas Nikephoros (Greek: Ἀντιαλκίδας ὁ Νι-

κηφόρος; epithet means “the Victorious”) was a Greek
King of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, king of the Eucratid
Dynasty, who reigned from his capital at Taxila.
Bopearachchi has suggested that he ruled from ca. 115 to
95 BCE in the western parts of the Indo-Greek realms,
whereas R. C. Senior places him around 130 to 120 BCE
and also in eastern Punjab (which seems better supported
by coin findings). Senior does however believe that he
ruled in tandem with King Lysias.

30.1 Genealogy
Antialcidas may have been a relative of the Bactrian king
Heliocles I, but ruled after the fall of the Bactrian king-
dom. Several later kings may have been related to Antial-
cidas: Heliokles II, Amyntas, Diomedes and Hermaeus
all struck coins with similar features.

30.2 The Heliodorus inscription Antialcidas sent an Embassy to Vidisa in central India.

Main article: Heliodorus pillar Antialkidas, to King Bhagabhadra, the son of

Though there are few sources for the late Indo-Greek
history, Antialcidas is known from an inscription left on
a pillar (the Heliodorus pillar), which was erected by his
ambassador Heliodorus at the court of the Sunga king
Bhagabhadra at Vidisha, near Sanchi. It states that he
was a devotee of Krishna, the Hindu god.
A part of the inscriptions says:
“This Garuda-standard was made by order of
the Bhagavata ... Heliodoros, the son of Dion, a
man of Taxila, a Greek ambassador from King
the Princess from Benares, the saviour, while
prospering in the fourteenth year of his reign.”
30.3 Coins
Otherwise, Antialcidas is also known through his plen-
tiful coins. He issued a number of bilingual Indian sil-
ver types: diademed, wearing a helmet with bull’s horns
or a flat kausia. He also appears throwing a spear. Ac-
cording to some interpretations (Grousset), the baby ele-

115
116 CHAPTER 30. ANTIALCIDAS

30.4 “Mule coins” (overstrikes)

Inscription on the Heliodorus pillar made by Antialcidas’ Am-

bassador Heliodorus in 110 BCE.

Antialcidas wearing the kausia. Japan Currency Museum.

Silver drachm of King Antialcidas.

Obv: Bust of Antialcidas wearing a helmet, with Greek legend
BASILEOS NIKEPHOROU ANTIALKIDOU “Of Victorious King
Antialcidas”.
Rev: Seated Zeus holding sceptre, with Nike on his extended arm,
holding out a wreath to a baby elephant with bell. Kharoshti leg- Lysias was a contemporary of Antialcidas.
end: MAHARAJASA JAYADHARASA ANTIALIKITASA “Victo-
rious King Antialcidas”.
There is a bronze which features the obverse of Lysias and
the reverse of Antialcidas. This was interpreted by Tarn
and other earlier scholars as though the two kings might
phant may symbolize the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, have forged some kind of alliance, but later, a bronze with
who took the shape of a small elephant to enter the womb the opposite arrangement was found.
of his mother Queen Maya, a scene often depicted in Modern scholarship has however largely accepted that
Greco-Buddhist art. In that case the coin scene would what was originally supposed to be a “joint issue” was
represent a victory of Buddhism. According to other in- in fact a mule; in other words, a mistake occurred in the
terpretations the elephant was the symbol of the city of process of overstriking the original coin, and it was acci-
Taxila. dentally issued with both king’s standards.
30.6. REFERENCES 117

30.5 External links

• Coins of Antialcidas

• More coins of Antialcidas

• Catalog of the coins of Antialcidas

30.6 References
• “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-
ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5
• “Buddhism in Central Asia” by B. N. Puri (Motilal
Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000) ISBN 81-208-
0372-8

• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W. W. Tarn,

Cambridge University Press.

• “The Indo-Greeks”, A. K. Narain, B.R Publications

• “The Decline of the Indo-Greeks”, R. C. Senior &
D. MacDonald, the Hellenistic Numismatic Society
Chapter 31

Heliokles II

Heliocles II Dikaios (Greek: Ἡλιοκλῆς Β΄ ὁ Δίκαιος; 31.2 Coins of Heliocles II

epithet means “the Righteous”) is thought to have been
one of the later Indo-Greek kings and a relative of the Heliocles II issued Indian silver with portrait (diademed,
Bactrian king Heliocles I. Bopearachchi and R. C. Senior helmeted or spear-throwing) / standing Zeus and bronzes
seem to agree that he ruled ca 95–80 BCE (see Over- with bearded diademed portrait (Heliocles or Zeus) / ele-
strikes). phant.
Heliocles II seems to have been engaged in a series of It is uncertain whether he struck Attic coins. A number
wars with Strato I in Gandhara and Punjab; the two share of posthumous coins for Heliocles I have been found in
several mintmarks and Heliocles II overstruck many of Bactria; possibly some of these may have been struck by
his coins. During this period, a number of kings fought Heliocles II, though there are no similar monograms.
for hegemony in the Indo-Greek territories. Some of
them were likely supported by nomad Saka rulers such
as Maues.
31.3 Overstrikes
The existence of numerous overstrikes helps locate the
reign of Heliokles II in relation to other Indo-Greek
31.1 Genealogy kings. Heliokles overstruck coins of Agathokleia, Strato
I, and Hermaeus. Conversely, Amyntas overstruck coins
of Heliokles II. These overstrikes would suggest that He-
Heliocles II used a reverse of standing Zeus, who was liokles II reigned around 95–85 BCE, and was a contem-
a common deity among the later Indo-Greek kings. J. porary of Amyntas and Hermaios [2]
Jakobsson[1] sees Heliocles as the son of the impor-
tant king Antialcidas Nikephoros (whose type was sitting
Zeus) and perhaps the grandson of Heliocles I.
31.4 Notes
He goes on to suggest that Heliocles was the older brother
of the king Archebius Nikephoros Dikaios, who seems to [1] Jakobsson, J. Relations between the Indo-Greek kings after
have succeeded Heliocles II in Gandhara (perhaps after Menander I, part 2, Journal of the Oriental Numismatic
his death from disease; Heliocles I looks emaciated on Society 193, 2007
his later portraits). Archebius uses a very similar reverse
and combines the epithets of Heliocles II and Antialcidas; [2] Bopearachchi, “De l'Indus à l'Oxus”, p129
in addition, their coin portraits are similar, with hooked
noses and fierce expressions.
R.C. Senior has instead suggested a connection with 31.5 See also
Demetrius III, who used a similar reverse of standing
Zeus. • Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

118
31.6. REFERENCES 119

• Seleucid Empire

• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians

• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Kushan Empire

31.6 References
• Tarn, W. W. (1984). The Greeks in Bactria and In-
dia. Chicago: Ares. ISBN 0-89005-524-6.

• Narain, A.K. The Coin types of the Indo-Greek Kings

256-54 BCE.

• Bopearachchi, Osmund (2003). De l'Indus à l'Oxus,

Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale (in French). Lat-
tes: Association imago-musée de Lattes. ISBN 2-
9516679-2-2.
Chapter 32

Polyxenos Epiphanes Soter

Polyxenos Epiphanes Soter (Greek: Πολύξενος ὁ
Ἐπιφανῆς, ὁ Σωτήρ; epithets mean respectivelly, “the
Illustrious”, “the Saviour”) was an Indo-Greek king who
ruled briefly in western Punjab or Gandhara.
32.1 Time of reign
Bopearachchi places Polyxenos c. 100 BCE[1] and R. C.
Senior c. 85–80 BCE.
32.2 Coins of Polyxenos
Polyxenos’ coins are few and feature only three mono-
grams: these he shares with Straton I as well as the kings
Heliokles II and Archebios, according to Bopearachchi
and RC Senior.
He was therefore likely to have been a brief contestant
for power in the central Indo-Greek kingdom after the
presumably violent death of Straton I, who was possibly
his father.
32.3 Notes
[1] Bopearachchi (1998)

32.4 References
• Osmund Bopearachchi, Sylloge Nummorum
Graecorum: American Numismatic Society, part
9, Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Coins, 1998,
American Numismatic Society, ISBN 0-89722-
273-3.

Coin of Polyxenos.

Polyxenos, whose portraits depict a diademed young

man, struck silver coins which closely resemble those of
Strato I. Both kings used the epithets Soter Epiphanes
and the reverse of Athena Alkidemos (fighting Pallas
Athene), the emblem of the dynasty of Menander I.
Polyxenos also struck bronzes with Athena on the obverse
and her aegis on the reverse. He issued no Attic silver.
His bronzes depict the head of Athena with a reverse of
her aegis.

120
Chapter 33

Demetrios III

For the Seleucid ruler, see Demetrius latter part of Eucratides’ rule. Bopearachchi nevertheless
III Eucaerus identifies Justin’s Demetrius with the king Demetrius II
even though he only struck Greek coins and reigned c.
Demetrius III Aniketos (Greek: Δημήτριος Γ΄ ὁ Ἀνί- 175–170 BCE, even before Eucratides. In addition, Bo-
κητος; epithet means “the Invincible”) is here identi- pearachchi’s early dating of Demetrius II has been chal-
fied with an Indo-Greek king who reigned in the area of lenged (see discussion under Demetrius II.
Gandhara and Punjab. Yet other authors have identified Justin’s Demetrius with
Demetrius I of Bactria, ignoring both Bopearachchi’s
chronology as well as modifying Justin’s text.[2]
33.1 Controversy about time of Earlier authors such as Tarn and Narain thought that
reign the Demetrius who struck the coins now identified with
Demetrius III [3] was the king who fought Eucratides, and
saw him as a son of Demetrius I.
The coins of Demetrius III are few and rather crude. He
copies some of his imagery from the renowned Bactrian The absence of absolute proofs of dating Demetrius III
king Demetrius I (c. 200–180 BCE). The two name- (such as counter-marked coins), and the remaining prob-
lems of all current reconstructions, means the problem
sakes share the war-like epithet “The Invincible” and wear
elephant-crowns, the symbol that Alexander the Great is not definitely solved, and the alternative chronology
used to celebrate his conquest of the Indus Valley. would be to place Demetrius III around 150 BCE in com-
pliance with Tarn’s and Narain’s ideas about his identity
The historical sources of the Indo-Greek kingdom are
as a Euthydemid prince who fought against Eucratides.[4]
very few, and the separation of kings with the same
name is not an easy process. Numismatician Osmund
Bopearachchi identifies three kings named Demetrius,
placing the third around 100 BCE due to mintmarks and 33.2 Possible dynastic context
style of the coins. (See discussion under Demetrius II).
R C Senior agrees with this reconstruction, even though If Demetrius III ruled around 100 or 70 BCE, he seems
their dates are somewhat different: according to Bopear- to have been a relative of Heliokles II, though his title and
achchi he ruled around 100 BCE, whereas R. C. Senior use of the elephant-crown of Demetrius I also associates
places him circa 70 BCE, in both cases as successor of him with the king Lysias.
Heliokles II. If he ruled around 150 BCE, he was very likely a surviv-
However, Demetrius III is the only Demetrius to strike ing Euthydemid prince like Tarn and Narain assumed.
bilingual Greek/Indian (Kharoshti) coins, and is therefore The symbols of his coin connect him with several Euthy-
a likely candidate to be identified with the “Demetrius, demid kings: the kausia hat on one of his portrait with
king of the Indians” mentioned by Roman historian Antimachus I, the elephant-crown and the title Aniketos
Justin.[1] This Demetrius is said to have fought with the as mentioned with Demetrius I, and the standing Zeus on
Bactrian king Eucratides (c. 170–145 BCE) during the his silver reverses with Agathocles.

121
122 CHAPTER 33. DEMETRIOS III

33.3 Coins of Demetrius III

The actual coins of Demetrius III are very few and struck
with a single, unique monogram. This suggests a short
and insignificant reign. On his silver, Demetrius III ap-
pears in the kausia hat (on the unique known tetradrachm)
or diademed, with a reverse of Zeus holding thunder-
bolt. His bronzes feature a king in elephant’s crown, ei-
ther Demetrius III or Demetrius I, with thunderbolt on
the reverse.

33.4 See also

• Indo-Greek Kingdom

• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians

33.5 Notes
[1] Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, XLI:6

[2] L.M. Wilson, and G.R.F. Assar, Re-dating Eukratides I

relative to Mithradates I, ONS Journal 191 (2007). They
suggest that Justin’s reference that Eucratides “carried on
many wars” before his campaign against Demetrius refers
to wars fought before Eucratides became king, so that the
war took place during the early stages of Eucratides’ rule.
Against this interpretation must be said that Justin con-
tinues to state that these “many wars” seriously weakened
Eucratides, whereas in Wilson’s and Assar’s reading, the
wars in question lead to Eucratides becoming an impor-
tant king.

[3] Tarn and Narain usually refer to this king as Demetrius

II, since they did not separate him from Demetrius II of
Bactria

[4] The actual datings suggested by Tarn and Narain differ

from 150 BCE, but a number of circumstances has made
their general chronology outdated.
Chapter 34
Philoxenus Anicetus
For other personalities with the same name, see
Philoxenus.
Philoxenus Anicetus (Greek: Φιλόξενος ὁ Ἀνίκη-
Coin of Philoxenus, making a blessing gesture with his right
hand. Kharoshti legend MAHARAJASA APADIHATASA PHI-
LASINASA “Invincible King Philoxenus”. British Museum.
τος; epithet means “the Invincible”) was an Indo-Greek
king who ruled in the region spanning the Paropamisade
to Punjab. Philoxenus seems to have been quite an im-
portant king who might briefly have ruled most of the
Indo-Greek territory. Bopearachchi dates Philoxenus to
c. 100–95 BCE and R. C. Senior to c. 125–110 BCE.
Historians have not yet connected Philoxenus with any
dynasty, but he could have been the father of the princess
Kalliope, who was married to the king Hermaeus.
123
34.1 Coins of Philoxenos
Philoxenus struck several series of bilingual Indian silver
coins, with a reverse of a mounted king, a type previously
used as obverse by Antimachus II sixty years earlier and
as reverse on rare types of Nicias. Whether the horse-
man was a dynastic emblem or a portrait of the king as a
cavalleryman is unclear. Several Saka kings used similar
horsemen on their coinage.
His drachms were square, another feature that was rare
among Indo-Greeks but standard for Sakas, and this in-
dicates that Philoxenus had connections with the nomads
that had conquered Bactria.
Philoxenus struck bronzes with female deity/bull, or
Helios/Nike.
Philoxenus also minted some Attic-type tetradrachms
(with Greek legend only), meant for circulation in Bac-
tria.
34.2 Overstrikes
One overstrike is known, of Epander over Philoxenus.
34.3 Other coins
• Philoxenus on horse.
• Philoxenus coin in the Indian square standard. Japan
Currency Museum.
124 CHAPTER 34. PHILOXENUS ANICETUS

34.4 External links

• Coins of Philoxenus

34.5 See also

• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
• Seleucid Empire

• Greco-Buddhism

• Indo-Scythians
• Indo-Parthian Kingdom

• Kushan Empire

34.6 References
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W. W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 35

Diomedes Soter

Diomedes Soter (Greek: Διομήδης ὁ Σωτήρ; epithet 35.3 See also

means “the Saviour”) was an Indo-Greek king. The
places where his coins have been found seem to indicate • Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
that his rule was based in the area of the Paropamisadae,
possibly with temporary dominions further east. Judg- • Seleucid Empire
ing from their similar portraits and many overlapping
• Greco-Buddhism
monograms, the young Diomedes seems to have been the
heir (and probably a relative) of Philoxenus, the last king • Indo-Scythians
to rule before the kingdom of Menander I finally frag-
mented. • Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Kushan Empire

35.1 Time of reign 35.4 References

Bopearachchi dates Diomedes to c. 95–90 BCE and R. [1] Bopearachchi, De l'Indus à l'Oxus, p. 129
C. Senior dates him to c. 115–105 BCE.
• Tarn, W. W. (1984). The Greeks in Bactria and In-
dia. Chicago: Ares. ISBN 0-89005-524-6.

35.2 Coins of Diomedes • Bopearachchi, Osmund (2003). De l'Indus à l'Oxus,

Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale (in French). Lat-
tes: Association imago-musée de Lattes. ISBN 2-
Diomedes depicted the Dioscurion his coins, either on
9516679-2-2.
horseback or standing; both types were previously used
by Eucratides I. It is however uncertain how the two were
related, since Eucratides I died long before Diomedes.
35.5 External links
Diomedes minted both Attic-type coins (Greco-Bactrian
style, with Greek legend only), and bilingual coins (with
• Coins of Diomedes
Greek and Kharoshthi), indicating that he was ruling in
the western part of the Indo-Greek territory. • Other coins of Diomedes
One overstrike is known, of a coin of Strato and
• (French) Le roi Diomède
Agathokleia over a coin of Diomedes.[1] This overstrike
could indicate that Diomedes fought over the central ar-
eas of the Indo-Greek territories with Strato and Agath-
okleia.

125
Chapter 36

Amyntas Nikator

For other people of the same name, see Amyntas archeological site of Qunduz in Afghanistan. Some of
(disambiguation). these coins use his ordinary Zeus reverse, but some of
them used Tyche in an identical position.
Amyntas Nikator (Greek: Ἀμύντας ὁ Νικάτωρ;
epithet means “the Conqueror”) was an Indo-Greek king.
His coins have been found both in eastern Punjab and 36.3 Overstrikes
Afghanistan, indicating that he ruled a considerable ter-
ritory. Amyntas is known to have overstruck coins of Heliokles
II .

36.1 Time of reign

36.4 Notes
Bopearachchi places Amyntas c. 95–90 BCE, whereas
Senior places him c. 80–65 BCE. 1. ^ Bopearachchi, “De l'Indus à l'Oxus”, p129

36.2 Coinage 36.5 See also

Amyntas struck bilingual silver coins with a variety of • Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
portraits. Most of these bear the reverse of sitting Zeus
holding a victory palm and a small statue of Athena, • Seleucid Empire
which according to RC Senior may have indicated an al-
liance between the house of Menander I and the house • Greco-Buddhism
of Antialcidas. Some of his coins feature the reverse of
• Indo-Scythians
fighting Athena typical for Menander’s descendants. The
epithet Nikator (Victor) was previously only used on the • Indo-Parthian Kingdom
Bactrian coins of Agathocles, a century before Amyntas’
reign. • Kushan Empire
His bronzes feature the syncretic deity Zeus-Mithra wear-
ing a phrygian cap and Athena standing at rest, both form-
ing the vitarka mudra. 36.6 References
Amyntas also minted some spectacular Attic coins, the
largest silver coins of Antiquity: double-decadrachms, of • Tarn, W. W. (1984). The Greeks in Bactria and In-
a weight of 85g. These huge coins were found on the dia. Chicago: Ares. ISBN 0-89005-524-6.

126
36.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 127

• Narain, A.K. The Coin types of the Indo-Greek Kings

256-54 BCE.
• Bopearachchi, Osmund (2003). De l'Indus à l'Oxus,
Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale (in French). Lat-
tes: Association imago-musée de Lattes. ISBN 2-
9516679-2-2.

36.7 External links

• Coins of Amyntas
Chapter 37

Epander

Epander (Greek: Ἔπανδρος) was one of the Indo- 37.5 See also
Greek kings. He may have been a relative of Menander
I, and the findplaces of his coins seem to indicate that he • Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
ruled in the area of Punjab.
• Seleucid Empire

• Greco-Buddhism
37.1 Time of reign • Indo-Scythians

Bopearachchi dates Epander to c. 95–90 BC and R. C. • Indo-Parthian Kingdom

Senior to c. 80 BC. The scarcity of his coins indicate that • Kushan Empire
his reign was short and/or his territory limited.
• (French) Le Roi Indo-Grec Epandre

37.2 Coins of Epander 37.6 References

Epander’s silver drachms portray the king in diadem • “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
with a reverse of Athena fighting which was the type Cambridge University Press.
of Menander I. Epander probably claimed ancestry from
this important king, but his epithet Nikephoros (Victori-
ous) was unique to kings using this reverse: their title was
usually Soter (Saviour). He struck no Attic (monolingual)
coins.

37.3 Overstrikes
Epander overstruck coins of Strato I and Philoxenus.

37.4 External links

• Coins of Epander

128
Chapter 38

Theophilos (king)

This article is about the 1st century BC Indo-Greek king. 38.3 A Bactrian king Theophilos?
For other uses, see Theophilus.
However, there is a wholly different, and very rare, At-
Theophilos (Greek: Θεὀφιλος) was a minor Indo-Greek tic coinage of a king Theophilos. Found in Bactria, these
king who ruled for a short time in the Paropamisadae. coins feature a reverse with a seated Athena with Nike,
He was possibly a relative of Zoilos I and is only known a different title Autokrator “Autocrat King”, and also a
from coins. It is possible that some of Theophilos’ coins separate monogram. Although this is not a very common
in fact belong to another ruler, in Greek Bactria, during occurrence on Indo-Greek coins, the coins of Theophilos
approximately the same period. have generally been accepted as belonging to one unique
king. Bopearachchi has supported this proposition by
pointing at the similarity between the portraits and the
identical treatment of the diadem (one end straight, one
38.1 Time of reign end crooked).
Against this, Jakobsson[1] argues that the coins issued by
While Bopearachchi suggests c. 90 BCE, R. C. Senior the later Indo-Greek kings for export into Bactria were
believes that Theophilos ruled in the 130s BCE. Both nu- consistently similar to these kings’ regular Indian coinage.
mismatics do however suggest that the reigns of Theophi- Consequently, the coins of Theophilos Autokrator were
los and Nicias were adjacent. not such export issues, but should belong to a Bactrian
ruler. Jakobsson suggests that Theophilos Autokrator was
a Bactrian princelet who briefly maintained himself in
some part of Bactria, after the Hellenistic kingdom there
38.2 Coins of Theophilos had been vanquished by nomads, presumably in the 120s
BCE.
Just like Zoilos I, Theophilos struck Indian silver coins
with Herakles, a common symbol of the house of
Euthydemus I, and the epithet Dikaios/Dhramikasa “The 38.4 See also
Just/Follower of the Dharma”. The monograms are
mostly the same as those of Nicias. The bronzes have • Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
similar inscriptions. • Seleucid Empire
Bronzes of Theophilos:
• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians
• Herakles with lion skin, and his club on the reverse.
• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Bust of Herakles, with cornucopia on reverse. • Kushan Empire

129
130 CHAPTER 38. THEOPHILOS (KING)

38.5 References
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press.

38.6 Notes
[1] Jakobsson, J: Theophilos Autokrator, a last Bactrian king?
ONS Journal 202 (2010).
Chapter 39

Peukolaos

39.2 See also

• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

• Seleucid Empire
• Greco-Buddhism

• Indo-Scythians

• Indo-Parthian Kingdom

Coin of Peukalaos. • Kushan Empire

Peucolaus Soter Dikaios (Greek: Πευκόλαος ὁ Σωτήρ,

ὁ Δίκαιος; epithets mean respectively, “the Saviour”, 39.3 References
“the Just”) was an Indo-Greek king who ruled in the area
of Gandhara c. 90 BCE. His reign was probably short • “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
and insignificant, since he left only a few coins, but the Cambridge University Press.
relations of the latter Indo-Greek kings remain largely ob-
scure. • “The Coin types of the Indo-Greek Kings 256-54
BCE”, A.K. Narain
His name could be interpreted as “The man from
Pushkalavati extquotedbl, an important Indo-Greek city
east of Kabul.

39.1 Coins of Peucolaos

Peucolaos struck rare Indian standard silver coins with
portrait in diadem, and a reverse of a standing Zeus,
which resemble the reverse of contemporary kings
Heliokles II and Archebios. The latter has overstruck two
coins of Peucolaos.
He also issued bilingual bronzes with Artemis and a
crowned woman with a palm branch, perhaps a city-
goddess or a personification of Tyche, the deity for good
luck.

131
Chapter 40

Thraso

Thraso (Greek: Θράσων) was an Indo-Greek king in

Central and Western Punjab, unknown until the 1982
discovery of one of his coins by R. C. Senior in the
Surana hoard. The coin is in a style similar to those of
Menander I, has the same type of Athena, and shares
one of Menander’s mint marks. On the coin, the ti-
tle of Thraso is Basileus Megas (“Great King”), a title
which only Eucratides the Great had dared take before
him and which is seemingly misplaced on the young boy
Thraso, whose single preserved coin indicates a small and
insignificant reign.
Osmund Bopearachchi suggests a preliminary dating of
95–80 BC, but Senior himself concludes that Thraso was
the son and heir of Menander (c. 155–130 BC), since his
coin was not worn and was found in a hoard with only
earlier coins.[1]
It seems as though the child was briefly raised to the
throne in the turmoil following the death of Menander,
by a general who thought the grandiloquent title might
strengthen his case.

40.1 Notes
[1] Senior, Decline of the Indo-Greeks (1998). The coin be-
longed to a secretive coin-collector, who did not allow Se-
nior to photograph it, and it remains unpublished.

40.2 References
RC Senior, The Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian King Se-
quences in the Second and First Centuries BC, ONS 179
Supplement

132
Chapter 41
Nicias (Indo-Greek king)
Nicias (Greek: Νικίας) was an Indo-Greek king who
ruled in the Paropamisade. Most of his relatively few
coins have been found in northern Pakistan, indicating
that he ruled a smaller principate around the lower Kabul
valley. He was possibly a relative of Menander I.
41.1 Time of reign
Bopearachchi suggests that Nikias ruled ca. 90–85 BCE.
This late date is supported by the absence of Attic coins
(see below).
R. C. Senior on the other hand places him as a successor
of Menander, ca. 135–125 BCE, according to his inter-
pretation of hoard findings.
Regardless of which period is correct, the fact that Nicias
ages visibly on his coins seems to indicate some longevity
to his rule.
41.2 The coinage of Nicias
Nicias struck Indian silver drachms of diademed or hel-
meted king with three reverses:
• A walking king, as seen above right, found on sev-
eral drachms.
• An en face version of Menander’s Athena with thun-
derbolt is found on a unique tetradrachm.
• The third reverse is the type king on a prancing
horse, as used by Antimachus II found on a single
drachm.
133
His bronzes feature Zeus/dolphin or portrait / king on
prancing horse. Some varieties are crude with lunate sig-
mas and square omicrons. Even though Nikias ruled in
the western parts of the Indo-Greek realm, no Attic coins
have been found.
His monograms generally match those of the kings
Theophilus and Philoxenus, though one is shared with
Thrason, the short-lived son of Menander I.
41.3 See also
• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
• Seleucid Empire
• Greco-Buddhism
• Indo-Scythians
• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Kushan Empire
41.4 References
• “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-
ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press.
134 CHAPTER 41. NICIAS (INDO-GREEK KING)

41.5 External links

• Indo-Greek history and coins

• Ancient coinage of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-

Greek kingdoms
Chapter 42

Menander II

42.1 Time of reign

Bopearachchi has suggested that Menander II reigned
circa 90–85 BCE, whereas R. C. Senior has suggested
circa 65 BCE. In that case, Menander II ruled remaining
Indo-Greek territories in Gandhara after the invasion of
Maues.

42.2 Relations to other kings

Menander II Dikaios may have belonged to the dynasty of
Menander I Soter, the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings.
It was long believed that there was only one king named
Menander (see discussion under Menander I) as their por-
traits were rather similar and Menander II seems to have
been a devout Buddhist, just as Menander I was, accord-
ing to the ancient Buddhist scripture the Milindapanha.
On the other hand, the name Menander could well have
been popular in the Indo-Greek kingdom, and the coins
of Menander II are not very like those of Menander I nor
of those other kings (such as Strato I) who are believed to
have belonged to his dynasty. R. C. Senior links Menan-
der II with the Indo-Greek king Amyntas, with whom he
Indo-Greek officer (on a coin of Menander II), circa 90 BCE. shares several monograms and also facial features such
He is equipped with a cuirass, lamellar armour for the thighs, as a pointed nose and receding chin. He also suggests
and leg protections (cnemids). a close relation to the semi-Scythian king Artemidorus,
son of Maues, since their coins use similar types and are
often found together.
There is a small possibility that Menander II, rather than
Menander I, is actually the Buddhist Greek king referred
Menander II Dikaios (Greek: Μένανδρος Β΄ ὁ Δί- to in the Milinda Panha. This point is unsolved however,
καιος; epithet means “the Just”) was an Indo-Greek King since Greek sources (Plutarch (Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6))
who ruled in the areas of Arachosia and Gandhara in the relate that the great conqueror Menander I is the one who
north of modern Pakistan. received the honour of burial in what could be interpreted

135
136 CHAPTER 42. MENANDER II

as Buddhist stupas. 42.5 External links

More likely, Menander I may indeed have first supported
Buddhism, like the other Indo-Greek kings, and was • Coins of Menander II
probably the main protagonist of the Milindapanha, on
• (French) Le roi Ménandre II
account of his described fame, whereas Menander II, a
minor king, may have wholeheartedly embraced Bud-
dhism, as exemplified by his coins.

42.3 Coins of Menander II

The coins of Menander II bear the mention “Menan-
der the Just”, and “King of the Dharma extquotedbl in
Kharoshti, suggesting that he adopted the Buddhist faith.
Menander II struck only Indian silver. These depict the
king in diadem or helmet of the type of Menander I, with
a number of reverses: a king on horseback, Nike and a sit-
ting Zeus of the type of Antialkidas and Amyntas Nika-
tor, but with an added eight-spoked Buddhist wheel.
His bronzes feature Athena standing, with spear and
palm-branch, shield at her feet, making a benediction
gesture with the right hand, similar to the Buddhist vi-
tarka mudra. Other varieties feature a king performing
the same gesture.
On the reverse is a lion, symbol of Buddhism, as also seen
on the pillars of the Mauryan King Ashoka. In general,
the coins of Menander II are quite few, which tends to
indicate a rather small rule.
A contemporary king to represent the Buddhist lion on
his coins is the Indo-Scythian king Maues, around 85
BCE.

42.4 References

• “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-

ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5

• “Buddhism in Central Asia” by B.N. Puri (Motilal

Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000) ISBN 81-208-
0372-8

• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,

Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 43

Artemidoros

Artemidoros Aniketos (Greek: Ἀρτεμίδωρος ὁ Ἀνί- 43.3 Coins

κητος; epithet means “the Invincible”) was a king who
ruled in the area of Gandhara and Pushkalavati in mod-
During the 1990s, several new types of Artemidoros’
ern northern Pakistan and Afghanistan.
coins appeared, of variable quality. R. C. Senior has
suggested that Artemidoros relied mostly on temporary
mints, perhaps because he held no major cities. All his
coins were Indian bilinguals.

43.1 A son of Maues Silver:

Obverse: diademed or helmeted bust of king. Reverse:
Artemis facing left or right, Nike facing left or right, or
Artemidoros has a Greek name and has traditionally been
king on horseback.
seen as an Indo-Greek king. His remaining coins gen-
erally feature portraits of Artemidoros and Hellenistic Artemis, the eponymous goddess of hunting, is seen using
deities and are typical of Indo-Greek rulers, but on a coin a curved bow, which may have been typical of Scythian
described by numismatician R. C. Senior, Artemidoros tribes and further supports his affiliation with them.
claims to be the son of the Indo-Scythian king Maues. Bronzes:
Not only does this coin enable a closer dating of Artemi-
doros; it also sheds new light on the transient ethnic iden- Artemis / humped bull or Artemis / lion.
tities during the decline of the Indo-Greek kingdom.
While Maues was 'Great King of Kings’, Artemidoros
only styled himself King; it appears as though he ruled 43.4 See also
only a smaller part of his father’s dominions. He was ei-
ther challenged by or ruled in tandem with other kings
such as Menander II, whose coins have been found along- • Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
side his, and Apollodotus II.
• Seleucid Empire

• Greco-Buddhism
43.2 Time of rule
• Indo-Scythians

Bopearachchi has suggested a date of c. 85-80 BCE, but

this was before the appearance of the Maues coin. Se- • Indo-Parthian Kingdom
nior’s dating is wider, c. 100–80 BCE, because Senior
has given Maues an earlier date. • Kushan Empire

137
138 CHAPTER 43. ARTEMIDOROS

43.5 References
• “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-
ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press.

43.6 External links

• Coins of Artemidoros
• More Coins of Artemidoros
Chapter 44

Hermaeus

Hermaeus Soter (Greek: Ἑρμαῖος ὁ Σωτήρ; epithet 44.1 Coins of Hermaeus

means “the Saviour”) was a Western Indo-Greek king
of the Eucratid Dynasty, who ruled the territory of Hermaeus issued Indian silver coins of three types. The
Paropamisade in the Hindu-Kush region, with his cap- first type has diademed or sometimes helmeted portrait,
ital in Alexandria of the Caucasus (near today’s Kabul, with reverse of sitting Zeus making benediction ges-
Afghanistan). Bopearachchi dates Hermaeus to circa 90– ture. Hermaeus also issued a rare series of Attic silver
70 BCE and R. C. Senior to circa 95–80 BCE but con- tetradrachms of this type, which were issued for export
cedes that Bopearachchi’s later date could be correct. to Bactria.
Hermaeus seems to have been successor of Philoxenus or The second type was a joint series of Hermaeus with his
Diomedes, and his wife Kalliope may have been a daugh- queen Kalliope. The reverse departs from the traditional
ter of Philoxenus according to Senior. Judging from Hermaeus format, in that it shows the king on a pranc-
his coins, Hermaeus’ rule was long and prosperous, but ing horse. The “king on a pracing horse” is characteristic
came to an end when the Yuezhi, coming from neigh- of the contemporary Greek kings in the eastern Punjab
bouring Bactria overtook most of his Greek kingdom in such as Hippostratos, and it has been suggested that the
the Paropamisade around 70 BCE. According to Bopear- coin represented a marital alliance between the two dy-
achchi, these nomads were the Yuezhi, the ancestors of nastic lines. The horseman on Hermaeus’ version is how-
the Kushans, whereas Senior considers them Sakas. ever portrayed somewhat different, being equipped with
Following his reign, it is generally considered that Greek a typic Scythian longbow.
communities remained under the rule of these Hellenized The third series combined the reverses of the first series,
nomads, continuing rich cultural interraction (See Greco- without portrait.
Buddhism). Some parts of his kingdom may have been
taken over by later kings, such as Amyntas Nikator. Hermaeus also issued bronze coins with head of Zeus-
Mithras and a prancing horse on the reverse.
The coinage of Hermaeus was copied widely (posthu-
mous issues), in increasingly barbarized form by the new
nomad rulers down to around 40 CE (see Yuezhi arti-
cle). At that time, Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises em-
44.2 Contacts with China
phatically associated himself to Hermaeus on his coins,[1]
suggesting he was either a descendant by alliance of the A Chinese historical record from the Hanshu Chap. 96A
Greek king, or that at least he wanted to claim his legacy. could possible be related to Hermaeus, even though this
In any case, the Yuezhi-Kushan preserved a close cultural is very speculative and the record more likely refers to
interaction with the Greeks as late as the 3rd century CE. later Saka kings. The chronicle tells how a king who may
possibly be identified as Hermaeus received the support
Given the importance of Hermaeus to the nomad rulers, it
of the Chinese against Indo-Scythian occupants, and may
is possible that Hermaeus himself was partially of nomad
explain why his kingdom was suddenly so prosperous de-
origin.[2]
spite the general decline of the Indo-Greeks during the
period. The Chinese records would put Hermaeus’s dates

139
140 CHAPTER 44. HERMAEUS

later, with his reign ending around 40 BCE. 44.4 Gallery

According to the Hanshu, Chap. 96A, Wutoulao
(Spalirises?), king of Jibin (Kophen, upper Kabul Val- • Another coin of Hermaeus and Calliope.
ley), killed some Chinese envoys. After the death of the
king, his son (Spaladagames) sent an envoy to China with • Early posthumous coin (70–50 BCE)
gifts. The Chinese general Wen Zhong, commander of
the border area in western Gansu, accompanied the es-
cort back. Wutoulao’s son plotted to kill Wen Zhong. 44.5 See also
When Wen Zhong discovered the plot, he allied himself
with Yinmofu (Hermaeus?), “son of the king of Rongqu” • Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
(Yonaka, the Greeks). They attacked Jibin (possibly with
the support of the Yuezhi, themselves allies of the Chi- • Seleucid Empire
nese since around 100 BCE according to the Hanshu) and
killed Wutoulao’s son. Yinmofu (Hermaeus?) was then • Greco-Buddhism
installed as king of Jibin, as a vassal of the Chinese Em-
• Indo-Scythians
pire, and receiving the Chinese seal and ribbon of investi-
ture. • Indo-Parthian Kingdom
Later Yinmofu (Hermaeus?) himself is recorded to have
killed Chinese envoys in the reign of Emperor Yuandi • Kushan Empire
(48–33 BCE), then sent envoys to apologize to the Chi-
nese court, but he was disregarded. During the reign of
Emperor Chengdi (51–7 BCE) other envoys were sent, 44.6 References
but they were rejected as simple traders.
These events may have initiated an alliance between the [1] Since R.C. Senior suggests that the original posthumous
Hermaeus coins were not struck by the Yuezhi but by
Greeks and the Yuezhi (even possibly a dynastic alliance),
Sakas, he suggests that Kujula Kadphises’ use of the ob-
explaining why the Yuezhi gained pre-eminence after the
verse of Hermaeus coins with his own reverse should be
reign of Hermaeus, why their rulers such as Heraios then seen as Kadphises adapting his coinage to a popular lo-
minted coins in a way very faithful to the Greek type, cal type after having conquered the Paropamisade. “The
and why the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises as- Decline of the Indo-Greeks”, R. C. Senior, David John
sociated himself with Hermaeus on his coins, in a way MacDonald, (1998), pp. 46-47.
characteristic of a ruler asserting his pedigree.
[2] Senior, “The Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian king se-
quences in the second and first centuries BC”, ONS 2004
Supplement.

44.3 Biblical connection 44.7 Sources

Although very unlikely, some Christian Biblical scholars
have suggested that Hermaeus may have been one of the
three Kings (actually identified as being Magi by the bible,
and unnumbered) from the east who are related to have
visited Jesus at the time of his birth:
• The Greeks in Bactria and India, W.W. Tarn, Cam-
bridge University Press.
• The Coin types of the Indo-Greek Kings 256-54 BCE,
A.K. Narain

“After Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea, during the
time of King Herod, Magi from the east came to Jerusalem
and asked, 'Where is the one who has been born king of
the Jews? We saw his star in the east and have come to
worship him” Matthew 2:1–8.
• China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD
23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96
of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. A. F. P.
Hulsewé, and M. A. N. Loewe, 1979. Leiden: E. J.
Brill.
44.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 141

44.8 External links

• Coins of Hermaeus

• More coins of Hermaeus

Chapter 45

Archebius

He issued bronzes with an owl / Nike.

45.2 Overstrikes
Archebius overstruck two coins of Peukolaos.

• King thrusting javelin.

Coin of Archebius. • Bust of Zeus, and caps of the Dioscuri with palms.
Obv: Bareheaded king Archebius.
Rev: Zeus, with Kharoshthi legend: MAHARAJASA
DHRAMIKASA JAYADHARASA ARKHEBIYASA “Archebios,
the victorious king of the Dharma.
45.3 External links
• Coins of Archebius
Archebius Dikaios Nikephoros (Greek: Ἀρχέβιος ὁ
Δίκαιος, ὁ Νικηφόρος; epithets mean respectively, “the • More Coins of Archebios
Just”, “the Victorious”) was an Indo-Greek king who
ruled in the area of Taxila. Osmund Bopearachchi dates
him to circa 90–80 BCE, and R. C. Senior to about the 45.4 References
same period. He was probably one of the last Indo-Greek
kings before the Saka king Maues conquered Taxila, and • “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-
a contemporary of Hermaeus in the west. He may have ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
been a relative of Heliokles II, who used a similar reverse McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
and also the title Dikaios. Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5

• “Buddhism in Central Asia” by B. N. Puri (Motilal

Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000) ISBN 81-208-
45.1 Coin types 0372-8

• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W. W. Tarn,

Archebius issued silver with diademed or helmeted king,
Cambridge University Press.
sometimes in spear-throwing pose. On the reverse is Zeus
standing facing, holding a thunderbolt or on some issues
an aegis.
Archebius also struck a rare series of Attic tetradrachms,
found in Bactria.

142
Chapter 46

Apollodotus II

Apollodotus II (Greek: Ἀπολλόδοτος Β΄), was an Indo-
Greek king who ruled in the western and eastern parts
of Punjab. Bopearachchi dates him to circa 80–65 BCE,
and R. C. Senior to circa 85–65 BCE. Apollodotos II was
an important ruler who seems to have re-established the
Indo-Greek kingdom to some extent of its former glory.
Taxila in western Punjab was reconquered from nomad
Scythian rule, and according to Bopearachchi, eastern
territory was taken back from Indian kingdoms.
perhaps Menander II emerged in the area. These kings
posed no threat to Apollodotus II, who on some of his
coins assumed the title Basileus Megas (Greek: Βασιλεὺς
Μέγας, “Great King”), in echo of Maues’ boastful title
“Great King of Kings”.
After the death of Apollodotus II, the Indo-Greek king-
dom fragmented once more.

46.2 Coins of Apollodotus II

46.1 Rule
Apollodotus II seems to have been a member of the dy-
nasty of Menander I, since he used their typical deity
Athena Alkidemos on most of his silver, and also Menan-
der’s title Soter (Greek: Σωτήρ, “the Saviour”), on all his
coins. On some coins, he also calls himself Philopator
(Greek: Φιλοπάτωρ, “the father-loving”), which proves
that his father had been king before him. R C Senior
guesses that Amyntas or Epander could have been his fa-
ther. Indo-Greek king Apollodotus II (80-65 BC).
Obv.: Greek legend reads ΑΠΟΛΛΟΔΟΤΟΥ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕ-
Apollodotus’ reign possibly began in the Punjab, when ΓΑΛΟΥ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΦΙΛΟΠΑΤΟΡΟΣ, “of Apollodotus
the Scythian king Maues ruled in Gandhara and its capi- King Great Saviour and Fatherloving”.
tal Taxila. What probably happened is that Apollodotus Rev.: Legend in Kharoshthi script Tratarasa Maharajasa
II took over Taxila after the death of Maues, though it is Apalatasa “Saviour King Appolodotus”, with goddess Athena
uncertain whether he defeated Maues or his descendants, (type of Menander I).
or was allied or related to the dynasty of Maues. The late
Indo-Greeks may have been rather mixed with both Indi- Apollodotus II issued a large number of coins. He struck
ans and Scythians. R C Senior suggests that Apollodotussilver a with diademed portrait on the obverse and a re-
had struck an alliance with another Scythian king, Azesverse of Athena Alkidemos, and also a unique coin with
I. the reverse of a king, possibly Alexander the Great, sit-
The Scythian hold of Gandhara loosened after the death ting on a horned horse similar to Alexander’s Bucephalus
of Maues, and petty kings of mixed or uncertain ori- and holding his hand in a benediction gesture.
gin, like Artemidorus the son of Maues, Telephus and He struck bronzes with Apollo/tripod, a type introduced

143
144 CHAPTER 46. APOLLODOTUS II

by his namesake Apollodotus I.

The coins of Apollodotus II are of different qualities.
Some still have the realistic portraits characteristic of
the earlier Indo-Greek coins, and Bopearachchi attributes
these series to the western part of his kingdom. Others
are badly struck and/or have clumsy and distorted por-
traits, and these Bopearachchi interprets as belonging to
newly opened mints in eastern Punjab, presumably struck
by Indian celators with little knowledge of Greek engrav-
ing skills.
On some of his coins there are both extra monograms
in shape of Kharosthi letters. These monograms are in-
terpreted, which was suggested already by W.W. Tarn,
to have belonged to officials with Indian names. The
coins therefore indicate that Apollodotus II relied more
on his Indian subjects than earlier kings, and also opened
new mints in eastern Punjab where Greek presence was
scarce.

46.3 Overstrikes
Apollodotus II overstruck a bronze of Maues. Zoilos II
overstruck some of the coins of Apollodotus II, as did
Azes I.

46.4 External links

• Coins of Apollodotus II

• More coins of Apollodotus II

46.5 References
• “The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative stud-
ies in Greek and Indian Philosophies” by Thomas
McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual
Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 47

Hippostratos

Hippostratos (Greek: Ἱππόστρατος) was an Indo- 47.2 Coins of Hippostratos

Greek king who ruled central and north-western Punjab
and Pushkalavati. Bopearachchi dates Hippostratos to 65 Hippostratos issued silver coins with a diademed portrait
to 55 BCE whereas R. C. Senior suggests 60 to 50 BCE. on the obverse, and three reverses. The first is the image
of a king on prancing horse, a common type which was
most frequently used by the earlier kings Antimachus II
and Philoxenus. The second reverse also portrays a king
on horseback, but the horse is walking and the king mak-
ing a benediction gesture - this type resembles a rare type
47.1 Rule of Apollodotus II. The third is a standing goddess, per-
haps Tyche.
In Bopearachchi’s reconstruction Hippostratos came to Hippostratos struck several bronzes of types used by sev-
power as the successor to Apollodotus II, in the west- eral kings: Serpent-legged deity (as used by Telephus) /
ern part of his kingdom, while the weak Dionysios as- standing goddess. Apollo/tripod (Apollodotus II, several
cended to the throne in the eastern part. Senior assumes earlier kings) Sitting Zeus-Mithras / horse, reminiscent
that the reigns of Apollodotus II and Hippostratos over- of coins of Hermaeus.
lapped somewhat; in that case Hippostratos first ruled a
kingdom was to the west of Apollodotus dominions.
Just like Apollodotus II, Hippostratos calls himself Soter,
47.3 Overstrikes
“Saviour”, on all his coins, and on some coins he also as-
sumes the title Basileos Megas, “Great King”, which he Azes I overstruck several of Hippostratos’ coins.
inherited from Apollodotus II. This may support Senior’s
scenario that Hippostratos extended his kingdom after
Apollodotus’ death. The relationship between these two 47.4 See also
kings remains uncertain due to lack of sources. Hippos-
tratos did however not use the symbol of standing Athena • Indo-Greek Kingdom
Alkidemos, which was common to all other kings thought
to be related to Apollodotus II. The two kings share only • Greco-Buddhism
one monogram. • Indo-Scythians
The quantity and quality of the coinage of Hippostratos
indicate a quite powerful king. Hippostratos seems to
have fought rather successfully against the Indo-Scythian 47.5 References
invaders, led by the Scythian king Azes I, but was ulti-
mately defeated and became the last western Indo-Greek • “The Greeks in Bactria and India” W.W. Tarn,
king. Cambridge University Press

145
146 CHAPTER 47. HIPPOSTRATOS

47.6 External links

• Main coins of Hippostratos
Chapter 48

Dionysios Soter

Dionysios Soter (Greek: Διονύσιος ὁ Σωτήρ; epithet

means “the Saviour”) was an Indo-Greek king in the area
of eastern Punjab.[1]

48.1 Reign
According to Osmund Bopearachchi, he reigned ca circa
65–55 BCE and inherited the eastern parts of the king-
dom of the important late ruler Apollodotus II. The kings Coins of Dionysios.
share the same epithet and use the common reverse of
fighting Pallas Athene, and it seems plausible that they
were closely related, but relationships between the last diademed portrait of the king, with Athena Alkidemos
Indo-Greek kings remain uncertain since the only sources on the reverse.
of information are their remaining coins. R. C. Senior He also issued bronzes with Apollo on the reverse and a
dates him approximately ten years later. tripod on the obverse. Both these types were inherited
Earlier scholars like Professor Ahmad Hasan Dani have from Apollodotus II. The quality of the portraits is infe-
dated Dionysius much earlier, between the years 115 and rior to most earlier kings. According to Bopearachchi,
100 BCE, making him the ruler of the Swat and Dir Val- Dionysios inherited only the inferior celators of Apol-
leys and the weak successor of Polyxenos. lodotus II, which he associates with mints in eastern Pun-
jab.
Dionysius was probably pressured by the invasions of the
Indo-Scythians, and also had to deal with Hippostratos, a
more important king who had inherited the western part
of the kingdom of Apollodotus II.
48.3 Notes
Dionysios’ name echoes the Olympic wine-god Dionysos, [1] The Greeks in Bactria and India by William Woodthorpe
who according to Greek mythology was also an ancient Tarn p.318
king of India.

48.4 See also

48.2 Coins of Dionysios
• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
Dionysios was the first in the line of late kings who is- • Seleucid Empire
sued only silver drachms, but no tetradrachms, which was
likely due to his limited resources. On their obverse is a • Greco-Buddhism

147
148 CHAPTER 48. DIONYSIOS SOTER

• Indo-Scythians

• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Kushan Empire

48.5 References
• “Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques”,
Osmund Bopearachchi, Bibliothèque Nationale de
France.
• “The Bactrian and Indus-Greeks”, Prof. Ahmed
Hasan Dani, Lahore Museum.
• “The Indo-Greeks Revisited and Supplemented”,
Dr. A.K. Narain, BR Publishing Corporation.
Chapter 49
Zoilos II
Zoilos II Soter (Greek: Ζωίλος Β΄ ὁ Σωτήρ; epithet
means “the Saviour”) was an Indo-Greek king who ruled
in eastern Punjab. Bopearachchi dates his reign to c. 55–
35 BCE, a date approximately supported by R. C. Senior.
49.1 Rule
He seems to have been one of the rulers who succeeded
the last important Indo-Greek king Apollodotus II the
Great in the eastern parts of his former kingdom. All
these kings use the same symbol as Apollodotus II, the
fighting Pallas Athene introduced by Menander I, and
usually also the same epithet Soter (Saviour). It is there-
fore possible that they belonged to the same dynasty, and
Zoilus II could also have been related to the earlier king
Zoilus I, but the lack of written sources make all such
conjections uncertain. He may have been the Bactrian
ally of Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) and Cleopatra
VII referred to by Virgil in his vision of the Battle of
Actium in The Aeneid, Bk.VIII, 688: Hinc ope barbar-
ica variisque Antonius armis, victor ab Aurorae populis
et litore rubro, Aegyptum viresque Orientis et ultima se-
cum Bactra vehit. (Antony, with barbarous wealth and
strange weapons, conqueror of eastern peoples and the
Indian shores, bringing Egypt, and the might of the Ori-
ent, with him, and furthest Bactria).[1]
49.2 Coins of Zoilus II
Zoilos II issued silver drachms with diademed portrait
and Pallas Athene in rather crude style, and two sorts of
bronzes in various denominations: “Apollo, with tripod
and small elephant”, and “Elephant and tripod”.
149
49.3 Monograms
Coin of Zoilos II.
Many of the (monograms) on the coins of Zoilos II are
in Kharoshti, indicating that they were probably made
by an Indian moneyer. This is a characteristic of sev-
eral of the Indo-Greek kings of the eastern Punjab, such
as Strato I, Apollodotus II, and sometimes Apollophanes
and Dionysios. Furthermore, the monogram is often
identical on their coins, indicating that the moneyer, or
the place of mint, were the same.
The coins of Zoilos II combine Greek monograms with
Kharoshthi ones, indicating that some of the celators may
have been native Indians. The Kharoshthi monograms
are the letters for: sti, ji, ra, ga, gri, ha, stri, ri, bu, a, di,
stra, and śi. The “Apollo and tripod” and “Elephant and
tripod” types only have Kharoshthi monograms, while the
portrait types usually have combinations of Greek and
Kharoshthi monograms.
•
•
•
•
150 CHAPTER 49. ZOILOS II

49.4 Findplaces • Indo-Parthian Kingdom

• Kushan Empire
The coins of Zoilos II have been found in the Sutlej and
Sialkot II hoards, and in Punjab hoards east in the Jhelum
(Bopearachchi, p138).
49.8 References
Also, coins of Zoilos II were found under the foundation
of 1st century BCE rectangular chapel in the monastery • “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
of Dharmarajika, near Taxila (John Marshall, “Taxila, Cambridge University Press.
Archaeological excavations”, p. 248.)
Two coins of Zoilos II were also found in the Bara hoard • “Coins of the Indo-Greeks”, Whitehead.
near Peshawar, together with coins of the Indo-Scythian
kings Azes I, Azilises, Azes II.[2]

49.5 Overstrikes
A coin of Zoilus II was overstruck on a coin of
Apollodotus II.

• Zoilos II with Athena.

• Apollo holding arrow, with small elephant on the

left. Tripod on reverse.

• Elephant and tripod.

49.6 Notes
[1] Francis Henry Skrine and Edward Denison Ross, The
Heart of Asia: A History of Russian Turkestan and the
Central Asian Khanates from the Earliest Times, by Lon-
don, Methuen, 1899, p.19; E. Drouin, “Bactriane”, La
Grande Encyclopédie: Inventaire Raisonné des Sciences,
des Lettres et des Arts, Paris, Lamirault, 1885-1902, Tome
4, pp.1115-1122, nb 1118.

[2] Reference

49.7 See also

• Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

• Seleucid Empire

• Greco-Buddhism

• Indo-Scythians
Chapter 50

Apollophanes

This article is about the king. For the philosopher, see 50.3 See also
Apollophanes of Antioch. For the spider genus, see
Philodromidae. • Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
• Seleucid Empire
Apollophanes Soter (Greek: Ἀπολλοφάνης ὁ Σωτήρ;
epithet means “the Saviour extquotedbl; reigned c. 35 – • Greco-Buddhism
25 BCE) was an Indo-Greek king in the area of eastern
and central Punjab in modern India and Pakistan. • Indo-Scythians

50.1 Rule
Little is known about him, except for some of his remain-
ing coins. The dating is Osmund Bopearachchi’s, but R.
C. Senior suggests approximately the same dates. Earlier
scholars, such as Professor Ahmed Hasan Dani, W.W.
Tarn and A.K. Narain dated Apollophanes considerably
earlier, but the style and finding places of his coins make
it clear that he belonged to the last line of eastern Indo-
Greek kings, not long before they were overcome com-
pletely by pressure from the Indo-Scythians.
He may have been a relative of Apollodotus II Soter since
both kings share the epithet Soter (Saviour), have names
related to Apollo and use Pallas Athene as their reverse.
• Indo-Parthian Kingdom
• Kushan Empire
50.4 References
• “The Greeks in Bactria and India”, W.W. Tarn,
Cambridge University Press.
• “The Bactrian and Indus Greeks”, Prof. Ahmed
Hasan Dani, Lahore Museum
• “The Indo-Greeks - Revisited and Supplemented”,
Dr. A.K. Narain, BR Publishing Corporation
• “Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques”,
Osmund Bopearachchi, Bibliothèque Nationale de
France.

50.2 Coins of Apollophanes

50.5 Apollophanes the dramatist
Apollophanes issued a few debased silver drachms of the
type seen above, struck with a single monogram and of Apollophanes was also the name of an Athenian writer of
little artistic quality. He seems to have been an insignifi- comedies who flourished in the 4th century BCE.
cant local ruler. Apollophanes wears what appears to be
a Macedonian helmet of the type seen on the Alexander
Mosaic which he was the last Indo-Greek ruler to use.

151
Chapter 51

Strato II and III

This article is about Indo-Greek kings. For the airplane, 51.2 Coins of Strato II, III and
see Grob Strato 2C.
Strato Dikaios
Strato II extquotedblSoter extquotedbl (Ancient
Greek: Στράτων B΄ ὁ Σωτήρ, Strátōn B΄ ho Sotḗr;
epithet means “the Saviour”) was an Indo-Greek king.
He ruled circa 25 BCE to 10 CE according to Bopear-
achchi. R. C. Senior suggests that his reign ended perhaps
a decade earlier.

Coin of Strato II and Strato III.

Obv: Probable bust of Strato II. Possible Greek legend:
51.1 Rule BASILEOS SOTEROS STRATONOS KAI PHILOPATOROS
STRATONOS “Of Kings Strato the Saviour and Strato the Father-
loving”.[3]
Rev: Athena holding a thunderbolt. Kharoshthi legend:
Strato II ruled in the eastern Punjab, probably retaining MAHARAJASA TRATARASA STRATASA, POTRASA CASA
the capital of Sagala (modern Sialkot, Pakistan), or pos- PRIYAPITA STRATASA “King Strato the Saviour, and his grand-
sibly to the city of Bucephala (Plutarch, p. 48 n. 5). son Strato the Father-loving.
His territory was invaded by Rajuvula, Indo-Scythian
king of Mathura, and he became the last of the Indo- The chronology of the late Indo-Greek kingdom has been
Greek kings, together with his son[1] Strato (III) Soter established by Bopearachchi and other scholars from nu-
Philopator (“the father-loving”), who was included as mismatical evidence alone. The coins deteriorated con-
joint regent on some of his coins and also issued coins tinuously, the Strato coins being the most debased and
on his own. crude in style, a striking contrast to earlier kings who
A few silver coins with a different portrait and the in- struck some of the most beautiful coins of antiquity.
scription Strato Soter Dikaios (“the just”) may also be- The decay was due to the increasing pressure of the
long to Strato III as sole ruler, or to a fourth king named Indo-Scythian nomads on the remaining Greek pock-
Strato.[2][n 1] ets, as well as their long isolation from the rest of the
Just like the earlier king Strato I, the last Stratons I are Hellenistic world.Subsequent Indo-Scythian rulers, such
thought to belong to the dynasty of Menander I, who also as Bhadayasa designed their coins in direct imitation of
used the epithet Soter and the symbol of standing Pallas those of Strato II.
Athena. Strato II, III and Strato Dikaios struck debased silver

152
51.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 153

drachms, which as mentioned portray Pallas on the re- 51.6 External links
verse. Strato II appears as an old man with a sunken jaw
on some of his coins, which is not surprising given that • (French) Straton II, roi indo-grec
his grandson was co-regent.
Strato II also issued bronzes and even lead coins of the
common type Apollo/tripod. On some of Strato II’s silver
drachms the letter sigma is written as C, a not uncommon
trait on late Hellenistic coins in the east.

51.3 See also

• Indo-Greek Kingdom

• Greco-Buddhism

• Indo-Scythians

51.4 Notes and references

Notes

[1] Given that the coins of Strato I have lately been attributed
to two different kings, there may actually have been as
many as five kings named Strato.

References

[1] R.C. Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV.

The Greek legend clearly implies that the two kings were
father and son, and Senior dismisses the older reading
“grandson” on the Kharosthi legend.

[2] Senior, ibid.

[3] Rapson, E.J. (1906). “Coins of the Graeco-Indian

sovereigns agathokleia, Strato I Soter, and Strato II
Philopator”. Corolla Numismatica. Numismatic essays in
honour of Barclay V. Head. With a portrait and eighteen
plates. Oxford. At the Internet Archive.

51.5 Bibliography
• Whitehead, R.B. (1914). Catalogue of coins in the
Punjab museum, Lahore. I Indo-Greek Coins. Ox-
ford. At the Internet Archive.
Chapter 52

List of rulers of Bithynia

This page lists rulers of Bithynia, an ancient kingdom in 52.3 Notes

northwestern Anatolia.
[1] Asia Minor Coins - regal Bithynian coins

52.1 Dynasts
• Doedalses fl. c. 435 BC
• Boteiras d. 376 BC
• Bas 376–326 BC
• Zipoetes I 326–297 BC (below)

52.2 Kings
• Zipoetes I 297–278 BC (above)
• Zipoetes II 278–276 BC
• Nicomedes I 278–255 BC
• Etazeta (regent) 255–254 BC
• Ziaelas 254–228 BC
• Prusias I Cholus 228–182 BC
• Prusias II Cynegus 182–149 BC
• Nicomedes II Epiphanes 149–127 BC
• Nicomedes III Euergetes 127–94 BC
• Nicomedes IV Philopator 94–74 BC
• Socrates Chrestus who ruled briefly in about 90 BC

The coinage of these kings show their regal portraits,

which tend to be engraved in an extremely accomplished
Hellenistic style. [1]

154
Chapter 53

Bas of Bithynia

Bas (in Greek Bας; (lived c. 397 BC – 326 BC, ruled

376 BC – 326 BC), first independent ruler of Bithynia,
governed fifty years, from 376 to 326 BC, and died at
the age of 71. He succeeded his father Boteiras, and was
himself succeeded by his own son Zipoetes I. He defeated
Calas, a general of Alexander the Great, and maintained
the independence of Bithynia.[1]

53.1 References
Notes

[1] Memnon, History of Heracleia, 12

Bibliography

• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and

Roman Biography and Mythology, “Bas”, Boston,
(1867)

This article incorporates text from a publication now

in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

155
Chapter 54

Zipoetes I of Bithynia

Zipoetes I, also Zipoites I or Ziboetes I, possibly Ti- 54.2 Notes

boetes I (in Greek Zιπoίτης or Zιβoίτης; lived c. 354
BC – 278 BC, ruled c. 326 BC – 278 BC; three syllables, [1] Memnon, History of Heracleia, 6, 9
oe is a diphthong) was the second independent ruler of
Bithynia. [2] Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xix. 60

He succeeded his father Bas on the throne in 326 BC and [3] Memnon, 12; Stephanus, Ethnica, s.v. “Zipoition”
reigned for forty-eight years, carrying on successful wars
with Lysimachus and Antiochus, the son of Seleucus I This article incorporates text from a publication now
Nicator.[1] In 315 BC he carried on a war against Astacus in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
and Chalcedon, which failed in the face of a relief army extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of
sent by Antigonus I Monophthalmus.[2] ; in 301, after Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Antigonus’ death, he attacked again, and was victorious,
but Astactus was destroyed in the war. He founded a city
which was called Zipoetium (after himself) at the foot of
Mount Lypedron; the exact locations of both the city and
the mountain are unknown.
He lived to the age of seventy-six, and left behind him
four children, the eldest of whom, Nicomedes, succeeded
him.[3] He was the first ruler of Bithyinia to assume the
title of basileus (king), assuming this title in the year 297
BC.

54.1 References

• Cohen, Getzel M.; The Hellenistic Settlements in Eu-

rope, the Islands and Asia Minor (1996), “Zipoition”

• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek

and Roman Biography and Mythology, “Ziboetes”,
Boston, (1867)

156
Chapter 55
Nicomedes I of Bithynia
Nicomedes I (Greek: Nικoμήδης; lived c. 300 BC –
c. 255 BC, ruled 278 BC – c. 255 BC), second king
of Bithynia, was the eldest son of Zipoetes I, whom he
succeeded on the throne in 278 BC.[1]
55.1 Overview
He commenced his reign by putting to death two of
his brothers but the third, subsequently called Zipoetes
II, raised an insurrection against him and succeeded in
maintaining himself, for some time, in the independent
sovereignty of a considerable part of Bithynia. Mean-
while, Nicomedes was threatened with an invasion from
Antiochus I Soter, king of the Seleucid Empire, who
had already made war upon his father, Zipoetes I, and,
to strengthen himself against this danger, he concluded
an alliance with Heraclea Pontica and shortly afterwards
with Antigonus II Gonatas. The threatened attack, how-
ever, passed over with little injury. Antiochus actually
invaded Bithynia but withdrew again without risking a
battle.
It was more against his brother than his foreign enemies
that Nicomedes now called in the assistance of more pow-
erful auxiliaries and entered into an alliance with the Celts
who, under Leonnorius and Lutarius, had arrived on the
opposite side of the Bosphorus and were, at this time,
engaged in the siege of Byzantium, 277 BC. Having fur-
nished them with the means of crossing into Asia, where
they founded Galatia, he first turned the arms of his new
auxiliaries against Zipoetes II, whom he defeated and put
to death, and thus reunited the whole of Bithynia under
his dominion.[2]
Of the events that followed we have little informa-
tion. It is probable that the Celts subsequently assisted
157
Nicomedes against Antiochus[3] but no particulars are
recorded, either of the war or the peace that terminated
it. It appears, however, that Nicomedes was left in the
undisturbed possession of Bithynia, which he continued
to govern from this time till his death and which rose to a
high degree of power and prosperity during his long and
peaceful reign.
In imitation of his father, and so many others of the
Greek rulers of Asia, he determined to perpetuate his
own name by the foundation of a new capital and the
site that he chose, in the immediate neighbourhood of the
Megarian colony of Astakos, was so judiciously selected
that the city of Nicomedia continued for more than six
centuries to be one of the richest and most flourishing
in Anatolia.[4] The founding of Nicomedia is placed by
Eusebius in 264 BC.
The duration of the reign of Nicomedes himself, after this
event, is unknown but his death is assigned to around the
year 255 BC. He had been twice married; by his first wife,
Ditizele, a Phrygian by birth he had two sons, Prusias and
Ziaelas, and a daughter, Lysandra; but his second wife,
Etazeta, persuaded him to set aside his children by his
first marriage and leave his crown to her offspring.
The latter were still infants at the time of his death, on
which account he confided their guardianship, by his will,
to the two kings, Antigonus II Gonatas and Ptolemy II
Philadelphus, together with the free cities of Heraclea
Pontica, Byzantium and Cius. But, notwithstanding this
precaution, his son Ziaelas quickly established himself on
the throne.[5] It is probably this Nicomedes who sought to
purchase from the city of Knidos the celebrated statue of
Venus, by Praxiteles, by offering to remit the whole pub-
lic debt of the city.[6]
158 CHAPTER 55. NICOMEDES I OF BITHYNIA

55.2 References
• “Nicomedes I” from the Encyclopædia Britannica
(1911)
• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology, “Nicomedes I”,
Boston, (1867)

55.3 Notes
[1] Memnon, History of Heracleia, 20

[2] Memnon, History of Heracleia, 16, 18-19; Livy, Ab urbe

condita, xxxviii. 16; Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus,
xxv. 2

[3] Pompeius Trogus, Prologi, 25

[4] Memnon, 20; Strabo, Geography, xii. 4; Stephanus, Eth-

nica, s.v. “Nicomedeia extquotedbl; Eusebius, Chronicon
(Schoene ed.); Pausanias, Description of Greece, v. 12;
John Tzetzes, Chiliades, 3

[5] Memnon, 22; Tzetzes, 3; Pliny, Natural History, viii. 61

[6] Pliny, vii. 39, xxxvi. 4

This article incorporates text from a publication now

in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 56

Zipoetes II of Bithynia

Zipoetes II, also Zipoites II or Ziboetes II, possibly Ti-

boetes II (in Greek Zιπoίτης or Zιβoίτης) was a ruler of
Bithynia from 279 BCE to 276 BCE; his name, which
survives chiefly in Hellenized forms, has three syllables.
He was a son of the great ruler Zipoetes I of Bithynia,
and a younger brother of Nicomedes I of Bithynia. When
Nicomedes tried to kill his three brothers, Zipoetes II was
the only one to escape. He then raised an insurrection
against Nicomedes and succeeded in maintaining him-
self, for some time, in the independent sovereignty of a
considerable part of Bithynia.[1] It was in order to van-
quish Zipoetes II, that Nicomedes successfully called in
the Gauls of Leonnorius and Lutarius, future founders of
Galatia.[2]

56.1 Notes
[1] Smith, p.1329

[2] Smith, p.1329

56.2 References
• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Biography and Mythology, “Ziboetes”,
Boston, (1867)

159
Chapter 57

Etazeta of Bithynia

Etazeta (HZ) (fl. 255 BC – 254 BC) was the second wife
of Nicomedes I, king of Bithynia and a ruler of Bithynia.
An ambitious woman, she was able to persuade her hus-
band to exclude his sons by his former marriage from the
throne; instead it would go to Etazeta’s children. Since
these were still very young the king thought to strengthen
the throne by offering the guardianship of the infants to
the sovereigns Ptolemy II of Egypt and Antigonus II of
Macedonia; also the city-states of Byzantium, Heraclea
and Cius were added to the guardianship.
At the death of Nicomedes I around 255 BC, she ruled
on behalf of her infant sons. However, Nicomedes’ first-
born, Ziaelas, refused to accept his father’s decision and
started a war against the stepmother to conquer the king-
dom. Etazeta tried to resist, also marrying herself with
the former king’s brother, but at the end, about 254 BC
she was evicted by Ziaelas and forced to flee to Macedon
with her sons.

57.1 References
• Memnon, History of Heracleia

160
Chapter 58

Ziaelas of Bithynia

Ziaelas (lived c. 265 BC – 228 BC, reigned c. 254 BC – 58.2 Notes

228 BC), third king of Bithynia, was a son of Nicomedes
I and Ditizele. [1] Memnon, History of Heracleia, 14
After Nicomedes I died, his second wife Etazeta became [2] Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, ii. 58; Pompeius Trogus,
ruler on behalf of her infant sons. The grown-up Zi- Prologi, 27
aelas, excluded from the throne, had previously fled to
Armenia and taken refuge at the court of King Arsames [3] Stephanus, Ethnica, s.v. “Ziela”
I in Sophene. On his father’s death he immediately en-
deavoured to regain his rights by force, he returned, aided This article incorporates text from a publication now
by some Galatians. Although Etazeta was supported by in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
neighbouring cities and Antigonus II Gonatas, Ziaelas extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of
rapidly conquered first part, then all of Bithynia, forc- Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
ing Etazeta and her sons to escape to Antigonus’ court in
Macedonia about 254 BC.[Note 1]
He was succeeded by his son Prusias I about 228 BC
after being killed by the Galatian Gauls.[Note 2] Like his
father and his grandfather he also founded a new city
named after him, Ziela, but the location of the city is
unknown.[Note 3] His daughter, born c. 245 BC, married
Antiochus Hierax.[1]

58.1 References

[1] Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, xxvii. 2-3;

Polyaenus, Stratagemata, iv. 17; Eusebius, Chronicon
(Schoene ed.), pag. 251; Pompeius Trogus, Prologi, 27;

• Cohen, Getzel M.; The Hellenistic Settlements in Eu-

rope, the Islands and Asia Minor (1996), “Ziela”

• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and

Roman Biography and Mythology, “Zeilas”, Boston,
(1867)

161
Chapter 59

Prusias I of Bithynia

Tetradrachm of Prusias I (older and bearded). British Museum.

Tetradrachm of Prusias I (young). British Museum.

during the Roman Republic's war with Antiochus III the

Prusias I Cholus (in Greek Προυσίας Α' ὁ Χωλός “the
Great. Apama III bore Prusias I a son called Prusias II,
Lame extquotedbl) (lived c. 243 BC – 182 BC, reigned
who succeeded him.
c. 228 BC – 182 BC) was a king of Bithynia. The son of
Ziaelas of Bithynia, he formed a marriage alliance with
Demetrius II of Macedon, receiving the latter’s daughter,
Apama III, as his wife. 59.1 Source
Prusias fought a war against Byzantium (220 BC), then
• Habicht, Christian, s.v. Prusias I., RE. Bd. ХХШ,
defeated the Galatians that Nicomedes I had invited
1. 1957
across the Bosphorus. He expanded the territories of
Bithynia in a series of wars against Attalus I of Pergamum
and Heraclea Pontica on the Black Sea. Philip V of
Macedon granted him the ports of Keios and Myrleia
in 202, which he renamed Prusias and Apameia respec-
tively. Although he granted sanctuary to Hannibal, who
fought against the Attalids for him, he remained neutral

162
Chapter 60

Prusias II of Bithynia

BC), only to be defeated, and the Pergamenes insisted on

heavy reparations. Prusias married his maternal cousin
Apame IV, a princess from the Antigonid dynasty, by
whom he had a son called Nicomedes II. He sent his son
Nicomedes II to Rome to ask their help in reducing the
amount of these reparations, but Nicomedes revolted and
became King.

Prusias II, King of Bithynia, Reduced to Begging

Prusias II Cynegus (“the Hunter”, lived c. 220 BC –

149 BC, reigned c. 182 BC – 149 BC) was the Greek
king of Bithynia. He was the son and successor of Prusias
I and Apama III.
Prusias joined with King of Pergamon, Eumenes II in a
war against King Pharnaces I of Pontus (181–179 BC).
He later invaded the territories of Pergamon (156–154

163
Chapter 61

Nicomedes II of Bithynia

Nicomedes III.

61.1 References
• This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press.

Silver coin depicting Nicomedes II

Nicomedes II Epiphanes (Greek: Νικομήδης Β' ὁ

Ἐπιφανής) was the king of Bithynia from 149 to c.
127 BC. He was fourth in descent from Nicomedes I.
Nicomedes II was the son and successor of Prusias II and
Apame IV. His parents were related as they were cousins.
He was so popular with the people that his father sent
him to Rome to limit his influence. However in Rome,
he also gained favor from the Roman Senate, forcing Pru-
sias to send an emissary with secret orders to assassinate
him. But the emissary revealed the plot, and persuaded
the prince to rebel against his father.
Supported by Attalus II Philadelphus, king of Pergamon,
he was completely successful, and ordered his father to
be put to death at Nicomedia. During his long reign
Nicomedes adhered steadily to the Roman alliance, and
assisted them against the pretender to the throne of
Pergamon Eumenes III. He was succeeded by his son

164
Chapter 62

Nicomedes III of Bithynia

Nicomedes III Euergetes (Ancient Greek: Νικομή- 62.1 References

δης Εὐεργέτης Nikomḗdēs Euergétēs) was the king of
Bithynia, from c. 127 BC to c. 94 BC. He was the son and [1] http://www.pontos.dk/publications/books/bss-9-files/
successor of Nicomedes II of Bithynia by an unnamed bss-9-01-gabelko p.p.9-10
woman.
[2] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,
The first wife of Nicomedes III, was the Cappadocian King of Pontus p.143
Princess Nysa, daughter of the Monarchs Ariarathes VI
of Cappadocia and Laodice of Cappadocia.[1] By Nysa,
Nicomedes III had two sons who were Nicomedes IV 62.2 Sources
of Bithynia, Socrates Chrestus and a daughter called
Nysa.[2] Nicomedes III and Nysa were distantly related
• B.C. McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI
as they held lineage from the Seleucid dynasty, the
Eupator, King of Pontus, BRILL, 1986
Antipatrid dynasty and the Antigonid dynasty.
He made himself for a time master of Paphlagonia. Af- • The Dynastic History of the Hellenistic Monar-
ter the deaths of his first wife and father-in-law, in order chies of Asia Minor According to Chronography of
to have a claim on Cappadocia, Nicomedes III married George Synkellos by Oleg L. Gabelko
his former mother-in-law as his second wife. Laodice
who had fled to him when King Mithridates VI of Pon-
tus (Laodice’s first brother) endeavoured to annex the
country. With Laodice’s two sons Ariarathes VII and
Ariarathes VIII dead, Nicomedes III brought forward an
impostor as a claimant to the throne; but the plot was
detected. The Roman Senate refused to recognize the
claim, and required Nicomedes III to give up all preten-
sions to Cappadocia and to abandon Paphlagonia.
Quotes When Nicomedes III was asked to provide troops
for Roman Statesman Gaius Marius´ war on the Cimbri
and Teutones in transalpine Gaul in 104 BC he turned
down the request declaring: extquotedblAll those eligible
for military service in my kingdom have been robbed by
the Roman tax-farmers and sold into slavery extquotedbl.

165
Chapter 63

Nicomedes IV of Bithynia

Nicomedes IV Philopator was the king of Bithynia from ship surfaced, leading to the disparaging title, “the Queen
c. 94 BC to 74 BC. He was the first son and successor of of Bithynia”, an allegation which was made much use of
the Monarchs Nicomedes III of Bithynia and Nysa[1] and by Caesar’s political enemies later in his life.[4]
had a sister called Nysa.[2] As one of his last acts as king of Bithynia, in 74
There is nothing known about Nicomedes IV’s birth or BC, Nicomedes IV bequeathed the entire kingdom of
the years before he became king. However, his reign Bithynia to Rome. The Roman Senate quickly voted it as
began at the death of his father. The first few years a new province. Rome’s old enemy Mithridates VI had
of his kingship were relatively peaceful, but soon King other plans for Bithynia, however, and Nicomedes IV’s
Mithridates VI of Pontus (the maternal grand-uncle of death and bequeathal led directly to the Third Mithridatic
Nicomedes IV), one of Rome's greatest enemies during War.
the late Republic, began harassing Bithynia’s borders.
Nicomedes IV’s brother, Socrates Chrestus, assisted by
Mithridates VI, defeated Nicomedes IV’s army in 90 63.1 Notes
BC, and Nicomedes IV was forced to flee to Italy. He
was restored to his throne due to Rome’s influence in [1] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,
the region.[3] However, the Roman Senate encouraged King of Pontus p. 143
Nicomedes IV to raid Mithridates VI’s territory, and
[2] http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2326.html
Mithridates VI struck once again in 88 BC. Nicomedes
IV fled once again to Rome. [3] Smith p. 1197
The East was seen by the Romans as a province providing [4] Suetonius ii., 45-53
an abundance of gold and silver. As such, two powerful
Romans, Gaius Marius and the Consul Lucius Cornelius
Sulla aimed at command in the region. Sulla fled the in-
trigues of Rome to Anatolia, where he commenced the
63.2 References
First Mithridatic War. Sulla fought Mithridates VI on
several occasions over the next three years, and finally in • Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars: “Caesar”.
85 BC, Mithridates VI sued for peace, and was allowed
• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and
to retain his kingship in Pontus after paying a heavy fine.
Roman Biography and Mythology: “Nicomedes III”
Nicomedes IV was restored to his throne in Bithynia in (erroneously called so), Boston, (1867).
84 BC. The years that followed were relatively peaceful,
though Bithynia came more and more under the control • B.C. McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI
of Rome. In 80 BC, young Gaius Julius Caesar was an Eupator, King of Pontus, BRILL, 1986
ambassador to Nicomedes IV’s court. Caesar was sent to
raise a fleet using Bithynia’s resources, but he dallied so This article incorporates text from a publication now
long with the King that a rumor of a homosexual relation- in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).

166
63.2. REFERENCES 167

Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge Univer-

sity Press.
Chapter 64

Socrates Chrestus

Socrates Chrestus (Greek: Σωκράτης ό χρηστός name Memnon Nicomedes, by which he is also known.[12]
Chrestus means the Good,[1] flourished second half of 2nd Nicomedes IV with the support of the Roman Senate de-
century BC & first half of 1st century BC – died 90–88 clared war against Socrates, eventually winning a military
BC) was a Greek Prince and King of Bithynia. victory and thanks to Rome’s influence in the region being
[13][14]
Socrates was the second son born to the Monarchs restored to the Bithynian throne as King in 90 BC.
Nysa and Nicomedes III of Bithynia.[2] He had a sister Socrates became a political exile and fled to the court
called Nysa and his eldest brother was his father’s heir of Mithridates,[15] who was not, however, prepared to
Nicomedes IV of Bithynia.[3] He was born and raised brave the power of Rome and not only declined to support
in Bithynia and his mother’s maternal uncle was King Socrates, but put to him to death.[16]
Mithridates VI of Pontus.
Socrates was a popular prince with the citizens of
Bithynia.[4] He received the surname Chrestus because he 64.1 References
was peaceful and lamented in his personality.[5]
[1] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
The father of Socrates, Nicomedes III, died in c. 94 BC
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.XVII
and his brother became King, as Nicomedes IV . The first
few years of his rule of Nicomedes IV were relatively [2] http://www.ancienthistory.com/smith-bio/3180.html
peaceful. Socrates unfortunately fell under the evil in-
[3] http://www.ancienthistory.com/smith-bio/3180.html
fluence of Mithridates VI, who persuaded him to assert
his claim to the throne.[6] Mithridates VI sent an assassin [4] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
named Alexander to murder Nicomedes IV, but his plot dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.139
failed.[7]
[5] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
Mithridates VI formed an alliance with Socrates. As a dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.143
part of the alliance, Mithridates VI betrothed[8] or mar-
ried Socrates to his daughter Orsabaris,[9] thus maintain- [6] http://www.ancienthistory.com/smith-bio/3180.html
ing indirect control of the Kingdom of Bithynia.[10] [7] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
Then Mithridates VI gave Socrates command of a Pon- dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.139
tic army and he invaded Bithynia with the support of
[8] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
Mithridates and his army. As Socrates marched across dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.139
the countryside of Bithynia, he eventually approached
the capital, Nicomedia, where Nicomedes IV barricaded [9] http://ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2396.html
himself inside his castle.[11]
[10] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
Socrates with the Pontian army defeated the army of dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.139
Nicomedes IV, who was forced to flee to Italy. Socrates
became King of Bithynia and probably assumed the [11] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.139

168
64.2. SOURCES 169

[12] http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3180.html

[13] http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3180.html

[14] http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2305.html

[15] http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3180.html

[16] http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3180.html

64.2 Sources
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2305.
html
• http://ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2396.html

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3180.
html

• Mayor, A. The Poison King: the life and legend

of Mithradates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, Princeton
University Press, 2009
Chapter 65

List of kings of Pontus

This is a list of kings of Pontus, an ancient Hellenistic

kingdom in Asia Minor.

65.1 Kings of Pontus

• Mithridates I Ktistes 281–266 BC

• Ariobarzanes 266 – c. 250 BC

• Mithridates II c. 250 – c. 220 BC

• Mithridates III c. 220 – c. 185 BC

• Pharnaces I c. 185 – c. 170 BC

• Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos c. 170 – c.

150 BC
• Mithridates V Euergetes c. 150 – 120 BC

• Mithridates VI Eupator 120–63 BC

• Pharnaces II 63–47 BC

• Darius of Pontus 39–37 BC

• Arsaces of Pontus 37 BC

Pithodoridai:

• Polemon I 37–8 BC

• Pythodorida 8 BC – 38 AD
• Polemon II 38–64 AD

170
Chapter 66

Mithridates I of Pontus

Mithridates I Ctistes (in Greek Mιθριδάτης Kτίστης; Roman subjection.

reigned 281–266 BCE) was the founder (this is the mean-
ing of the word Ctistes, literally Builder) of the kingdom
of Pontus in Anatolia. 66.1 References
Mithridates is said to have been of the same age as
Demetrios Poliorketes, which means he was born in the
mid-330s BCE. In 302 or 301 BC, shortly after having
executed the young man’s kinsman (possibly his father
or grandfather) and predecessor Mithridates of Cius, the
diadoch Antigonus became suspicious of the son who had
inherited the family dominion of Cius, and planned to kill
the boy. Mithridates, however, received from Demetrius
Poliorketes timely notice of Antigonus’s intentions, and
fled with a few followers to Paphlagonia, where he oc-
cupied a strong fortress, called Cimiata. He was joined
by numerous bodies of troops from different quarters
and gradually extended his dominions in Pontus and cre-
ated the foundations for the birth of a new kingdom,
which may be judged to have risen about 281 BCE when
Mithridates assumed the title of basileus (king).[1] In the
same year, we find him concluding an alliance with the
town of Heraclea Pontica in Bithynia, to protect it against
Seleucus[2] . At a subsequent period, Mithridates is found
acquiring support from the Gauls (who later settled in
Asia Minor) in order to overthrow a force sent against
him by Ptolemy, king of Egypt.[3] These are the recorded
events of his reign, which lasted for thirty-six years.[4]
He was succeeded by his son Ariobarzanes. He seems to
have been buried in a royal grave near the kingdom’s cap-
ital, Amasia. Next to him would be buried all the kings
of Pontus until the fall of Sinope in 183 BCE.
According to Appian,[5] he was eighth in descent from the
first satrap of Pontus under Darius the Great and sixth in
ascending order from Mithridates Eupator. However, this
point is controversial since Plutarch[6] writes that eight
generations of kings of Pontus stemmed from him before
• Appian, The foreign wars, Horace White (transla-
tor), New York, (1899)
• Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World,
“Mithridates I” (1999)
• Memnon, History of Heracleia, Andrew Smith
(translator), (2004)
• Plutarch, Parallel Lives, extquotedblDemetrius ex-
tquotedbl, John & William Langhorne (translator),
(1770)
• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology, “Mithridates III”,
Boston, (1867)
• Strabo, Geography, H. C. Hamilton & W. Falconer
(translators), London, (1903)
66.2 Notes
[1] Appian, The Foreign Wars, “The Mithridatic Wars”, 9;
Strabo, Geography, xii. 3; Plutarch, Lives, “Demetrius”,
4
[2] Memnon, History of Heraclea, 7
[3] Stephanus, Ethnica, s. v. Ancyra
[4] Diodorus Siculus, Histoire Universelle, xx. 111, pag. 457
[5] Appian, 112

171
172 CHAPTER 66. MITHRIDATES I OF PONTUS

[6] Plutarch, 4

This article incorporates text from a publication now

in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 67

Ariobarzanes of Pontus

Ariobarzanes (in Greek Ἀριoβαρζάνης; reigned 266

BC – c. 250 BC) was the second king of Pontus, suc-
ceeding his father Mithridates I Ctistes in 266 BC and
died in an uncertain date between 258 and 240. He ob-
tained possession of the city of Amastris in Paphlagonia,
which was surrendered to him.[1] Ariobarzanes and his
father sought the assistance of the Gauls, who had come
into Asia Minor twelve years before the death of Mithri-
dates, to expel the Egyptians sent by Ptolemy II Philadel-
phus.[2] Ariobarzanes was succeeded by Mithridates II.

67.1 References
• Hazel, John; Who’s who in the Greek world, (1999),
“Ariobarzanes”

• Memnon, History of Heracleia, Andrew Smith

(translator), (2004)

• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and

Roman Biography and Mythology, “Ariobarzanes
III”, Boston, (1867)

67.2 Notes
[1] Memnon, 16, 24

[2] Stephanus, Ethnica, s. v. Ancyra

This article incorporates text from a publication now

in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

173
Chapter 68

Mithridates II of Pontus

Mithridates II (in Greek Mιθριδάτης; lived 3rd century [2] Polybius, Histories, v. 43, 74, viii. 22.
BC), third king of Pontus and son of Ariobarzanes, whom
[3] Ibid., iv. 56.
he succeeded on the throne.
He was a minor when his father died, but the period of his [4] Ibid., v. 90.
accession cannot be determined. It seems probable that it
must be placed considerably before 240 BC, as Memnon
tells us that he was a child at his father’s death, and he 68.2 References
had a daughter of marriageable age in 222 BC. Shortly af-
ter his accession, his kingdom was invaded by the Gauls, • Hazel, John. Who’s Who in the Greek World.
who were eventually repulsed.[1] After he attained man- “Mithridates II”, 2003.
hood, he married Laodice, a sister of Seleucus II Callini-
cus, with whom he is said to have received the province • Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and
of Phrygia as a dowry. But notwithstanding this alliance, Roman Biography and Mythology, “Mithridates IV”,
we find Mithridates II fighting against Seleucus during a Boston, (1867).
war between Seleucus and Antiochus Hierax. Eventually,
• This article incorporates text from a publica-
Mithridates defeated Seleucus in a great battle at Ancyra
tion now in the public domain: Smith, William,
in 239 BC whereby Seleucus lost twenty thousand of his
ed. (1870). extquotedblarticle name needed extquot-
troops and narrowly escaped with his own life. In 222
edbl. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography
BC, Mithridates gave his daughter Laodice in marriage
and Mythology.
to the Seleucid king Antiochus III: another of his daugh-
ters, also named Laodice, was married about the same
time to Achaeus, the cousin of Antiochus.[2]
In 220 BC, Mithridates declared war upon the wealthy
and powerful city of Sinope. However, he was unable
to weaken it and the city did not fall into the power of
the kings of Pontus until 183 BC.[3] At an earlier period,
we find Mithridates II vying with the other monarchs of
Asia in sending magnificent presents to the Rhodians, af-
ter the subversion of their city by an earthquake in 227
BC.[4] The date of his death is utterly unknown. He was
succeeded by Mithridates III, his son with Laodice.

68.1 Notes
[1] Memnon, History of Heracleia, 24.

174
Chapter 69

Mithridates III of Pontus

Mithridates III (Greek: Mιθριδάτης) was the fourth [2] Getzel, Hellenistic settlements in Europe, the islands and
King of Pontus, son of Mithridates II of Pontus and Asia Minor p. 387
Laodice. Mithridates had two sisters who were Laodice
[3] Grainger, A Seleukid prosopography and gazetteer p.50
III the first wife of the Seleucid King Antiochus III the
Great and Laodice of Pontus. He may have ruled in an [4] Callatay, The First Royal Coinage of Pontos (from Mithri-
uncertain period between 220 BC and 183 BC. Nothing dates III to Mithridates V) p.21
is known of him since the years just cited, because the
[5] Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus xxxviii
kingdom of Pontus disappears from history. His same ex-
istence is contested by certain historians, even if it is nec-
essary to account for Appian's indication of Mithridates
VI of Pontus as the eighth king of the dynasty and the 69.3 External links
sixth of the name.[1] Mithridates married an obscure Se-
leucid Princess called Laodice.[2][3] By his wife, he had • Coinage of Mithridates III on pages 4-7
three children: Mithridates IV of Pontus,[4] Pharnaces I
of Pontus [5] and Laodice.[4]

69.1 References
• Hazel, John. Who’s Who in the Greek World.
“Mithridates III”, 2003.

• M. Getzel, Hellenistic settlements in Europe, the is-

lands and Asia Minor, Cohen University of Califor-
nia Press, 1995

• J.D. Grainger, A Seleukid prosopography and

gazetteer, BRILL 1997

• The First Royal Coinage of Pontos (from Mithri-

dates III to Mithridates V), Francois de Callatay

69.2 Notes
[1] Appian, The Foreign Wars, “The Mithridatic war”, 9, 112

175
Chapter 70

Pharnaces I of Pontus

return of his ambassadors, Pharnaces suddenly attacked

both Eumenes II and King Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia
and invaded Galatia with a large force.

Pharnaces I of Pontus; 185?–169 BC; Son of Mithridates III. The

Greek inscription reads: extquotedblΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΦΑΡΝΑΚΟΥ
extquotedbl, which means extquotedbl[of] King Pharnaces”.

Pharnaces I (Greek: Φαρνάκης; lived 2nd century BC),

fifth king of Pontus and was of Persian and Greek Mace-
donian ancestry. He was the son of King Mithridates III
of Pontus and his wife Laodice, whom he succeeded on
the throne.[1] Pharnaces had two siblings: a brother called
Mithridates IV of Pontus and a sister called Laodice who
succeeded as Pontian monarchs on the throne.[2] He was
born and raised in the Kingdom of Pontus.

Bronze shield in the name of King Pharnakes, Getty Villa

70.1 Life (80.AC.60)

The date of his accession cannot be fixed with certainty;
but it is certain, at least, that he was on the throne be-
fore 183 BC, in which year he succeeded in reducing the
important city of Sinope, which had been long an ob-
ject of ambition to the Kings of Pontus. The Rhodians
sent an embassy to Rome to complain of this aggression,
but without effect.[3] About the same time Pharnaces be-
came involved in disputes with his neighbour, King of
Pergamon, Eumenes II, which led to repeated embassies
from both monarchs to Rome, as well as to partial hostil-
ities. But in the spring of 181 BC, without waiting for the
Eumenes II opposed him at the head of an army: but hos-
tilities were soon suspended by the arrival of the Roman
Republic deputies, appointed by the Roman Senate to in-
quire into the matters in dispute. Negotiations were ac-
cordingly opened at Pergamon but led to no result, the
demands of Pharnaces being rejected by the Romans
as unreasonable; and the war was in consequence re-
newed. It continued, apparently with various interrup-
tions, until the summer of 179 BC, when Pharnaces, find-
ing himself unable to cope with the combined forces of
Eumenes II and Ariarathes IV, was compelled to pur-

176
70.3. SOURCES 177

chase peace by the cession of all his conquests in Galatia [5] Polybius, xxvii. 17
and Paphlagonia, with the exception of Sinope.[4] How
[6] http://www.livius.org/la-ld/laodice/laodice_iv.html
long he continued to reign after this we know not; but it
appears, from an incidental notice, that he was still on the [7] Grainger, A Seleukid prosopography and gazetteer p. 52
throne in 170 BC, while he was certainly dead in 154 BC,
when his brother Mithridates IV of Pontus is mentioned [8] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,
as King.[5] The Greek historian Polybius accuses Phar- King of Pontus p.32
naces of having an arrogant and violent character, siding [9] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,
with the opinion of Eumenes II and the Romans. King of Pontus p.32
Pharnaces married a Greek Seleucid Princess called [10] Greek Wikipedia article of Nyssa of Pontus
Nysa, who was the child of princess Laodice IV and
crown prince Antiochus.[6] Nysa and Pharnaces were re- [11] Greek Wikipedia article of Nyssa of Pontus
lated as the parents of Nysa were first cousins with Phar-
naces. Pharnaces married Nysa either in 172 BC or 171 • Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and
BC, through the diplomatic work of the Seleucid King Roman Biography and Mythology, “Pharnaces I”,
Demetrius I Soter.[7] Boston, (1867)
Honorific statues and inscriptions have survived that were
dedicated to Pharnaces and Nysa. Pharnaces set about to
establish good relations with the citizens of Athens and 70.3 Sources
the Greek island of Delos. Pharnaces made a benefaction
to the people of Athens. The exact nature of the benefac- This article incorporates text from a publication now
tion is unknown, perhaps Pharnaces may have made some in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
kind of voluntary donation to Athens, perhaps soon after extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of
183 BC.[8] A lengthy honorific inscription from the Athe- Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
nians on Delos honors Pharnaces and Nysa. Pharnaces
and Nysa received a crown of gold from them and bronze
• B. C. McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI
statues of themselves were set up on Delos. Their lengthy
Eupator, King of Pontus, BRILL, 1986
Athenian honorific inscription, is dated in the Archonship
of the Athenian Tychandrus or Tychander which is now • J. D. Grainger, A Seleukid prosopography and
generally accepted as 160 BC or 159 BC.[9] gazetteer, BRILL, 1997
Nysa bore Pharnaces two children: a son called
• http://www.livius.org/la-ld/laodice/laodice_iv.
Mithridates V of Pontus and a daughter called Nysa of
html
Cappadocia, who is also known as Laodice.[10] Nysa died
at an unknown date in the 2nd century BC, she is believed • Greek Wikipedia article of Nyssa of Pontus
to have died during childbirth, when she was giving birth
to one of her children.[11]

70.2 References
[1] Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, xxxviii. 5, 6

[2] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,

King of Pontus p.90

[3] Polybius, Histories, xxiii. 9; Strabo, Geography, xii. 3;

Livy, Ab urbe condita, xl. 2

[4] Polybius, xxiv. 1, 5, 8, 9 xxv. 2; Livy, xl. 20; Diodorus

Siculus, Bibliotheca, xxix
Chapter 71

Mithridates IV of Pontus

Mithridates IV of Pontus or known by his full name
Mithridates Philopator Philadelphus[1] (Greek: Mι-
θριδάτης ὁ Φιλoπάτωρ Φιλάδελφoς, which means
“Mithridates the father-loving, brother-loving extquot-
edbl; flourished 2nd century BC, died ca. 150 BC) was a
prince and sixth King of the Kingdom of Pontus.
Mithridates IV was of Persian and Greek Macedonian an-
cestry. He was the son born to the Monarchs Laodice
and Mithridates III of Pontus.[2] Mithridates IV had two
siblings: one brother called Pharnaces I of Pontus and
a sister called Laodice.[3] He was born and raised in the
Kingdom of Pontus.
An example of a coin that Mithridates IV honors his
Persian origins was choosing a reverse type of Perseus.
This coin could have been issued before he got married.
Perseus can be seen as a bridge between ancient Greek
and Persian cultures. Although Perseus was a Greek hero,
he had Persian associations; the Persians regarded him
as an Assyrian.[9] Perseus is standing facing wearing a
chlamys, pointed curved helmet and winged boots. In
his left hand, he holds the harp and his right hand hold-
ing the head of Medusa.[10] The star and crescent are also
present with his full name.[11] The obverse had a portrait
of him alone.[12]

Mithridates IV is first mentioned in 179 BC, as he is asso- An example of a coin, that Mithridates IV honors his
ciated with Pharnaces I in a treaty concluded by the latterGreek origins is a coin from his joint rule with his
King of Pergamon Eumenes II, in a manner that would sister-wife. The coin is on one side is a draped bust of
lead one to suppose he was already admitted to some Mithridates IV and Laodice. On the reverse side, shows
share in sovereign power.[4] The date of Mithridates’ ac- their royal titles in Greek ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΙΘΡΑΔΑΤΟΥ
cession to the Pontian throne is utterly mysterious, since ΚΑΙ ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ ΛΑΟΔΙΚΗΣ ΦΙΛΑΔΕΛΦΩΝ
we first hear of him as ruler in 154 BC, when he is men- which means of King Mithridates and Queen Laodice
tioned as sending an auxiliary force to the assistance of Philadelphoi.[13] Philadelphoi is the plural for the Greek
King of Pergamon, Attalus II Philadelphus, against the word Philadelphus which means sibling-loving. On the
King of Bithynia, Prusias II. This moment was an impor- side of their royal titles, presents Mithridates IV and
Laodice struck in the image of the Greek Patron Gods
tant event, since it signalled the start of a policy of friend-
ship of the Kingdom of Pontus with the Roman Republic Zeus and Hera. Zeus and Hera are standing facing
and her allies which would continue till Mithridates VI front. Hera is holding a sceptre in the right hand, while
Eupator.[5] Zeus laureate holds a sceptre in his right hand and a
thunderbolt in his left hand.[14] The choice of coinage is
At an unknown date, he married as his Queen his sister a declaration of Hellenism.[15]
Laodice as his wife.[6] They appeared to have no chil-
dren. According to the surviving coinage, his royal title
and full name was Mithridates Philopator Philadelphus.[7] 71.1 References
Coinage has survived issued by Mithridates IV alone and
ones he issued with Laodice. The ones issued with his
[1] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,
sister-wife display a fine double portrait and they adapted King of Pontus p.35
[8]
a Ptolemaic model for coinage. Its clear that the coinage
draws attention to his Persian and Greek origins. [2] Callatay, The First Royal Coinage of Pontos (from Mithri-
dates III to Mithridates V) p.21

178
71.3. EXTERNAL LINKS 179

[3] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, 71.3 External links
King of Pontus p.90

[4] Polybius, Histories xxxiii. 12. • Coinage of Mithridates IV on pages 12-16

[5] Ibid, xxv. 2.

[6] Getzel, Hellenistic settlements in Europe, the islands and

Asia Minor p. 387

[7] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,

King of Pontus p.35

[8] Callatay, The First Royal Coinage of Pontos (from Mithri-

dates III to Mithridates V) p.21

[9] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,

King of Pontus p.35

[10] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,

King of Pontus p.35

[11] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,

King of Pontus p.35

[12] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,

King of Pontus p.35

[13] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,

King of Pontus p.35

[14] Callatay, The First Royal Coinage of Pontos (from Mithri-

dates III to Mithridates V) p.15

[15] McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator,

King of Pontus p.35

71.2 Sources
• B.C. McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI
Eupator, King of Pontus, BRILL, 1986

• M. Getzel, Hellenistic settlements in Europe, the is-

lands and Asia Minor, Cohen University of Califor-
nia Press, 1995

• Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Roman World,

“Mithridates IV”, (2002).

• The First Royal Coinage of Pontos (from Mithri-

dates III to Mithridates V), Francois de Callatay

• Polybius, Histories, xxxiii. 12

• Ibid, xxv. 2
Chapter 72

Mithridates V of Pontus

“Mithridates V” redirects here. For the King of Iberia, of his reign can only be approximately determined based
see Mihrdat V of Iberia. on statements concerning the accession of his son Mithri-
dates VI, which is assign in the year 120 BC to end of the
Mithridates V Euergetes (Greek: Μιθριδάτης ὁ reign of Mithridates V.
εὐεργέτης, which means “Mithridates the benefactor ex- Mithridates V was assassinated in about 120 BC in
tquotedbl; flourished 2nd century BC, reigned 150–120 Sinope poisoned by unknown persons at a lavish banquet
BC); also known as Mithridates V of Pontus, Mithradates which he held.[5] Mithridates V, was a great benefactor
V of Pontus and Mithradates V Euergetes,[1] was a Prince to the Hellenic culture which shows on surviving coinage
and seventh King of the wealthy Kingdom of Pontus. and honorific inscriptions stating his donations in Athens
Mithridates V was of Greek Macedonian and Persian an- and Delos and had great veneration in which he kept for
the Greek God Apollo. At the Capitoline Museums in
cestry. He was the son of the King Pharnaces I of Pontus
and Queen Nysa, while his sister was Nysa of Cappado- Rome, is on a display a bilingual inscription dedication
cia. His mother is believed to have died during childbirth, to him.[6] Mithridates V was buried in the royal tombs of
when his mother was giving birth to his sister or Mithri- his ancestors at Amasya.
dates V. He was born and raised in the Kingdom of Pon- Mithridates V married the Greek Seleucid Princess
tus. Mithridates V succeeded his paternal aunt Laodice Laodice VI, who was the daughter of Antiochus IV
and paternal uncle Mithridates IV of Pontus [2] on the Epiphanes and Laodice IV.[7][8] Mithridates V and
Pontian throne and the accession of Mithridates V is un- Laodice VI were related, thus he had lineage from the
certain. Seleucid dynasty.
Mithridates V continued the politics of an alliance with Laodice bore Mithridates V seven children who were:
the Roman Republic started by his predecessors. He sup- Laodice of Cappadocia, Mithridates VI of Pontus,
ported them with some ships and a small auxiliary force Mithridates Chrestus, Laodice, Nysa (sometimes spelt as
during the Third Punic War (149–146 BC)[3] and at a Nyssa), Roxana and Statira. Roxana and Statira were
subsequent period rendered them useful assistance in the compelled to kill themselves with poison after the fall of
war against King of Pergamon, Eumenes III (131–129 the Kingdom of Pontus in 63 BC. Nysa was taken pris-
BC). oner by the Romans and made to march in the triumphs
For his services on this occasion Mithridates V was re- of two Roman generals.
warded by the Roman consul Manius Aquillius with the
province of Phrygia. However the acts of the Roman con-
sul were rescinded by the Roman Senate on the grounds 72.1 References
of bribery, but it appears that he maintained his posses-
sion of Phrygia until his death.[4] Mithridates V also in- [1] Erciyas, Wealth, aristocracy and royal propaganda under
creased the power of the Kingdom of Pontus by the mar- the Hellenistic kingdom of the Mithradatids in the Central
riage of his eldest child, his daughter Laodice of Cap- Black Sea Region in Turkey p.122
padocia to King Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia. The end
[2] Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, xxxviii. 5

180
72.3. EXTERNAL LINKS 181

[3] Appian, The foreign wars, Mithridatic Wars 10 72.3 External links
[4] Justin, xxxvii. 1; Appian, 12, 56, 57; Orosius, Adversus
• Coinage of Mithridates V on pages 16-17
Paganos, v. 10; Eutropius, Breviarium, iv. 20

[5] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.68

[6] Erciyas, Wealth, aristocracy and royal propaganda under

the Hellenistic kingdom of the Mithradatids in the Central
Black Sea Region in Turkey p.122

[7] http://www.livius.org/la-ld/laodice/laodice_vi.html

[8] Walbank, Cambridge ancient history: The hellenistic

world, Volume 7 p.491

72.2 Sources
• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology, “Mithridates V”,
Boston, (1867)

• This article incorporates text from a publica-

tion now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). extquotedblarticle name needed extquot-
edbl. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography
and Mythology.

• Walbank, W. The Cambridge ancient history: The

Hellenistic world, Volume 7 F. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1984

• McGing, B.C. The foreign policy of Mithridates VI

Eupator, King of Pontus, BRILL, 1986

• Hazel, J. Who’s Who in the Roman World, “Mithri-

dates V Euergetes”, 2002

• Erciyas, D.B. Wealth, aristocracy and royal propa-

ganda under the Hellenistic kingdom of the Mithra-
datids in the Central Black Sea Region in Turkey,
BRILL, 2006

• Mayor, A. The Poison King: the life and legend

of Mithradates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, Princeton
University Press, 2009

• http://www.pontos.dk/publications/books/
bss-9-files/bss-9-04-callatay
Chapter 73

Mithridates VI of Pontus

“Mithridates the Great” redirects here. For other people, which he held.[6] In the will of Mithridates V, he left the
see Mithridates. Kingdom to the joint rule of Laodice VI, Mithridates and
his younger brother, Mithridates Chrestus. Mithridates
Mithridates VI or Mithradates VI (; Greek: Μιθρα- and his younger brother were both under aged to rule and
[2]
δάτης, Μιθριδάτης), from Old Persian Mithradatha, their mother retained all power as regent.[7] Laodice VI’s
“gift of Mithra extquotedbl; 134–63 BC, also known as regency over Pontus was from 120 BC to 116 BC (even
Mithradates the Great (Megas) and Eupator Diony- perhaps up to 113 BC) and favored Mithridates Chrestus
sius, was king of Pontus and Armenia Minor in northern over Mithridates. During his mother’s regency, he es-
Anatolia (now Turkey) from about 120–63 BC. Mithri- caped from his mother’s plots against him, and went into
dates is remembered as one of the Roman Republic’s hiding.
most formidable and successful enemies, who engaged Mithridates emerged from hiding and returned to Pontus
three of the prominent generals from the late Roman Re- between 116 BC and 113 BC and was hailed King. He re-
public in the Mithridatic Wars: Lucius Cornelius Sulla, moved his mother and brother from the throne, imprison-
Lucius Licinius Lucullus and Gnaeus Pompey Magnus. ing both, and became the sole ruler of Pontus.[8] Laodice
He was the greatest ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus.[3] VI died in prison of natural causes. Mithridates Chres-
tus may have died in prison from natural causes or was
tried for treason and executed.[8] Mithridates gave both
a royal funeral.[9] Mithridates first married his younger
73.1 Ancestry, family and early life sister Laodice, aged 16.[10] He married her to preserve
the purity of their bloodline, and to co-rule over Pontus,
Mithridates was a prince of Persian and Greek an- to ensure the succession to his legitimate children, and to
[4] [4]

cestry. He claimed descent from Cyrus the Great, from solidify his claim to the throne.
the family of Darius the Great, the Regent Antipater and
from the generals of Alexander the Great and later kings:
Antigonus I Monophthalmus and Seleucus I Nicator.[4] 73.2 Early reign
Mithridates was born in the Pontic city of Sinope,[5] and
was raised in the Kingdom of Pontus. He was the first Mithridates entertained ambitions of making his state the
son and among the children born to Laodice VI and dominant power in the Black Sea and Anatolia. Af-
Mithridates V of Pontus (reigned 150–120 BC). His fa- ter he subjugated Colchis, the king of Pontus clashed
ther, Mithridates V, was a prince and the son of the for supremacy in the Pontic steppe with the Scythian
former Pontic Monarchs Pharnaces I of Pontus and his King Palacus. The most important centres of Crimea,
wife-cousin Nysa. His mother, Laodice VI, was a Seleu- Tauric Chersonesus and the Bosporan Kingdom readily
cid Princess and the daughter of the Seleucid Monarchs surrendered their independence in return for Mithridates’
Antiochus IV Epiphanes and his wife-sister Laodice IV. promises to protect them against the Scythians, their an-
Mithridates V was assassinated in about 120 BC in cient enemies. After several abortive attempts to in-
Sinope, poisoned by unknown persons at a lavish banquet vade the Crimea, the Scythians and the allied Rhoxolanoi

182
73.3. MITHRIDATIC WARS
Map of the Kingdom of Pontus, Before the reign of Mithridates
VI (dark purple), after his conquests (purple), his conquests in the
first Mithridatic wars (pink), as well as Pontus’ ally the Kingdom
of Armenia (green).
suffered heavy losses at the hands of the Pontic gen-
eral Diophantus and accepted Mithridates as their over-
lord. The young king then turned his attention to Ana-
tolia, where Roman power was on the rise. He con-
trived to partition Paphlagonia and Galatia with King
Nicomedes III of Bithynia. It soon became clear to
Mithridates that Nicomedes was steering his country into
an anti-Pontic alliance with the expanding Roman Re-
public. When Mithridates fell out with Nicomedes over
control of Cappadocia, and defeated him in a series of
battles, the latter was constrained to openly enlist the as-
sistance of Rome. The Romans twice interfered in the
conflict on behalf of Nicomedes (95 – 92 BC), leaving
Mithridates, should he wish to continue the expansion of
his kingdom, with little choice other than to engage in a
future Roman-Pontic war.
73.3 Mithridatic Wars
The next ruler of Bithynia, Nicomedes IV of Bithynia,
was a figurehead manipulated by the Romans. Mithri-
dates plotted to overthrow him, but his attempts failed
and Nicomedes IV, instigated by his Roman advisors,
declared war on Pontus. Rome itself was involved in
the Social War, a civil war with its Italian allies. Thus, When Rome attempted to annex Bithynia (bequested to
in all of Roman Asia Province there were only two le- Rome by its last king) nearly a decade later, Mithridates
gions present in Macedonia. These legions combined VI attacked with an even larger army, leading to the Third
183
with Nicomedes IV’s army to invade Mithridates’ king-
dom of Pontus in 89 BC. Mithridates, however, won a
decisive victory, scattering the Roman-led forces. His
victorious forces were welcomed throughout Anatolia.
The following year, 88 BC, Mithridates orchestrated a
massacre of Roman and Italian settlers remaining in sev-
eral Anatolian cities, essentially wiping out the Roman
presence in the region. This episode is known as the
Asiatic Vespers.[11] The Kingdom of Pontus comprised
a mixed population in its Ionian Greek and Anatolian
cities. The royal family moved the capital from Amasya
to the Greek city of Sinope. Its rulers tried to fully assim-
ilate the potential of their subjects by showing a Greek
face to the Greek world and an Iranian/Anatolian face to
the Eastern world. Whenever the gap between the rulers
and their Anatolian subjects became greater, they would
put emphasis on their Persian origins. In this manner,
the royal propaganda claimed heritage both from Persian
and Greek rulers, including Cyrus the Great, Darius I of
Persia, Alexander the Great and Seleucus I Nicator.[12]
Mithridates too posed as the champion of Hellenism,
but this was mainly to further his political ambitions;
it is no proof that he felt a mission to promote its ex-
tension within his domains.[13] Whatever his true inten-
tions, the Greek cities (including Athens) defected to the
side of Mithridates and welcomed his armies in mainland
Greece, while his fleet besieged the Romans at Rhodes.
Neighboring King of Armenia Tigranes the Great, estab-
lished an alliance with Mithridates and married one of
Mithridates’ daughters, Cleopatra of Pontus. They would
support each other in the coming conflict with Rome.[14]
The Romans responded by organising a large invasion
force to defeat him and remove him from power.The
First Mithridatic War, fought between 88 BC and 84 BC,
saw Lucius Cornelius Sulla force Mithridates VI out of
Greece proper. After victory in several battles, Sulla re-
ceived news of trouble back in Rome posed by his enemy
Gaius Marius and hurriedly concluded peace talks with
Mithridates. As Sulla returned to Italy Lucius Licinius
Murena was left in charge of Roman forces in Anato-
lia. The lenient peace treaty, which was never ratified by
the Senate, allowed Mithridates VI to recoup his forces.
Murena attacked Mithridates in 83 BC, provoking the
Second Mithridatic War from 83 BC to 81 BC. Mithri-
dates scored a victory over Murena’s green forces before
peace was again declared by treaty.
184
Mithridatic War from 73 BC to 63 BC. First Lucullus
and then Pompey were sent against Mithridates VI, who
surged back to retake his kingdom of Pontus, but was at
last defeated by Pompey. After his defeat by Pompey
in 63 BC, Mithridates VI fled with a small army from
Colchis (modern Georgia) over the Caucasus Mountains
to Crimea and made plans to raise yet another army to
take on the Romans. His eldest living son, Machares,
viceroy of Cimmerian Bosporus, was unwilling to aid his
father. Mithridates had Machares killed, and Mithridates
took the throne of the Bosporan Kingdom. Mithridates
then ordered the conscriptions and preparations for war.
In 63 BC, Pharnaces II of Pontus, one of his sons, led a
rebellion against his father, joined by Roman exiles in the
core of Mithridates’ Pontic army. Mithridates withdrew
to the citadel in Panticapaeum, where he committed sui-
cide. Pompey buried Mithridates in the rock-cut tombs
of his ancestors in Amasya, the old capital of Pontus.
73.4 Assassination conspiracy
During the time of the First Mithridatic War, a group
of Mithridates’ friends plotted to kill him. These were
Mynnio and Philotimus of Smyrna, and Cleisthenes and
Asclepiodotus of Lesbos. Asclepiodotus changed his
mind and became an informant. He arranged to have
Mithridates hide under a couch to hear the plot against
him. The other conspirators were tortured and executed.
However, this was not enough for Mithridates, who also
killed all of the plotters’ families and friends.[15]
73.5 Propaganda
Where his ancestors pursued philhellenism as a means of
attaining respectability and prestige among the Hellenis-
tic kingdoms, Mithridates VI made use of Hellenism as a
political tool. As protector of Greek cities on the Black
Sea and in Asia against barbarism, Mithridates VI logi-
cally became protector of Greece and Greek culture, and
would use this stance in his clashes with Rome.[16] Strabo
mentions that Chersonesus buckled under the pressure of
the barbarians and asked Mithridates VI to become its
protector (7.4.3. c.308). The most impressive symbol
of Mithridates VI’s approbation with Greece (Athens in
particular) appears at Delos: a heroon dedicated to the
Pontic king in 102/1 by the Athenian Helianax, a priest
of Poseidon Aisios.[16] A dedication at Delos, by Dicaeus,
CHAPTER 73. MITHRIDATES VI OF PONTUS
a priest of Sarapis, was made in 94/93 BC on behalf of
the Athenians, Romans, and “King Mithridates Eupator
Dionysus.”[16] Greek styles mixed with Persian elements
also abound on official Pontic coins – Perseus was fa-
vored as an intermediary between both worlds, East and
West.[16] Certainly influenced by Alexander the Great,
Mithridates VI extended his propaganda from “defender”
of Greece to the “great liberator” of the Greek world as
war with Roman Republic became inevitable. The Ro-
mans were easily translated into “barbarians”, in the same
sense as the Persian Empire during the war with Persia in
the first half of the 5th century BC and during Alexan-
der’s campaign. How many Greeks genuinely bought into
this claim will never be known. It served its purpose,
however. At least partially because of it, Mithridates VI
was able to fight the First War with Rome on Greek soil,
and maintain the allegiance of Greece.[16] His campaign
for the allegiance of the Greeks was aided in no small
part by his enemy Sulla, who allowed his troops to sack
the city of Delphi and plunder many of the city’s most
famous treasures to help finance his military expenses.
73.6 Death
When Mithridates VI was at last defeated by Pompey and
in danger of capture by Rome, he is alleged to have at-
tempted suicide by poison; this attempt failed, however,
because of his immunity to the poison.[17] According to
Appian’s Roman History, he then requested his Gaulish
bodyguard and friend, Bituitus, to kill him by the sword:
Mithridates then took out some poison that he
always carried next to his sword, and mixed
it. There two of his daughters, who were still
girls growing up together, named Mithridates
and Nysa, who had been betrothed to the kings
of [Ptolemaic] Egypt and of Cyprus, asked him
to let them have some of the poison first, and
insisted strenuously and prevented him from
drinking it until they had taken some and swal-
lowed it. The drug took effect on them at
once; but upon Mithridates, although he walked
around rapidly to hasten its action, it had no
effect, because he had accustomed himself to
other drugs by continually trying them as a
means of protection against poisoners. These
are still called the Mithridatic drugs.
Seeing a certain Bituitus there, an officer of the
73.7. MITHRIDATES’ ANTIDOTE
Gauls, he said to him, “I have profited much
from your right arm against my enemies. I shall
profit from it most of all if you will kill me,
and save from the danger of being led in a Ro-
man triumph one who has been an autocrat so
many years, and the ruler of so great a king-
dom, but who is now unable to die by poison
because, like a fool, he has fortified himself
against the poison of others. Although I have
kept watch and ward against all the poisons that
one takes with his food, I have not provided
against that domestic poison, always the most
dangerous to kings, the treachery of army, chil-
dren, and friends.” Bituitus, thus appealed to,
rendered the king the service that he desired.[18]
(XVI, §111)
Cassius Dio Roman History, on the other hand, records in 63 BC, many imperial Roman physicians claimed to
his death as murder:
Mithridates had tried to make away with him-
self, and after first removing his wives and re-
maining children by poison, he had swallowed
all that was left; yet neither by that means nor
by the sword was he able to perish by his own
hands. For the poison, although deadly, did
not prevail over him, since he had inured his
constitution to it, taking precautionary antidotes
in large doses every day; and the force of the
sword blow was lessened on account of the
weakness of his hand, caused by his age and
present misfortunes, and as a result of taking
the poison, whatever it was. When, therefore,
he failed to take his life through his own efforts
and seemed to linger beyond the proper time,
those whom he had sent against his son fell upon
him and hastened his end with their swords and
spears. Thus Mithridates, who had experienced
the most varied and remarkable fortune, had
not even an ordinary end to his life. For he de-
sired to die, albeit unwillingly, and though eager
to kill himself was unable to do so; but partly by
poison and partly by the sword he was at once
[19]
self-slain and murdered by his foes. (Book
37, chapter 13)
At the behest of Pompey, Mithridates’ body was later a representation of his Persian, Greek heritage and of his
buried alongside his ancestors (in Sinope, Book 37, chap- ancestry.
ter 14). Mount Mithridat in the central Kerch and the
town of Yevpatoria in Crimea commemorate his name.
185
73.7 Mithridates’ antidote
Main article: Mithridate
In his youth, after the assassination of his father Mithri-
dates V in 120 BC, Mithridates is said to have lived in the
wilderness for seven years, inuring himself to hardship.
While there, and after his accession, he cultivated an im-
munity to poisons by regularly ingesting sub-lethal doses
of the same.[16] He invented a complex “universal anti-
dote” against poisoning; several versions are described
in the literature. Aulus Cornelius Celsus gives one in
his De Medicina and names it Antidotum Mithridaticum,
whence English mithridate.[20] Pliny the Elder’s version
comprised 54 ingredients to be placed in a flask and ma-
tured for at least two months. After Mithridates’ death
possess and improve on the original formula, which they
touted as Mithradatium. In keeping with most medical
practices of his era, Mithridates’ anti-poison routines in-
cluded a religious component; they were supervised by
the Agari, a group of Scythian shamans who never left
him. Mithridates was reportedly guarded in his sleep by
a horse, a bull, and a stag, which would whinny, bellow,
and bleat whenever anyone approached the royal bed.[21]
73.8 Mithridates as polyglot
In Pliny the Elder's account of famous polyglots, Mithri-
dates could speak the languages of all the twenty-
two nations he governed.[22] This reputation led to the
use of Mithridates’ name as title in some later works
on comparative linguistics, such as Conrad Gessner's
Mithridates de differentis linguis, (1555), and Adelung
and Vater’s Mithridates oder allgemeine Sprachenkunde
(1806–1817).[23]
73.9 Wives, mistresses and chil-
dren
Mithridates VI had wives and mistresses, by whom he
had various children. The names he gave his children are
1. First wife, his sister Laodice. They were married
186 CHAPTER 73. MITHRIDATES VI OF PONTUS

from 115/113 BC till about 90 BC. Mithridates with part in Pompey’s triumphal procession on this return to
Laodice had various children: Rome in 61 BC.

• Sons: Mithridates, Arcathius, Machares and The Cappadocian Greek nobleman and high priest of the
Pharnaces II of Pontus temple-state of Comana, Cappadocia Archelaus had de-
scended from Mithridates VI.[25] He claimed to be a son
• Daughters: Cleopatra of Pontus (some- of Mithridates VI,[26] however chronologically Archelaus
times called Cleopatra the Elder to dis- may have been a maternal grandson of the Pontic King,
tinguish her from her sister of the same who his father was Mithridates VI’s favorite general may
name) and Drypetina (a diminutive form of have married one of the daughters of Mithridates VI.[27]
extquotedblDrypetis extquotedbl). Drypetina
was Mithridates VI’s most devoted daughter.
Her baby teeth never fell out, so she had a
double set of teeth.[24] 73.10 Literature
2. Second wife, the Greek Macedonian Noblewoman, The poet A. E. Housman alludes to Mithridates’ antidote,
Monime. They were married from about 89/88 BC also known as mithridatism, in the final stanza of his
till 72/71 BC. By whom, he had: poem “Terence, This Is Stupid Stuff” in A Shropshire Lad.
• Daughter: Athenais, who married King
Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia There was a king reigned in the East:
There, when kings will sit to feast,
3. Third wife, Greek woman Berenice of Chios, mar-
ried from 86–72/71 BC They get their fill before they think
With poisoned meat and poisoned drink.
4. Fourth wife, Greek woman Stratonice of Pontus,
married from after 86–63 BC He gathered all that springs to birth
From the many-venomed earth;
• Son: Xiphares
First a little, thence to more,
5. Fifth wife, unknown He sampled all her killing store;
6. Sixth wife, Caucasian woman Hypsicratea, married And easy, smiling, seasoned sound,
from an unknown date to 63 BC Sate the king when healths went round.
They put arsenic in his meat
One of his mistresses was the Galatian Celtic Princess
Adobogiona. By Adobogiona, Mithridates had two chil- And stared aghast to watch him eat;
dren: a son called Mithridates I of the Bosporus and a They poured strychnine in his cup
daughter called Adobogiona.
And shook to see him drink it up:
His sons born from his concubine were Cyrus, Xerxes,
They shook, they stared as white’s their shirt:
Darius, Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia, Artaphernes,
Oxathres, Phoenix (Mithridates’ son by a mistress of Syr- Them it was their poison hurt.
ian descent) and Exipodras. His daughters born from his –I tell the tale that I heard told.
concubine were Nysa, Eupatra, Cleopatra the Younger,
Mithridates, he died old.
Mithridates and Orsabaris. Nysa and Mithridates, were
engaged to the Egyptian Greek Pharaohs Ptolemy XII – A. E. Housman, A Shropshire Lad
Auletes and his brother Ptolemy of Cyprus.
In 63 BC, when the Kingdom of Pontus was annexed by Ralph Waldo Emerson included his “Mithridates” in his
the Roman general Pompey the remaining sisters, wives, 1847 “Poems”. The legend also appears in Alexandre
mistresses and children of Mithridates VI in Pontus were Dumas's novel The Count of Monte Cristo. The demise
put to death. Plutarch writing in his lives (Pompey v.45) of Mithridates VI is detailed in the 1673 play Mithridate
states that Mithridates’ sister and five of his children took written by Jean Racine. This play is the basis for several
73.11. SEE ALSO 187

18th century operas including one of Mozart’s earliest, James Joyce alludes to Mithridates’ immunity to poison
known most commonly by its Italian name, Mitridate, re in his love poem Though I Thy Mithridates Were.
di Ponto (1770). He is the subject of the opera Mitridate The Last King is an historical novel by Michael Curtis
Eupatore (1707) by Alessandro Scarlatti. In The Grass Ford about the King and his exploits against the Roman
Crown, the second in the Masters of Rome series, Colleen Republic. Mithridates is a major character in Poul An-
McCullough, the Australian writer, describes in detail the derson's novel The Golden Slave. Mithridates of Pontus
various aspects of his life – the murder of Laodice (sister- is mentioned by E. E. “Doc” Smith in Triplanetary, the
wife of Mithridates VI of Pontus), and the Roman Consul first novel of the famous Lensman science fiction series.
who, quite alone and surrounded by the Pontic army, or- In the story, Mithridates was supposed to be one of the
dered Mithridates to leave Cappadocia immediately and humans possessed by a member of an evil alien race bent
go back to Pontus – which he did. on remaking human civilization into its own image.
Wordsworth, amidst casting about for poetic themes in In the novel Mithridates is Dead (Spanish: Mitrídates ha
The Prelude:
muerto), Ignasi Ribó traces parallels between the histori-
cal figures of Mithridates and Osama Bin Laden. Within
Sometimes, more sternly moved, I would relate a postmodern narrative of the making and unmaking of
How vanquished Mithridates northward history, Ribó suggests that the September 11 attacks on
passed, the United States closely paralleled the massacre of Ro-
man citizens in 88 B.C. and prompted similar conse-
And, hidden in the cloud of years, became quences, namely the imperialist overstretch of the Amer-
Odin, the Father of a race by whom ican and Roman republics respectively. Furthermore,
he suggests that the ensuing Mithridatic Wars were one
Perished the Roman Empire.
of the key factors in the demise of Rome’s republican
– William Wordsworth, The Pre- regime, as well as in the spread of the Christian faith in
lude Bk i vv 186 ff Asia Minor and eventually throughout the whole Roman
Empire. The novel implies that the current events in the
world might have similar unforeseen consequences.
Likewise, Edna St. Vincent Millay alludes indirectly
to Mithridates’ protection against poison in her sonnet
“Thou art not lovelier than lilacs” (from Renascence and
Other Poems, 1917): 73.11 See also
• Bosporan Kingdom
Like him who day by day unto his draught
Of delicate poison adds him one drop more • Mithridatism (Mithridatization)
Till he may drink unharmed the death of ten, • Mithridatic Wars
Even so, inured to beauty, who have quaffed • Roman Crimea
Each hour more deeply than the hour before,
I drink--and live--what has destroyed some
men. 73.12 References
• “Poem LVII: Terence, this is stupid stuff.” A Shrop-
In Dorothy L. Sayers' Detective Novel extquotedblStrong
shire Lad. A.E. Housman (1896)
Poison extquotedbl, from 1929, the protagonist, Lord Pe-
ter Wimsey, refers to Mithridates’ measures to survive
poisoning; as well as Albert Einstein's theory of Special [1] http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/pontus
Relativity, when the protagonist warns not to trust some- [2] The spelling “Mithridates” was the Roman Latin version,
one who looks straight in your eye, as they're trying to dis- but “Mithradates”, the spelling used in Greek inscriptions
tract you from seeing something, extquotedbl..even the and Mithridates’ own coins, is regaining precedence, see
path light travels is bent”. e.g. Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3d ed.
188
[3] Hewsen, Robert H. (2009). “Armenians on the Black Sea:
The Province of Trebizond”. In Richard G. Hovannisian.
Armenian Pontus: The Trebizond-Black Sea Communities.
Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, Inc. pp. 41, 37–66.
ISBN 1-56859-155-1.
[4] http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/
mithradates-vi-eupator-dionysos
[5] http://www.pontos.dk/publications/books/bss-9-files/
bss-9-07-hojte-2
[6] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.68
[7] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.69
[8] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.394
[9] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.100
[10] Getzel, Hellenistic settlements in Europe, the islands, and
Asia Minor p.387
[11] The Poison King: The Life and Legend of Mithridates,
Adrienne Mayor, Princeton University Press, 2010
[12] The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of
Pontus – p. 11, Brian Charles McGing
[13] 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica
[14] (Armenian) Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1994). Badmoutioun
Hayots, Volume I. Athens, Greece: Hradaragoutioun
Azkayin Oussoumnagan Khorhourti. pp. 67–76.
[15] Appian’s History of Rome: The Mithridatic Wars
[16] McGing, B. C. (1986). The Foreign Policy of Mithridates
VI Eupator, King of Pontus. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.
J. Brill. p. 64.
[17] A History of Rome, LeGlay, et al. 100
[18] Appianus, XVI, §111
[19] Cassius Dio, Book 37
[20] http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/
Celsus/5*.html Celsus, De Medicina, Book V, 23.3.
(Loeb, 1935)
[21] Mayor, Adrienne. Greek Fire, Poison Arrows, and Scor-
pion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the An-
cient World. New York, Overlook Duckworth, 2003; p.
148
CHAPTER 73. MITHRIDATES VI OF PONTUS
[22] “Mithridates, who was king of twenty-two nations, ad-
ministered their laws in as many languages, and could ha-
rangue each of them, without employing an interpreter:
extquotedbl Pliny the Elder, Natural History, VII, 24.
[23] Johann Christoph Adelung & Johann Severin Vater,
Mithridates oder allgemeine Sprachenkunde mit dem Vater
Unser als Sprachprobe in bey nahe fünf hundert Sprachen
und Mundarten, , Mithridites was also fluent in the an-
cient language of the Persians and would practice it on any
Persian prisoners he had not yet killed or tortured.1806–
1817, Berlin, Vossische Buchlandlung, 4 volumes. Fac-
simile edition, Hildesheim-Nueva York, Georg Olms Ver-
lag, 1970.
[24] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy
[25] Ptolemaic Genealogy, Berenice IV, point 19
[26] Strabo 17.1.11
[27] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.114
73.13 Further reading
• Duggan, Alfred, He Died Old: Mithradates Eupator,
King of Pontus, 1958.
• Ford, Michael Curtis, The Last King: Rome’s Great-
est Enemy, New York, Thomas Dunne Books, 2004,
ISBN 0-312-27539-0
• McGing, B. C. The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI
Eupator, King of Pontus (Mnemosyne, Supplements:
89), Leiden, Brill Academic Publishers, 1986, ISBN
90-04-07591-7 [paperback]
• Cohen, Getzel M., Hellenistic Settlements in Europe,
the Islands and Asia Minor (Berkeley, 1995).
• Ballesteros Pastor, Luis. Mitrídates Eupátor, rey
del Ponto. Granada: Servicio de Publicaciones de
la Universidad de Granada, 1996, ISBN 84-338-
2213-6.
• Ribó, Ignasi, Mitrídates ha muerto, Madrid, Bubok,
2010, ISBN 978-84-9981-114-7 (free e-book)
• Mayor, Adrienne, The Poison King: The Life and
Legend of Mithradates, Rome’s Deadliest Enemy
(Princeton, PUP, 2009).
73.14. EXTERNAL LINKS 189

• Madsen, Jesper Majbom, Mithradates VI : Rome’s

perfect enemy. In: Proceedings of the Danish Insti-
tute in Athens Vol. 6, 2010, p. 223-237.

• Ballesteros Pastor, Luis, Pompeyo Trogo, Justino y

Mitrídates. Comentario al Epítome de las Histo-
rias Filípicas (37,1,6 - 38,8,1) (Spudasmata 154),
Hildesheim-Zürich-New York, Georg Olms Verlag,
2013, ISBN 978-3-487-15070-3.

73.14 External links

• Second and Third Mithridatic War

• Livius.org: Mithridates VI Eupator

Chapter 74

Pharnaces II of Pontus

“Pharnaces II” redirects here. For the satrap of Helle- named him friend and ally of Rome.
spontine Phrygia, see Pharnaces II of Phrygia. Contemporary historians are silent on his early reign, but
eventually, on viewing the increasing power struggles be-
Pharnaces II of Pontus, also known as Pharnaces II tween the Romans, and with an eye to recreating the king-
(Greek: Φαρνάκης; about 97–47 BC) was a prince, then dom of his father, he attacked and subjugated the free
King of Pontus and the Bosporan until his death. He was Greek city of Phanagoria, violating one of his agreements
a monarch of Persian and Greek Macedonian ancestry. with Pompey.
Pharnaces II was the youngest son and child born to King
Mithridates VI of Pontus from his first wife, his sister
Queen Laodice. [1] He was born and raised in the King-
dom of Pontus and was the namesake of his late paternal
74.2 War with Gaius Julius Caesar
great grandfather Pharnaces I of Pontus.
In 49 BC, civil war broke out between the two surviv-
ing Roman triumvirs Gaius Julius Caesar and Pompey.
Whilst the Romans were distracted by this, Pharnaces
74.1 Coup II decided to seize the opportunity and, with the forces
under his disposal and against little opposition, made
Pharnaces II was raised as his father’s successor and himself the ruler of Colchis and Lesser Armenia. The
treated with distinction. However, we know little of his ruler of Galatia, Deiotarus, appealed to Gnaeus Domitius
youth from writers of the time and find him first men- Calvinus, the lieutenant of Caesar in Asia, for support,
tioned after Mithridates VI had taken refuge from the Ro- and soon the Roman forces sought battle with Pharnaces.
man General Pompey during the Third Mithridatic War. They met at Nicopolis in Anatolia, where Pharnaces II
defeated the Roman army and overran Pontus.
Mithridates VI was keen to wage war with the Romans
once more, but Pharnaces was less keen, and thus began After this show of strength against the Romans, Phar-
a plot to remove his father from power. His plans were naces II drew back to suppress revolt in his new con-
discovered, but the army, not wishing to engage Pom- quests. However, the extremely rapid approach of Caesar
pey and the Roman armies, supported Pharnaces. They in person forced Pharnaces to turn his attention back to
marched on Mithridates VI and forced their former king the Romans. At first, recognizing the threat, he made of-
to take his own life in 63 BC. fers of submission, with the sole object of gaining time
Pharnaces II quickly sent an embassy to Pompey with of- until Caesar’s attention fell elsewhere; but Caesar’s speed
fers of submission and hostages, for he was keen to se- brought war quickly, and battle took place near Zela,
cure his position. He also sent the body of his father, where Pharnaces was routed and was able to escape with
to be at the disposal of Pompey. The latter readily ac- just a small detachment of cavalry. Caesar himself, in a
cepted Pharnaces’ overtures, for he wished to be back at letter to a friend in Rome, said of the short war: “Veni,
[2][3]
Rome having been seen to have made peace in the region. vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”).
Pompey granted Pharnaces the Bosporan Kingdom, and Pharnaces II fled back to the Bosporan Kingdom, where

190
74.6. SEE ALSO
he managed to assemble a small force of Scythian and
Sarmatian troops, with which he was able to gain con-
trol of a few cities. His former governor and son-in-law
Asander, attacked his forces and killed him. The histo-
rian Appian states that he died in battle; Cassius Dio says
he was captured and then killed.
74.3 Coinage
Gold and silver coins have survived from his reign dat-
ing from 55 BC-50 BC.[4] An example of a coin like
this is in the obverse side displays a portrait of Phar-
naces II. On the reverse side, displays the ancient Greek
God Apollo semi-draped, seated on a lion-footed throne,
holding a laurel branch over a tripod. Apollo’s left elbow
is resting on a cithara at his side. On top and between
Apollo is inscribed his royal title in Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣΝ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΦΑΡΝΑΚΟΥ, which means
of King of Kings Pharnaces the Great.
74.4 Marriage, issue and succes-
sion
Mithridates VI in the early 1st century BC, made an al-
liance with the Sarmatian tribes [5] and probably through
this alliance Pharnaces possibly sometime after 77 BC
married an unnamed Sarmatian noblewoman.[6] She may
have been a princess, a relative of a ruling Sarmatian
monarch or an influential aristocrat of some stator. His
Sarmatian wife bore Pharnaces a son, Darius, a daughter,
Dynamis, and a son, Arsaces. The names that Pharnaces
II gave his children are a representation of his Persian
and Greek heritage and of his ancestry. His sons were
made Pontian kings for a time after his death, by Ro-
man triumvir Mark Antony. His daughter and her fam-
ily succeeded him as ruling monarchs of the Bosporan
Kingdom. Pharnaces II through his daughter would have
further descendants ruling the Bosporan.
74.5 Pharnaces II in opera
The 18th-century librettist Antonio Maria Lucchini
crafted a libretto based on incidents from the life of Phar-
naces II that was originally set by Antonio Vivaldi in
1727 under the title Farnace. Based on the number of
191
revivals of it that were staged, it must be counted as one
of Vivaldi’s most successful operas. A few later com-
posers also set Lucchini’s libretto, among them Josef
Mysliveček, whose opera Farnace of 1767 was perhaps
the best written after Vivaldi’s setting.
74.6 See also
• Bosporan Kingdom
• Roman Crimea
74.7 References
[1] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.xviii
[2] Stephen Dando-Collins, Cleopatra’s Kidnappers: How
Caesar’s Sixth Legion Gave Egypt to Rome And Rome
to Caesar, John Wiley & Sons, 2006
[3] Robert C. Byrd, The Senate of the Roman Republic:
Addresses on the History of Roman Constitutionalism,
p.140, Government Printing Office, 1995
[4] http://www.coinlink.com/News/world-coins/
ira-and-larry-goldberg-world-and-ancient-coin-auction/
[5] http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/sarmatians/sarmatians.html
[6] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.362
74.8 Sources
• Extracts from the book Dictionary of Greek and Ro-
man Antiquities, edited by William Smith (published
in 1870), and the writings of Appian, ancient histo-
rian
• A. Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend
of Mithradates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, Princeton
University Press, 2009
• http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/sarmatians/
sarmatians.html
• http://www.coinlink.com/News/world-coins/
ira-and-larry-goldberg-world-and-ancient-coin-auction/
192 CHAPTER 74. PHARNACES II OF PONTUS

• The Dynastic History of the Hellenistic Monar-

chies of Asia Minor According to Chronography of
George Synkellos by Oleg L. Gabelko

74.9 External links

• Coinage of Pharnaces II
Chapter 75

Darius of Pontus

Darius of Pontus (flourished 1st century BC) was a [7] Claudius’ Grant of Cilicia to Polemo. Sviatoslav
Prince from the Kingdom of Pontus. He was a monarch Dmitriev. The Classical Quarterly New Series, Vol. 53,
of Iranian and Greek Macedonian ancestry. No. 1 (May, 2003), pp. 286-291

Darius was the first child born to King Pharnaces II of

Pontus [1] and his Sarmatian wife.[2] He had two younger
siblings: a sister called Dynamis[3] and a brother called 75.2 Sources
Arsaces.[4] His paternal grandparents were the Pontian
Monarchs Mithridates VI and his first wife, his sister • A. Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend
Laodice. Darius was born and raised in the Kingdom of of Mithradates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, Princeton
Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom. University Press, 2009
According to Strabo,[5] Darius and Arsaces were guarded • The Dynastic History of the Hellenistic Monar-
by a chief rebel called Arsaces for a time when he held a chies of Asia Minor According to Chronography of
fortress that was besieged by Polemon I and Lycomedes George Synkellos by Oleg L. Gabelko
of Comana. Darius was made Pontian King by Roman
Triumvir Mark Antony in 39 BC. His reign as King was
short as he died in 37 BC. After Darius died, his brother
Arsaces succeeded him.[6] On the other hand Anthony
removed Darius from Cilicia, granting it to Polemon I in
37 BC.[7]

75.1 References
[1] Appian.B.Civ.5.74

[2] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.362

[3] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.362

[4] http://www.pontos.dk/publications/books/bss-9-files/
bss-9-01-gabelko p.2

[5] Strabo,Geographia xii p. 560

[6] http://www.pontos.dk/publications/books/bss-9-files/
bss-9-01-gabelko p.2

193
Chapter 76

Arsaces of Pontus

Arsaces of Pontus (flourished 1st century BC) was a 76.2 Source

Prince from the Kingdom of Pontus. He was a monarch
of Iranian and Greek Macedonian ancestry. • The Dynastic History of the Hellenistic Monar-
Arsaces was the second son and youngest child born to chies of Asia Minor According to Chronography of
King Pharnaces II of Pontus[1] and his Sarmatian wife. George Synkellos by Oleg L. Gabelko
He had two older siblings: a brother called Darius and a
sister called Dynamis.[2] His paternal grandparents were
the Pontian Monarchs Mithridates VI and his first wife,
his sister Laodice. Arsaces was born and raised in the
Kingdom of Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom.
According to Strabo,[3] Arsaces and Darius were guarded
by a chief rebel called Arsaces for a time when he held a
fortress that was besieged by Polemon I and Lycomedes
of Comana. In 37 BC Darius had died and Arsaces suc-
ceeded his brother as King of Pontus.[2] He was made
King by Roman Triumvir Mark Antony. According
to Strabo, in Arsaces’ reign “he played the role of the
sovereign and excited rebellion without the permission of
a Roman prefect”.[2]
His reign as King was short, as Arsaces died later in 37
BC or even perhaps in 36 BC.[2] Mark Antony put on the
Pontian throne as Arsaces’ successor, Polemon I.

76.1 References

[1] Strabo.13.3.8

[2] Gabelko, Oleg L. The Dynastic History of the Hellenistic

Monarchies of Asia Minor according to the Chronography
of George Synkellos. Centre for Black Sea Studies. pp. 2,
9. Retrieved Jan 3, 2011.

[3] Strabo, Geographia xii p. 560

194
Chapter 77
Polemon I of Pontus
Polemon Pythodoros, also known as Polemon I or
Polemon I of Pontus (Greek: Πολέμων Πυθόδωρος;
fl. 1st century BC – died 8 BC) was the Roman Client
King of Cilicia, Pontus, Colchis and the Bosporan King-
dom.
77.1 Life and career
Polemon was the son and heir of Zenon and possibly
Tryphaena. He was Anatolian Greek. Polemon’s father,
Zenon, was an orator and a prominent aristocrat from
Laodicea on the Lycus Anatolia. Zenon encouraged the
locals to resist the Roman General Quintus Labienus and
King Pacorus I of Parthia, when their armies invaded
Syria and Anatolia. Zenon was a friend and ally to Roman
Triumvir Mark Antony and played a leading role during
the Parthian invasion in 40 BC.
For Zenon’s service to the Parthian Campaign, Antony
appointed Polemon in 39 BC, as Roman Client King of
Cilicia replacing Darius, son of Pharnaces.[1] In 37 BC
after the death of King Arsaces of Pontus, Antony ap-
pointed him as Roman Client King of Pontus. In 36 BC,
Polemon assisted Antony in his military campaign against
Parthia. The Parthians defeated Antony and Polemon.
Polemon was captured and taken prisoner by the Parthian
King. After a ransom was allowed, Polemon was re-
leased. By this time, Polemon was ruling from Iconium
(modern Konya) in Lycaonia.
In 35 BC, Polemon assisted Antony in making an al-
liance with Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene with Rome,
whom the Median King was an ally to Parthia. Both
Antony and Polemon, succeeded in this alliance to hap-
pen. During the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Pole-
mon had sent Antony an auxiliary force. Before Ac-
195
tium, Polemon made peace with the triumvir Octavian
and became his ally. After the death of Antony, Octa-
vian became the Roman emperor Augustus. Augustus
early in his reign had acknowledged and recognised Pole-
mon as a Roman Client King and the Client Kingdoms he
ruled. Augustus awarded Polemon with an ivory sceptre;
an embroidered triumphal robe and he greeted Polemon
as king, ally and friend. This recognition was a tradition,
which recognises and awards the allies to Rome.
As King of the Bosporan, he extended the Kingdom as
far to the river Tanais. Polemon reigned as a long and
prosperous king. In 8 BC, Polemon engaged in a mili-
tary campaign against the Aspurgiani, a nomad tribe that
lived above the mountains of Phanagoria. Polemon was
defeated by them, taken as their prisoner and was put to
death.
77.2 Marriage and succession
In 16 BC the Roman statesman Marcus Vipsanius
Agrippa, had intervened with the monarchy of the
Bosporan Kingdom. Agrippa had discovered, a usurper
called Scribonius had pretended be to a relative of the rul-
ing Queen Dynamis, widow of King Asander. Scribonius
wanted to marry Dynamis, so he could rule the Bosporan,
however Agrippa discovered his treachery and ordered
his death. After Scribonius’ death, Agrippa asked Pole-
mon to take Scribonius’ place.
After Polemon married Dynamis in 16 BC he left Ico-
nium to rule the Bosporan Kingdom. Through Dynamis
Polemon became stepfather to Tiberius Julius Aspurgus,
her son from her first marriage. When Dynamis died in
14 BC Polemon became the sole ruler of the Bosporan.
Later in 14 BC, Polemon married Pythodorida of Pontus
196 CHAPTER 77. POLEMON I OF PONTUS

as his second wife. She was a noblewoman who was half 77.6 External links
Anatolian Greek and Roman, and was the first grandchild
of Antony. Pythodorida bore Polemon two sons and one • Greek Wikisource has original text related to this
daughter: article: Πολέμων Πυθόδωρος
• Coinage of Polemon I
• Zenon, also known as Zeno-Artaxias or Artaxias III,
who became King of Armenia in 18 and reigned un-
til his death in 35

• Marcus Antonius Polemon Pythodoros, also known

as Polemon II of Pontus

• Antonia Tryphaena who married Cotys VIII King of

Thrace

After Polemon’s death, Aspurgus succeeded Polemon as

King of the Bosporan, while Pythodorida, ruled as the
sole ruler of Cilicia, Pontus and Colchis.

77.3 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

77.4 References
[1] Dimitriev 2003

77.5 Sources
• French version of Wikipedia

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2767.
html

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3651.
html

• http://www.tyndalehouse.com/egypt/ptolemies/
cleopatra_vii_fr.htm

• Claudius’ Grant of Cilicia to Polemo. Sviatoslav

Dmitriev. The Classical Quarterly New Series, Vol.
53, No. 1 (May, 2003), pp. 286-291
Chapter 78

Pythodorida of Pontus

Pythodorida or Pythodoris of Pontus (Greek: Πυθο- by his first wife and had no natural children, except for a
δωρίδα or Πυθοδωρίς, 30 BC or 29 BC – 38) was a stepson.
Roman Client Queen of Pontus, the Bosporan Kingdom, Pythodorida and Polemon had two sons and one daughter,
Cilicia and Cappadocia. who were:

• Zenon, also known as Zeno-Artaxias or Artaxias III,

78.1 Origins & Early Life who became King of Armenia in 18 and reigned un-
til his death in 35
Pythodorida is also known as Pythodoris I and Pantos
Pythodorida. According to an honorific inscription ded- • Marcus Antonius Polemon Pythodoros, also known
icated to her in Athens Greece in the late 1st century as Polemon II of Pontus
BC, her royal title was Queen Pythodorida Philome- • Antonia Tryphaena who married King of Thrace,
tor (Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΑ ΠΥΘΟΔΩΡΙΔΑ ΦΙΛΟΜΗ- Cotys VIII
ΤΩΡ). Philometor means “mother-loving” and this title is
associated with the Greek Pharaohs and Queens of the
Polemon I died in 8 BC and Pythodorida became the sole
Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt.
Queen of Pontus until her death. Pythodorida was able
Pythodorida was born and raised in Smyrna (modern to retain Colchis and Cilicia but the Bosporan Kingdom,
İzmir, Turkey). She was the daughter and only child of she was unable to retain. The Bosporan Kingdom, was
wealthy Anatolian Greek and friend to the late triumvir succeeded by her first husband’s stepson Aspurgus.
Pompey, Pythodoros of Tralles and Antonia. Pythodor-
After Polemon I died, she married King Archelaus of
ida was half Roman and half Anatolian Greek. She was
Cappadocia. Archelaus and Pythodorida had no children.
the namesake of her father.
Through her marriages, she became Roman Client Queen
Her maternal grandparents were the Roman triumvir of Cappadocia. Pythodorida had moved with her chil-
Mark Antony and Antonia Hybrida Minor, who were dren from Pontus to Cappadocia to live with Archelaus.
paternal first cousins, however Pythodorida’s paternal When Archelaus died in 17, Cappadocia became a Ro-
grandparents are unknown. Pythodorida seems to the man province and she returned with her family back to
first-born grandchild born to the triumvir Antony. Pontus.
In later years, Polemon II assisted his mother in the ad-
ministration of the kingdom. When Pythodorida died,
78.2 Queen Polemon II succeeded her. Pythodorida was a friend and
contemporary to the Greek geographer Strabo. Strabo is
About 14 BC, Pythodorida married King Polemon said to have described Pythodorida as a woman of virtu-
Pythodoros of Pontus as his second wife. She became ous character. Strabo considered her to have a great ca-
Queen of Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom when she pacity for business and considered that under Pythodor-
married Polemon I. Polemon I was previously widowed ida’s rule, Pontus had flourished.

197
198 CHAPTER 78. PYTHODORIDA OF PONTUS

78.3 Ancestry

78.4 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom
• List of Kings of Pontus

• Roman Crimea

78.5 Sources
• Vassal - Queens and Some Contemporary Women
of the Roman Empire by Grace Harriet Macurdy
(1937)
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2962.
html
• http://www.guide2womenleaders.com/turkey_
substates.htm
• http://www.tyndalehouse.com/egypt/ptolemies/
cleopatra_vii_fr.htm

78.6 External links

• An Athenian Honorific Inscription dedicated to
Queen Pythodorida, which is displayed at the Epi-
graphical Museum (inventory no. EM 9573) in
Athens, Greece
Chapter 79

Polemon II of Pontus

Marcus Antonius Polemon Pythodoros, also known as Antony, he was also a distant cousin to Roman emper-
Polemon II of Pontus and Polemon of Cilicia (Greek: ors Caligula, Claudius and Nero and Roman empresses
Μάρκος Ἀντώνιος Πολέμων Πυθόδωρος; 12 BC/11 Valeria Messalina, Agrippina the Younger and Claudia
BC–74) was a prince of the Bosporan, Pontus, Cilicia Octavia.
and Cappadocia. He served as a Roman Client King of Polemon II’s father died in 8 BC. His mother then mar-
Pontus, Colchis and Cilicia. ried King Archelaus of Cappadocia, and the family had
Polemon II was the second son and middle child of the moved to Cappadocia, where Polemon II was raised,
Pontic Rulers Polemon Pythodoros and Pythodorida of along with his siblings, at the court of his stepfather.
Pontus. His eldest brother was Zenon, also known as Archelaus died in 17, whereupon Polemon II and his
Artaxias III, who was Roman Client King of Armenia mother moved back to Pontus. From 17 until 38, Pole-
and his youngest sister was Antonia Tryphaena, who was mon II lived as a private citizen in Pontus and assisted his
married to Cotys VIII, King of Thrace. mother in the administration of their realm. When his
The Pontic royal family was of mixed Anatolian Greek mother died in 38, Polemon II succeeded his mother as
and Roman origin. His paternal grandmother is un- the sole ruler of Pontus, Colchis and Cilicia.
known; however his paternal grandmother could have According to an honorary inscription at Cyzicus in 38,
been named Tryphaena, while his paternal grandfather Polemon II participated in celebrating the local games
was Zenon, a prominent orator and aristocrat, who was in the city, honoring Julia Drusilla, the late sister of
an ally to Roman Triumvir Mark Antony. His mater- Caligula;[1] in this way Polemon II expressed his loyalty
nal grandparents were Pythodoros of Tralles, a wealthy to the emperor and the Roman state. Polemon II with
Greek and friend of Pompey, and Antonia. Polemon II another Roman Client King Antiochus IV of Comma-
was the namesake of his parents and his maternal grand-gene, held athletic games in honor of Claudius in Cilicia
parents. in 47. Antiochus IV with Polemon II had showed favor
Through his maternal grandmother he was a direct de- towards Claudius in which they offered significant ser-
vices to him.
scendant of Mark Antony and his second wife Anto-
nia Hybrida Minor. Antony and Antonia Hybrida were Around 50, Polemon II was attracted to the wealth and
first paternal cousins. He was Antony’s second born beauty of the Judean princess Julia Berenice, whom he
great grandson and great grandchild. Polemon II is the had met in Tiberias during a visit to King Agrippa I.
only known male descendant of Mark Antony that car- Berenice in turn wanted to marry Polemon II to end ru-
ries his name. The other male descendant of Mark mors that she and her brother were committing incest.
Antony who carries a form of his name Antonius was the Berenice was previously widowed in 48 when her sec-
consul Quintus Haterius Antoninus. Through Antony, ond husband, her paternal uncle Herod of Chalcis, died.
his great maternal aunt was Queen Cleopatra Selene She had two sons by him, Berenicianus and Hyrcanus.
II of Mauretania. Through Antony, he was a distant Berenice however set the condition that Polemon II had
cousin to Roman Client King Ptolemy of Mauretania and to convert to Judaism, which included undergoing the rite
the princesses named Drusilla of Mauretania. Through of circumcision, before marriage. Polemon II assented,

199
200
and the marriage went ahead. It did not last long how-
ever, and Berenice left Pontus with her sons and returned
to the court of her brother. Polemon II abandoned Ju-
daism and, according to the legend of Bartholomew the
Apostle, he accepted Christianity, but only to become a
pagan again.
At an unknown date perhaps after the early 50s, Polemon
II married a princess[2] called Julia Mamaea[2] who was
from the Syrian Roman Client Emesene Kingdom.[2][3]
Mamaea was of Assyrian, Armenian, Greek and Median
ancestry. Polemon II married Mamaea as his second
wife[4] and the circumstances that lead Polemon II to
marry her are unknown. Through Mamaea’s marriage
to him, she became a Roman Client Queen of Pontus,
Colchis and Cilicia.
The relationship between Polemon II and Mamaea is un-
known. Mamaea marrying Polemon II is only known
through surviving evidence. Her name and identity
is revealed from surviving bronze coinage.[5] Surviv-
ing coinage that was issued from Polemon II and Ma-
maea is extremely rare,[4] as only three specimens are
known.[4] On surviving coinage, shows her royal title
in Greek ΙΟΥΛΙΑΣ ΜΑΜΑΙΑΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ [6] (of
Julia Mamaea the Queen) or ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ ΙΟΥΛΙΑΣ
ΜΑΜΑΙΑΣ (of Queen Julia Mamaea).[4] These coins can
be dated from the second half of Polemon II’s reign from
60 until 74. She bore Polemon II two sons who were
Polemon and Rheometalces.[7] Her sons that she bore to
Polemon II are known from a restored surviving inscrip-
tion from Amphipolis Greece,[8] that is commemorating
Polemon II, Polemon and Rheometalces is dated from the
second half of the 1st century.
Polemon II renamed the town Fanizan and named
the town after himself to Polemonium (modern Fatsa
Turkey). In 62, Nero induced Polemon II to abdicate the
Pontian throne, and Pontus, including Colchis, became a
Roman province. From then until his death, Polemon II
only ruled Cilicia.
79.1 References
[1] IGRR IV 145
[2] Birley, Septimius Severus: The African Emperor, p.70
[3] Levick, Julia Domna: Syrian Empress
[4] Coinage of Polemon II and Julia Mamaea
CHAPTER 79. POLEMON II OF PONTUS
[5] Birley, Septimius Severus: The African Emperor, p.222
[6] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der Romischen Welt:
Principat, p.926
[7] On the Polemonid dynasty - see R.D. Sullivan, “Dynasts
in Pontus”, ANRW 7.2 (1980), p.p. 925-930. For the in-
termarriages between the Polemonids and other dynasties
of East Asia Minor, see R.D. Sullivan, “Papyri reflecting
the Eastern Dynastic Network”, ANRW 2.8 (1977), p.
919
[8] Temporini, Politische Geschichte (Provinzen Und Randv
Lker: Griechischer Balkanraum; Kleinasien): Griechis-
cher Balkanraum; Kleinasien), p.929
79.2 Sources
• Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.7.3
• Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.8.1
• H. Temporini & W. Haase, Aufstieg und Nieder-
gang der Romischen Welt: Principat, Walter de
Gruyter, 1980
• H. Temporini & W. Haase, Politische Geschichte
(Provinzen Und Randv Lker: Griechischer Balka-
nraum; Kleinasien): Griechischer Balkanraum;
Kleinasien), Walter de Gruyter, 1980
• A.R. Birley, Septimius Severus: The African Em-
peror, Routledge, 2002
• B. Levick, Julia Domna: Syrian Empress, Rout-
ledge, 2007
• Polemon II article at ancient library
• Ptolemaic Genealogy: Cleopatra VII
• Coinage of Polemon II and Julia Mamaea
79.3 External links
• Coinage of Polemon II and Julia Mamaea
• coinage of Polemon II
Chapter 80

List of rulers of Commagene

The Kingdom of Commagene was a small Hellenized 80.3 Descendants of Commagene

Armenian kingdom in southern Anatolia near Antioch,
which began life as a tributary state of the Seleucid Em- • Gaius Julius Antiochus Epiphanes Philopappos
pire and later became an independent kingdom, before
eventually being annexed by the Roman Empire in 72. • Julia Balbilla
• Gaius Julius Agrippa
80.1 Satraps of Commagene, 290– • Gaius Julius Alexander Berenicianus
163 BC • Julia (sister to Berenicianus), who married consul
Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus
• Sames 290–260 BC
• Jotapianus, possibly
• Arsames I 260–228 BC
• Xerxes of Armenia 228–201 BC
80.4 See also
• Ptolemaeus of Commagene 201–163 BC
• List of Armenian kings

80.2 Kings of Commagene, 163 BC

– 72 AD
• Ptolemaeus of Commagene 163–130 BC
• Sames II Theosebes Dikaios 130–109 BC
• Mithridates I Callinicus 109–70 BC
• Antiochus I Theos of Commagene 70–38 BC
• Mithridates II of Commagene 38–20 BC
• Mithridates III of Commagene 20–12 BC
• Antiochus III of Commagene 12 BC – 17 AD
• Ruled by Rome 17–38
• Antiochus IV of Commagene 38–72 and wife, Julia
Iotapa

201
Chapter 81

Ptolemaeus of Commagene

For other people of the same name, see Ptolemy (name). 81.2 Sources

Ptolemaeus (Armenian: Պտողեմեոս; Greek: Πτολε- •

μαῖος) was a man of Armenian[1] descent who lived be-
tween the 3rd century BC and 2nd century BC, and be-
came the first King of Commagene. He was of Orontid
Armenian descent, being related to the king of Sophene
Arsames I.[1] His father was King Orontes IV of Arme-
nia, son of Arsames I.
Ptolemy was the last Satrap (Governor) of the state of
Commagene, a province in the Seleucid Empire. He
served under the Syrian Greek Kings Antiochus III the
Great, Seleucus IV Philopator, Antiochus IV Epiphanes
and Antiochus V Eupator.
Ptolemy served as a Satrap of Commagene between 201–
163 BC. When the Seleucid Empire began to disintegrate
in 163 BC, Ptolemy decided to revolt and make Com-
magene an independent kingdom. Ptolemy also declared
Samosata, which was the capital of Commagene, under
Seleucid rule as the capital of the new kingdom.
Ptolemy was in fact a relative to the King Mithridates I
of Parthia and related to the Parthian King dynasty. Ac-
cording to fragments of inscribed reliefs found at Mount
Nemrut, archaeologists have discovered that Ptolemy was
a descendant of Persian King Darius I of Persia. Ptolemy
died in 130 BC and his wife is unknown. His son and
successor was Sames II Theosebes Dikaios.

81.1 References

[1] Chahin, Mark (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia. Rout-

lege. pp. 190–191. ISBN 0-7007-1452-9.

202
Chapter 82

Sames II Theosebes Dikaios

Sames or Samos II Theosebes Dikaios (Greek: Σάμος

Θεοσεβής Δίκαιος – died 109 BC) was the second king
of Commagene. Of Armenian[1] descent, he was the son
and successor of Ptolemaeus of Commagene.
Sames reigned as king between 130–109 BC. During his
reign, Sames ordered the construction of the fortress at
Samosata which is now submerged by water from the
Atatürk Baraji Dam.[2] Sames died in 109 BC. His wife
was Pythodoris, daughter of the Kings of Pontus, his son
and successor was Mithridates I Callinicus.

82.1 References
[1] Chahin, Mark (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia. Rout-
lege. ISBN 0-7007-1452-9.

[2] http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=
http://www.cliolamuse.com/spip.php%3Frubrique65&
sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=3&ct=result&prev=
/search%3Fq%3DcOMMAGENE%26start%3D20%
26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.
mozilla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN

82.2 See also

• Commagene

• List of rulers of Commagene

203
Chapter 83

Mithridates I Callinicus

Mithridates I Callinicus (Greek: Μιθριδάτης ὀ Кαλ-

λίνικος) was a king of Orontid Armenian[1] descent
who lived between 2nd century BC and 1st century BC.
Mithridates was a prince, the son and successor of King
of Commagene, Sames II Theosebes Dikaios. Before
his succession in 109 BC, he married the Syrian Greek
Princess Laodice VII Thea as a part of a peace al-
liance. Mithridates also embraced the Culture of Greece.
Laodice bore Mithridates a son, Antiochus I Theos of
Commagene (c. 86 BC–38 BC), a prince and future king
of Commagene. Mithridates died in 70 BC and Anti-
ochus succeeded him.

83.1 See also

• Commagene

• List of rulers of Commagene

• Mount Nemrut

83.2 Sources
• Laodice VII
• http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/
tryphaena.htm#Tryphaena.12

83.3 References
[1] Chahin, Mark (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia. Rout-
lege. ISBN 978-0-7007-1452-0.

204
Chapter 84

Antiochus I Theos of Commagene

This article is about the King of Commagene of the first Princess of the Seleucid Empire. Laodice’s father was
century BC. For the Seleucid King, see Antiochus II the Seleucid King Antiochus VIII Grypus while her
Theos. mother was Ptolemaic Princess and later Seleucid Queen
Tryphaena (see Cleopatra VI of Egypt). Thus, Anti-
Antiochus I Theos Dikaios Epiphanes Philorhomaios ochus was a direct descendant of Seleucus I Nicator of the
Philhellenos (Armenian: Անտիոքոս Երվանդունի, Seleucid Empire, Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt, Antigonus
Greek: Ἀντίοχος ὀ Θεός Δίκαιος Ἐπιφανής Φιλορω- I Monophthalmus of Macedonia and Asia, Lysimachus
μαίος Φιλέλλην, meaning Antiochos, a just, eminent of Thrace and the Macedonian regent, Antipater. The
god, friend of Romans and friend of Greeks, c. 86 five men had served as generals under Greek Macedonian
BC – 38 BC, ruled 70 BC – 38 BC) was a king from the King, Alexander the Great. Antiochus’ parents had mar-
Kingdom of Commagene and the most famous king of ried as part of a peace alliance between their kingdoms,
that kingdom. while his father had embraced Greek culture. Little is
known of his early life. When his father died in 70 BC,
The ruins of the tomb-sanctuary of Antiochus are mag- Antiochus succeeded his father as king.
nificent to behold even today. The site of his interment
atop Mount Nemrut, a.k.a. Nemrut dagi, was named to Antiochus married Princess Isias Philostorgos of Cap-
the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1987. Several sand- padocia, daughter of King Ariobarzanes I of Cappado-
stone bas reliefs discovered at the site contain the oldest cia and his wife Athenais Philostorgos I. They had five
known images of two figures shaking hands.[1] children:

• Mithridates II of Commagene, succeeded Anti-

ochus as King of Commagene after his death in 38
84.1 Family, Ancestry and Early BC
Life • Laodice, who married King Orodes II of Parthia

Antiochus I was the son and probably the only child of • Prince Antiochus II of Commagene
King Mithridates I Callinicus and Queen Laodice VII • Antiochis of Commagene
Thea of Commagene. Antiochus was half Armenian,
a distant member of the Orontid Dynasty[2] and half • Athenais, who married King Artavasdes I of Media
Greek. Antiochus’ father Mithridates was the son of King Atropatene
of Commagene Sames II Theosebes Dikaios, while his
mother is unknown. Mithridates in descent was related
to the kings of Parthia and, according to archaeological 84.2 Relations with the Romans
research at Mount Nemrut, was also a descendant from
the family of King Darius I of Persia. While the Roman Republic was annexing territories in
Antiochus’ mother, Laodice VII Thea, was a Greek Anatolia through skilled diplomacy, Antiochus was able

205
206 CHAPTER 84. ANTIOCHUS I THEOS OF COMMAGENE

to keep Commagene independent from the Romans. An- monumental effigies of the site show both Persian and
tiochus is first mentioned in the ancient sources in 69 BC, Greek iconographic influences. Persian influences can be
when Lucullus campaigned against the Armenian King seen in the clothes, headgear and the colossal size of the
Tigranes the Great. Antiochus made peace with general images, while the depiction of their physical features de-
Pompey in 64 BC, when Pompey successfully invaded rives from Greek artistic style.
Syria. Antiochus and Pompey then became allies. Anti-
ochus in 59 BC was granted the Toga Praetexta and was
given official recognition from the Roman Senate as an
ally to Rome. Antiochus was given an ivory sceptre, an
embroidered triumphal robe and he was greeted as king,
ally and friend. This recognition was a tradition, which
recognises and rewards the allies to Rome. From his reign
onwards, monarchs from Commagene proved to be the
most loyal Roman allies. When Marcus Tullius Cicero
was Roman governor of Cilicia in 51 BC, Antiochus pro-
vided Cicero with intelligence of the movements of the
Parthians. During the civil war between Julius Caesar
and Pompey, Antiochus provided troops for Pompey.
In 38 BC, a legatus of Triumvir Mark Antony, Publius
Ventidius Bassus, after campaigning against the Parthi-
ans, wanted to attack Antiochus and his kingdom. Mark
Antony and Publius Ventidius Bassus were attracted to
the treasury and wealth that Commagene had. Yet as
Antony and Bassus were preparing to march against
Commagene and its capital Samosata, Antiochus nego-
tiated a peaceful settlement with them.

84.3 Mount Nemrut

Statues of gods and the pyramid-like tomb-sanctuary of King An-
Main article: Mount Nemrut tiochus Theos of Commagene rising behind, atop Mount Nemrut

Antiochus is famous for building the impressive religious
sanctuary of Nemrud Dagi or Mount Nemrut. When
Antiochus reigned as king he was creating a royal cult
for himself and was preparing to be worshipped after
his death. Antiochus was inspired to create his own cult
in the Greek form of the religion Zoroastrianism. An-
tiochus left many Greek inscriptions revealing many as-
pects of his religion and explaining his purpose of action.
In one inscription, Antiochus wrote erecting his tomb in
a high and holy place should be remote from people and
should be close to the gods and be in rank with them.
Antiochus wanted his body to be preserved for eternity.
The gods he worshipped were a syncretism of Greek,
Armenian, and Iranian gods, such as Hercules-Vahagn,
Zeus-Aramazd or Oromasdes (associated with the Iranic
god Ahura Mazda), Tyche, and Apollo-Mithras. The
Antiochus practised astrology of a very esoteric kind,
and laid the basis for a calendrical reform, by linking the
Commagene year, which till then had been based on the
movements of the Sun and Moon, to the Sothic-Anahit
(Star of Sirius) and Hayk (Star of Orion) cycle used by
the Egyptians as the basis of their calendar. This would
suggest that Antiochus was knowledgeable about, if not
fully initiated into Hermeticism.
Antiochus’ tomb complex was constructed in a way that
religious festivities could occur. Each month Antiochus
had two festivities: his birthday which was celebrated on
the 16th of each month and his coronation which was cel-
ebrated on the 10th of each month. He allocated funds for
these events from properties legally bound to the site. He
also appointed families of priests and hierodules, whose
descendants were intended to, continue the ritual service
84.8. FURTHER READING 207

in perpetuity. Priests wore traditional Persian robes and • http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0202.

adorned with crowns of gold the images of the gods and
Antiochus’ ancestors. The priests offered incense, herbs,
and other unspecified “splendid sacrifices” on altars set
before each image. All the citizens and military garrison
were invited to the banquets in honor of the illustrious
deceased. During feasts, grudging attitudes were forbid-
den and Antiochus decreed that the people should enjoy
themselves, eat and drink wine, and listen to the sacred
music performed by the temple musicians.
Antiochus’ tomb was forgotten for centuries, until 1883
when archaeologists from Germany excavated it. Ac-
cording to the inscriptions found, Antiochus appears to
have been a pious person and had a generous spirit. In
another city of the kingdom Arsameia, ruins have found
of the royal palace. This palace is known as Eski Vale
or Old Castle. In Arsameia, Antiochus has left many in-
scriptions in Greek of his public works program and how
he glorified the city.
html
• http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/
tryphaena.htm#Tryphaena.12
• Campbell-Scott, Roger. “Nimrud Dagh - A Sacred
Mountain in Anatolia”, in Vanished Civilizations:
The Hidden Secrets of Lost Cities and Forgotten Peo-
ples, pp. 194–197. Reader’s Digest Services P/L,
Hong Kong, 1988. ISBN 0-276-42658-4.
•
84.8 Further reading
• Adrian Gilbert, Magi, Bloomsbury Publishing,
1996.

84.4 Ancestry

84.5 See also

• List of rulers of Commagene

• Queen of the Mountain

• Orontid Dynasty of Armenia

84.6 Footnotes
[1] Downey, Susan B.; Sanders, Donald B. (1997). “Nem-
rud Dagi: the Hierothesion of Antiochus I of Comma-
gene”. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Re-
search (307): 94–95. doi:10.2307/1357708. JSTOR
1357708.

[2] Chahin, Mark (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia. Rout-

ledge. pp. 190–191. ISBN 0-7007-1452-9.

84.7 References
• http://www.guide-martine.com/southeastern3.asp

• http://www.mavors.org/PDFs/Commagene.pdf
Chapter 85

Mithridates II of Commagene

Mithridates II Antiochus Epiphanes Philorhomaios According to an inscription on a funerary altar found in

Philhellenos Monocritis, also known as Mithridates the Turkish village of Sofraz of a local wealthy leading
II of Commagene (Greek: Μιθριδάτης Ἀντίοχος ὀ family, which dates around the mid-1st century, the wife
Ἐπιφανής Φιλορωμαίος Φιλέλλην Μονοκρίτης, died of Mithridates was a Greek woman called Laodice. The
20 BC) was a man of Armenian[1] and Greek descent altar inscribes family members that stretch over 7 genera-
who lived in the 1st century BC. He was a prince of tions and includes the names of Mithridates, of his father
Commagene and one of the sons of King Antiochus I and of his wife. When he died in 20 BC, his son with
Theos of Commagene and Queen Isias Philostorgos of Laodice, Mithridates III of Commagene, succeeded him.
Commagene. When his father died in 38 BC, he suc-
ceeded his father and reigned until his death.
According to Plutarch, he was an ally to Roman Tri- 85.1 Ancestry
umvir Mark Antony, and in 31 BC Mithridates person-
ally led his forces to Actium in Greece in support of
Antony in the war against Octavian, the future Roman 85.2 References
Emperor Augustus. After the defeat of Antony how-
ever, Mithridates became a loyal ally to Augustus. Nev- [1] Chahin, Mark (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia. Rout-
lege. pp. 190–191. ISBN 0-7007-1452-9.
ertheless, Augustus forced Mithridates to hand over to
the Roman province of Syria, a village in Commagene
called Zeugma, which was a major crossing point of the
Euphrates River. To show his support for Augustus, 85.3 Sources
Mithridates dropped the title Philhellen (“friend of the
Greeks”) from his Aulic titulature and adopted the title • Plutarch - Antony
Philorhomaios (“friend of the Romans”) instead. Both ti-
tles were derived from the Royal Commagenean cult that • http://www.mavors.org/PDFs/Commagene.pdf
Mithridates’ late father had founded, and in which Mithri- • http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0203.
dates played an important role. His other title Monocritis html
is an otherwise unattested title and was most likely a judi-
cial function within the Royal Administration and a sign • http://www.catholicity.com/encyclopedia/s/
of his high social standing. samosata.html
Mithridates also had a brother, Antiochus II of Com- •
magene, who was also a prince of the kingdom. In 29
BC, his brother Antiochus II was summoned to Rome •
and executed by Roman Emperor Augustus, because An-
tiochus had caused the assassination of an ambassador
whom Mithridates had sent to Rome.

208
Chapter 86

Antiochus II of Commagene

Antiochus II Epiphanes, also known as Antiochus II

of Commagene (Greek: Ἀντίοχος ὀ Ἐπιφανής, flour-
ished 1st century BC) was a man of Armenian and Greek
descent. Antiochus II was a Prince from the Kingdom
of Commagene and the second son of King Antiochus I
Theos of Commagene and Queen Isias Philostorgos. He
was the youngest brother of prince and future King of
Commagene, Mithridates II of Commagene.
Unfortunately very little is known on Antiochus II. Anti-
ochus II in 29 BC was summoned to Rome by Roman em-
peror Augustus. Augustus had summoned him because
he caused the assassination of an ambassador, whom
Mithridates II had sent to Rome. Antiochus II was ex-
ecuted on Augustus’ orders.

86.1 Ancestry

86.2 Sources
• Chahin, Mark (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia.
Routlege, pp. 190–191. ISBN 0-7007-1452-9.
• Antiochus’ article at ancient library

• Information on the Monarchs of Commmagene

209
Chapter 87

Mithridates III of Commagene

Mithridates III Antiochus Epiphanes (Greek: Μιθρι-
δάτης Ἀντίοχος ὀ Ἐπιφανής, flourished 1st century
BC) was a prince who served as a King of Commagene.
[2] Royal genealogy of Aka II of Commagene at rootsweb
[3] Royal genealogy of Mithradates III of Commagene at
rootsweb

87.1 Biography 87.4 Sources

Mithridates III was the son and successor of King
Mithridates II of Commagene and Queen Laodice. He
was of Armenian[1] and Greek descent.
Mithridates III, sometime after 30 BC, had married his
paternal cousin Iotapa, a Princess of Media Atropatene
who was a daughter of Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene
and his wife, Athenais.
Iotapa bore Mithridates III one daughter, Aka II of Com-
magene;[2][3] one son called Antiochus III and two daugh-
ters both called Iotapa. One daughter called Iotapa mar-
ried King Sampsiceramus II of Emesa, Syria and the an-
other Iotapa, later married and ruled with her brother An-
tiochus III.
When Mithridates III’s father died in 20 BC, he suc-
ceeded his father. He reigned as king between 20 BC–12
BC. Very little is known on his life and his reign. When
he died in 12 BC, Antiochus III of Commagene became
King.
• http://www.mavors.org/PDFs/Commagene.pdf
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0203.
html
• http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/
helios.htm
• http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/egypt/ptolemies/
tryphaena.htm
• http://www.tyndalehouse.com/Egypt/ptolemies/
affilates/aff_ptolemies.htm
• The Building Program of Herod the Great, By Du-
ane W. Roller, Published by University of California
Press 1998, ISBN 0-520-20934-6
• Royal genealogy of Mithradates III of Commagene
at rootsweb
• Royal genealogy of Aka II of Commagene at
rootsweb

87.2 Ancestry

87.3 References
[1] Chahin, Mark (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia. Rout-
lege. pp. 190–191. ISBN 0-7007-1452-9.

210
Chapter 88

Antiochus III of Commagene

Antiochus III Epiphanes (Greek: Ἀντίοχος ὀ Ἐπιφα- spected citizen in Athens. In the left figure of the mon-
νής, flourished 1st century BC and 1st century AD) was ument is a statue of Antiochus III’s son, Antiochus IV.
the ruler of the Kingdom of Commagene from 12 BC to Below Antiochus IV is an inscription that states King An-
17 AD. He was the son and successor of King Mithridates tiochus son of King Antiochus.
III of Commagene and Princess of Media and Queen of
Commagene, Iotapa, and of mixed Armenian,[1] Greek
and Median descent. His parents were first cousins. 88.1 References
When Antiochus died in 17 AD, his death created ma-
jor issues for the kingdom.[2] At the time of Antiochus’ [1] Chahin, Mark (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia. Rout-
death, Commagene was in political turmoil. The rea- lege. pp. 190–191. ISBN 0-7007-1452-9.
sons for this situation are unclear, but it may have been [2] Tacitus, The Annals 2.42
the consequence of his children by his sister-wife Queen
Iotapa, Antiochus and Iotapa being too young to succeed
their father. This may have meant that there was no effec-
tive authority to prevent civil unrest and unite the citizens 88.2 Sources
of Commagene.
• The Building Program of Herod the Great, By Du-
Very little is known on his life and his reign as King. Af-
ane W. Roller, Published by University of California
ter Antiochus’ death, two factions appeared. One fac-
Press 1998, ISBN 0-520-20934-6
tion was led by noblemen who wanted Commagene to be
placed under the rule of the Roman Empire and the other • Tacitus - The Annals, Part One: Tiberius, Chapter
faction was led by citizens who wanted to Commagene’s 4, First Treason Trials
independence to be retained under the rule of their own
king. • http://www.mavors.org/PDFs/Commagene.pdf

Both political factions sent embassies to Rome, seeking • http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0203.

the advice and assistance of the Roman Emperor Tiberius html
to decide the future of Commagene. Tiberius decided to
make Commagene a part of the Roman province of Syria. • http://www.catholicity.com/encyclopedia/s/
That decision was welcomed by many of the citizens by samosata.html
Commagene. Commagene remained under Roman rule • http://www.stoa.org/athens/sites/philopappos/
until Roman Emperor Caligula restored the kingdom to source/d0206120018.html
Antiochus’ children in 38 AD.
• http://www.tyndalehouse.com/Egypt/ptolemies/
Antiochus III and his son are honoured on the
affilates/aff_ptolemies.htm
Philopappos Monument in Athens, Greece, dedicated
to his great-grandson prince Gaius Julius Antiochus •
Epiphanes Philopappos, who was a prominent and re-

211
Chapter 89

Antiochus IV of Commagene

Gaius Julius Antiochus IV Epiphanes (Ancient part of Cilicia bordering on the seacoast. Caligula also
Greek: Γάιος Ἰούλιος Ἀντίοχος ὀ Ἐπιφανής, before 17 gave him the whole amount of the revenues of Com-
AD – after 72 AD), the last king of Commagene, reigned magene during the twenty years that it had been a Ro-
between 38–72 as a client king to the Roman Empire. man province.[2][3] The reasons for providing a client king
with such vast resources remain unclear; it was perhaps a
stroke of Caligula’s well-attested eccentricity. Antiochus
was on most intimate terms with Caligula, and he and
89.1 Life King Agrippa I are spoken of as the instructors of the em-
peror in the art of tyranny.[4] This friendship, however,
Antiochus was a prince and son of Antiochus III of Com- did not last very long, for he was subsequently deposed
magene and his mother was Queen Iotapa of Comma- by Caligula.
gene. The parents of Antiochus IV were full-blooded
Antiochus did not obtain his kingdom again till the ac-
siblings, who had married each other. Antiochus himself
cession of Roman Emperor Claudius in 41.[5] In 43 his
would marry his full-blooded sister Iotapa. Antiochus
first son, Gaius Julius Archelaus Antiochus Epiphanes,
was of Armenian,[1] Greek and Medes descent. Through
was betrothed to Drusilla, a daughter of Agrippa I.[6]
his ancestor from Commagene, Queen Laodice VII Thea,
Apart from Epiphanes, Antiochus had another two chil-
who was the mother of King Antiochus I Theos of Com-
dren with Iotapa: Callinicus and a younger Iotapa. In 53
magene, he was a direct descendant of the Greek Seleucid
Antiochus put down an insurrection of some barbarous
Kingdom.
tribes in Cilicia, called Clitae.[7] In 55 he received orders
Antiochus appears to have been very young when in 17, from Roman Emperor Nero to levy troops to make war
his father died. Roman Emperor Tiberius agreed with the against the Parthians, and in the year 59 he served under
citizens of Commagene to make their kingdom a part of General Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo against King Tiridates
the Roman province of Syria. Between 17 and 38, Anti- I of Armenia, brother of the Parthian King Vologases I
ochus seems to have gained Roman citizenship. He lived of Parthia.[8] In consequence of his services in this war,
and was raised in Rome, along with his sister. While he in the year 61 he obtained parts of Armenia.[9]
and his sister were growing up in Rome, they were part
He took the side of Roman Emperor Vespasian when the
of the remarkable court of Antonia Minor, a niece of the
latter was proclaimed emperor in 70; and he is then spo-
first Roman Emperor Augustus and the youngest daugh-
ken of as the richest of the tributary kings.[10] In the same
ter of triumvir Mark Antony. Antonia Minor was a very
year he sent forces, commanded by his son Epiphanes, to
influential woman and supervised her circle of various
assist prince Titus in the siege of Jerusalem.[11][12] Dur-
princes and princesses. Her circle assisted in the political
ing his reign as King, he founded the following cities:
preservation of the Roman Empire’s borders and affairs
Germanicopolis, Iotapa and Neronias.[13]
of the client states.
Antiochus’ downfall came only two years afterwards, in
In 38, Antiochus received his paternal dominion from
72, when he was accused by Lucius Caesennius Pae-
Antonia’s grandson, the Roman Emperor Caligula. In ad-
tus, the governor of Syria, of conspiring with the Parthi-
dition, the emperor enlarged Antiochus’ territory with a

212
89.5. REFERENCES 213

ans against the Romans. He was therefore deprived of
his kingdom, after a reign of thirty-four years from his
first appointment by Caligula. Antiochus’ sons, princes
Epiphanes and Callinicus, fled to Parthia after a brief en-
counter with Roman troops. Antiochus himself first re-
tired to Sparta, and then to Rome, where he passed the
remainder of his life with his sons Epiphanes and Call-
inicus and was treated with great respect.[14] Among the
grandchildren of Antiochus and Iotapa was the promi-
nent Athenian citizen Philopappos who lived in Greece
between the 1st century and 2nd century.
[10] Tacitus, Histories, ii. 81.
[11] Josephus, Jewish War, v. 11. § 3
[12] Tacitus, Histories, v. 1.
[13] Bowman, The Augustan Empire, p. 672
[14] Josephus, Jewish War, vii. 7
[15] Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, iii. p. 255 etc.
[16] Henry Fynes Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, the Civil and Lit-
erary Chronology of Greece from the 55th to the 124th
Olympiad, iii. p. 343 etc., (1824-1851).

89.2 Coinage
89.5 References
There are several coins of this king extant, and their die-
marks prove he did rule large parts of Cappadocia and • http://www.mavors.org/PDFs/Commagene.pdf
Cilicia as well as Commagene proper. In one of those
coins he is called ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΜΕΓΑΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΣ • This entry incorporates public domain text originally
(“Great King Antiochus”), a testament to his political from:
ambitions. On the reverse of that coin a scorpion is
--- William Smith (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and
represented, surrounded with the foliage of the laurel,
Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870.
and inscribed ΚΟΜΜΑΓΗΝΩΝ (“of the Commageni-
ans”). From his coins we also learn the name of his wife, • A.K. Bowman, E. Champlin & A. Lintott, The Au-
Iotapa.[15][16] gustan Empire, 43 B.C.-A.D. 69, Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1996

89.3 See also • The Building Program of Herod the Great, By Du-
ane W. Roller, Published by University of California
Press 1998, ISBN 0-520-20934-6
• Aytap
•

89.4 Notes
89.6 External links
[1] Chahin, Mark (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia. Rout-
lege. pp. 190–191. ISBN 0-7007-1452-9. • Coinage of Antiochus IV
[2] Cassius Dio, lix. 8

[3] Suetonius, Caligula, 16.

[4] Cassius Dio, lix. 24.

[5] Cassius Dio. lx. 8.

[6] Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, xix. 9. § 1.

[7] Tacitus, Annals, xii. 55.

[8] Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 7, 37.

[9] Tacitus, Annals, xiv. 26.

Chapter 90

List of rulers of Cappadocia

This page lists the Achaemenid satraps and Hellenistic • Ariarathes II, 301–280 BC
kings of Cappadocia, an ancient region in central
Anatolia. • Ariamnes II, 280–230 BC

• Ariarathes III, 255–220 BC

90.1 Datamid Satraps of Cappado- • Ariarathes IV Eusebes, 220–163 BC

cia, c. 380–331 BC • Ariarathes V Eusebes Philopator, 163–130 BC

• Orophernes, 157 BC
The Satrapy of Capadocia was a satrapy (province) of the
Achaemenid Empire until its conquest by Alexander the • Ariarathes VI Epiphanes Philopator, 130–116 BC
Great in 331 BC.
• Ariarathes VII Philometor, 116–101 BC
• Datames, c. 380–362 BC • Ariarathes VIII, 101–96 BC
• Ariamnes I, 362–350 BC
• Ariarathes IX, c. 95 BC
• Mithrobuzanes (died 334)
• Ariobarzanes I Philoromaios, 95–c. 63 BC
• Ariarathes I, 350–331 BC
• Ariobarzanes II Philopator, c. 63–51 BC
• Ariobarzanes III Eusebes Philoromaios, 51–42 BC
90.2 Ariarathid Kings of Cap-
• Ariarathes X Eusebes Philadelphos, 42–36 BC
padocia, 331 BC–17 AD
• Archelaus, 36 BC–17 AD
Ariarathes I managed to keep control of Cappadocia
even after Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Per-
sians; however, in 322 BC, he was crucified by Perdiccas,
Alexander’s general and (after Alexander’s death) regent.
Perdiccas gave Capadocia to Eumenes, Alexander’s for-
mer secretary. However, during the instability of the on-
going civil wars between Alexander’s generals, Eumenes
was killed, and Ariarathes I’s adopted son, Ariarathes II,
managed to re-secure his inheritance and became King
of Cappadocia (while accepting Seleucid suzerainty).

• Ariarathes I, 331–322 BC

214
Chapter 91

Ariarathes I of Cappadocia

Ariarathes I (Ancient Greek: Ἀριαράθης Ariaráthēs; 91.2 References

died 322 BC) was the satrap of the Satrapy of Cap-
padocia under the Achaemenid Empire from 350 BC to • Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World, “Ari-
331 BC, and the King of Cappadocia from 331 BC un- arathes II”, (1999)
til his death in 322 BC. He was the son of the Cap-
padocian satrap Ariamnes I. Ariarathes was distinguished • Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, “Cappadocia”,
(Φιλάδελφος, Philádelphos) for his love of his brother (1911)
Holophernes, whom he sent to assist his overlord king
• This article incorporates text from a publica-
Artaxerxes III in the recovery of Egypt, in 350 BC. Then
tion now in the public domain: Smith, William,
he devotedly supported Darius III. Alexander the Great
ed. (1870). extquotedblAriarathes I. extquotedbl.
conquered Cappadocia during his route and installed a
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and
governor there (though two different names of this gover-
Mythology.
nor are given). Nevertheless, by the time of Alexander’s
death Ariarathes somehow assumed power as the first
king of Cappadocians and even expanded the kingdom
by subduing Cataonia. After the death of Alexander, 323
BC, Perdiccas appointed Eumenes governor of Cappado-
cia; but upon Ariarathes refusing to submit to Eumenes,
Perdiccas made war upon him. Ariarathes was defeated,
taken prisoner, and crucified, together with many of his
relations, 322 BC. Eumenes then obtained possession of
Cappadocia. Ariarathes was 82 years of age at the time
of his death: he had adopted as his son Ariarathes II, the
eldest son of his brother Holophernes.[1]

91.1 Notes

[1] Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xviii. 16, xxxi. 3;

Photius, Bibliotheca, cod. 92; Appian, “The Mithridatic
Wars”, 8; Lucian, Macrobioi, 13; Plutarch, Parallel Lives,
“Eumenes”, 3;Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, xiii. 6

215
Chapter 92

Ariarathes II of Cappadocia

Ariarathes II (Ancient Greek: Ἀριαράθης, Ariaráthēs;

ruled 301–280 BC), satrap and king of Cappadocia,
son of Holophernes, fled into Armenia after the death
of his uncle and adopted father Ariarathes I, ruler of
Cappadocia. After the death of Eumenes he recovered
Cappadocia with the assistance of Ardoates, the Arme-
nian king, and killed Amyntas, the Macedonian satrap,
in 301 BC, but was forced to accept Seleucid suzerainty.
He was succeeded by Ariamnes, the eldest of his three
sons.[1]

92.1 Notes
[1] Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xxxi. 3

92.2 References
• Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World, “Ari-
arathes II”, (1999)
• Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, “Cappadocia”,
(1911)

This article incorporates text from a publication now

in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
extquotedblAriarathes II. extquotedbl. Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

216
Chapter 93

Ariamnes of Cappadocia

Ariamnes II (in Greek Ἀριάμνης; ruled 280 BC – 262

BC or 230 BC), was a ruler and king of Cappadocia, suc-
ceeded his father Ariarathes II. He was fond of his chil-
dren, and shared his crown with his son Ariarathes III
(262 BC or 255 BC – 220 BC) in his lifetime. He was
probably the first to obtain the independence of Cappado-
cia from the Seleucid Empire.[1]

93.1 Notes
[1] Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xxxi. 3

93.2 References
• Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World, “Ari-
amnes II”, (1999)

• Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, “Cappadocia”,

(1911)

This article incorporates text from a publication now

in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
extquotedblAriamnes II. extquotedbl. Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

217
Chapter 94

Ariarathes III of Cappadocia

94.1 Notes
[1] Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xxxi. 3; Strabo, Geogra-
phy, xii. 1; Pompeius Trogus, Prologi, xxv; Justin, xxvii.
3

94.2 References
• Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World, “Ari-
arathes III”, (1999)

• Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, “Cappadocia”,

(1911)

• Justin; Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, John Selby

Watson (translator); London, (1886)

• Christian Settipani, Les Ancêtres de Charlemagne

Silver coin of Ariarathes III (Cabinet des Médailles, Paris)
(France: Éditions Christian, 1989).

This article incorporates text from a publication now

in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
extquotedblAriarathes III. extquotedbl. Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Ariarathes III (Ancient Greek: Ἀριαράθης, Ari-
aráthēs; reigned 262 BC or 255 BC – 220 BC),
son of Ariamnes, ruler of Cappadocia, and grand-
son of Ariarathes II, married Stratonice, a daughter of
Antiochus II, king of Syria and wife Laodice I, and ob-
tained a share in the government during the lifetime of
his father. About 250 BC he was the first ruler of Cap-
padocia to proclaim himself king (basileus). It is known
that he sided with Antiochus Hierax in his war against
Seleucus II Callinicus. Ariarathes is also said to have ex-
panded his kingdom adding Cataonia to his dominions.
[1]
By his marriage he was the father of Ariarathes IV.

218
Chapter 95
Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia
Ariarathes IV, surnamed Eusebes, “the Pious”, (Ancient
Greek: Ἀριαράθης Εὐσεϐής, Ariaráthēs Eusebḗs), was
the king of Cappadocia in 220–163 BC.
95.1 Early life
Ariarathes IV was the son of the king of Cappadocia
Ariarathes III and his Greek Macedonian wife
Stratonice.[1] He was a child at his accession, and
reigned for about 57 years.[2] He married Antiochis, the
daughter of Antiochus III the Great, king of Syria, and
wife Laodice III, and, in consequence of this alliance,
assisted Antiochus in his war against the Romans. After
the defeat of Antiochus by the Romans in 190 BC, Ari-
arathes sued for peace in 188 BC, which he obtained on
favourable terms, as his daughter, Stratonice, was about
that time betrothed to Eumenes II, king of Pergamum,
whom she later actually married, and became an ally
of the Romans. In 183–179 BC, he assisted Eumenes
in his war against Pharnaces, king of Pontus. Polybius
mentions that a Roman embassy was sent to Ariarathes
after the death of the Seleucid Antiochus IV Epiphanes,
who died 164 BC. Antiochis, the wife of Ariarathes, is
said to have at first bore him no children, and accordingly
introduced two supposititious ones, who were called
Ariarathes and Orophernes. Subsequently, however, the
tale goes that she bore her husband two daughters and
a son, Mithridates, afterwards Ariarathes V, and then
informed Ariarathes of the deceit she had practised upon
him. The other two were in consequence sent away from
Cappadocia, one to Rome, the other to Ionia.[3]
219
95.2 Notes
[1] Boyce, Mary ; Grenet, Frantz (1991). A History
of Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism Under Macedonian
and Roman Rule. BRILL. pp. 267–8. ISBN
9004092714. “His son Ariarathes IV (220-c.162), thus
half-Macedonian by blood, set the title “king” on his
coins, and attached to his name the cognomen Philopator.
He also introduced the device of Athena holding Nike,
which became the standard reverse type of the Ariarathid
coinage. […] His son Ariarathes V (c.162-130), with
the cognomen Eusebes, was an ardent philhellene, and no
longer wears the tiara on any of his coins. In his youth
he studied in Athens, where he became friends with the
future Attalus III, the last king of Pergamum. He in his
turn married a Seleucid princess, his cousin Nysa, daugh-
ter of Antiochus III; and he refounded Mazaka and Tyana
as Greek poleis… extquotedbl
[2] Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xxxi. 3; Justin, xxix. 1;
Polybius, iv. 2
[3] Livy, xxxvii. 31, xxxviii. 38, 39; Polybius, xxi. 43, 47,
xxiv. 8, 9, xxv. 2, xxxi. 13, 14, 17; Appian, “The Syrian
Wars”, 5, 32, 42; Diodorus, xxxi. 3
95.3 References
• Appian, The foreign wars, Horace White (transla-
tor), New York, (1899)
• Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World, “Ari-
arathes IV”, (1999)
• Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, “Cappadocia”,
(1911)
• Justin; Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, John Selby
Watson (translator); London, (1886)
220 CHAPTER 95. ARIARATHES IV OF CAPPADOCIA

• Livy; Ab urbe condita, Canon Roberts (translator);

New York, (1905)
• Polybius; Histories, Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (transla-
tor); London - New York, (1889)
• Christian Settipani, Les Ancêtres de Charlemagne
(France: Éditions Christian, 1989).

This article incorporates text from a publication now

in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
extquotedblAriarathes IV. extquotedbl. Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 96
Ariarathes V of Cappadocia
Ariarathes V Eusebes Philopator (Ancient Greek:
Ἀριαράθης Εὐσεβής Φιλοπάτωρ, Ariaráthēs Eusebḗs
Philopátōr; reigned 163–130 BC or 126 BC) was son
of the preceding king Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia and
Antiochis. Previously called Mithridates, he reigned 33
years, 163–130 BC, as king of Cappadocia. He was dis-
tinguished by the excellence of his character and his cul-
tivation of philosophy and the liberal arts and is consid-
ered by some to have been the greatest of the Kings of
Cappadocia.[1]
96.1 Early life
Ariarathes V was of mixed Greek and Persian ancestry,
although he was predominantly Greek by descent, he was
the son of Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia who was half
Greek Macedonian[2] and Persian and his Greek spouse
Antiochis who was the daughter of the Seleucid King
Antiochus III[3][4] of the Greek-Macedonian Seleucid dy-
nasty.[5] According to Livy[6] , he was educated at Rome;
but this account may perhaps refer to another Ariarathes,
while Ariarathes Eusebes probably studied in his youth in
Athens, where he seems to have become a friend of the
future king Attalus II Philadelphus.
96.2 Reign
In consequence of rejecting, at the wish of the Romans,
a marriage with Laodice V the sister of Demetrius I
Soter, the latter made war upon him, and brought for-
ward Orophernes of Cappadocia, his brother and one of
the supposititious sons of the late king, as a claimant of
the throne. Ariarathes was deprived of his kingdom, and
221
fled to Rome about 158 BC. He was restored by the Ro-
mans, who, however, allowed Orophernes to reign jointly
with him, as is expressly stated by Appian[7] , and implied
by Polybius[8] . The joint government, however, did not
last long; for we find Ariarathes shortly afterwards named
as sole king.
In 154 BC, Ariarathes assisted the king of Pergamum
Attalus II in his war against Prusias II of Bithynia, and
sent his son Demetrius in command of his forces. He fell
in 130 BC, in the war of the Romans against Aristonicus
of Pergamum. In return for the succours which he
had brought the Romans on that occasion, Lycaonia and
Cilicia were added to the dominions of his family.
96.3 Marriage and succession
By his wife Nysa of Cappadocia (who was the daughter
of King Pharnaces I of Pontus) he had six children; but
they were all, with the exception of one, killed by their
mother, that she might obtain the government of the king-
dom. After she had been put to death by the people on
account of her cruelty, her last surviving son succeeded
to the crown as Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia.
96.4 Legacy
Ariarathes was a strong philhellene; himself honoured
with the Athenian citizenship, he refounded the two Cap-
padocian towns of Mazaca and Tyana with the Greek
names of Eusebia. He was munificent in his donations
to Athens and its institutions; an inscription remains by
an association of professional actors which thanks him
and his wife for his patronage. It is also known that he
222 CHAPTER 96. ARIARATHES V OF CAPPADOCIA

corresponded with the Greek philosopher Carneades, as [8] Polybius, xxxii. 10

Diogenes Laertius attests.[9]
[9] Diogenes Laertius, The Lives and Opinions of Eminent
Philosophers, iv. 64

96.5 Notes
96.6 References
[1] Newell, Edward Theodore (1968). Royal Greek portrait
coins. Whitman Pub. Co. p. 52. OCLC 697579. ex-
tquotedbl... Ariarathes V was probably the greatest of the • Appian, The foreign wars, Horace White (transla-
Cappadocian kings.” tor), New York, (1899)

[2] Boyce, Mary ; Grenet, Frantz (1991). A History • Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World, “Ari-
of Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism Under Macedonian arathes V”, (1999)
and Roman Rule. BRILL. pp. 267–8. ISBN
9004092714. “His son Ariarathes IV (220-c.162), thus • Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, “Cappadocia”,
half-Macedonian by blood, set the title “king” on his (1911)
coins, and attached to his name the cognomen Philopator.
He also introduced the device of Athena holding Nike, • Justin; Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, John Selby
which became the standard reverse type of the Ariarathid Watson (translator); London, (1886)
coinage. […] His son Ariarathes V (c.162-130), with
the cognomen Eusebes, was an ardent philhellene, and no
• Livy; Ab urbe condita, Canon Roberts (translator);
longer wears the tiara on any of his coins. In his youth New York, (1905)
he studied in Athens, where he became friends with the
• Polybius; Histories, Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (transla-
future Attalus III, the last king of Pergamum. He in his
turn married a Seleucid princess, his cousin Nysa, daugh-
tor); London - New York, (1889)
ter of Antiochus III; and he refounded Mazaka and Tyana
as Greek poleis… extquotedbl This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
[3] Gera, Dov (1998). Judaea and Mediterranean Politics,
extquotedblAriarathes V. extquotedbl. Dictionary of
219 to 161 B.C.E. BRILL. p. 259. ISBN 9004094415.
“Antiochis, a daughter of Antiochus III, and aunt to both
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Antiochus V and Demetrius. Antiochis had been married
to Ariarathes IV, the king of Cappadocia. At the time in
question, her son Ariarathes V, the reigning king of Cap-
padocia asked Lysias’ permission to rebury his mother’s
and sister’s bodies in the family plot of the Cappadocian
royal house.”

[4] Zion, Noam ; Spectre, Barbara (2000). A Different Light:

The Big Book of Hanukkah. Devora Publishing. p. 57.
ISBN 978-1-930143-37-1. “Antiochus III, the Greek Se-
leucid Dynasty of Greater Syria captures Judea. 172 or
171-163”

[5] Glubb, Sir John Bagot (1967). Syria, Lebanon, Jordan.

Thames & Hudson. p. 34. OCLC 585939. “Although the
Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both
dynasties were Greek and ruled by means of Greek offi-
cials and Greek soldiers. Both governments made great
efforts to attract immigrants from Greece, thereby adding
yet another racial element to the population.”

[6] Livy, xlii. 19

[7] Appian, “The Syrian Wars”, 47

Chapter 97
Orophernes of Cappadocia
Coin of Orophernes, king of Cappadocia. British Museum.
Orophernes Nicephorus (in Greek Oρoφέρνης
Nικηφόρoς) was one of the two false sons whom
Antiochis imposed upon her husband, Ariarathes IV,
king of Cappadocia. On the birth, however, of a real
son, named Mithradates (afterwards Ariarathes V),
Orophernes, so that he might not set up pretensions to
the throne, was sent away into Ionia. When Ariarathes
V refused to marry the sister of Demetrius I Soter, king
of Syria, the king supported the claims of Orophernes to
the crown of Cappadocia.
In 157 BC, when Ariarathes had been deposed and had
fled to Rome, Orophernes sent two ambassadors (Timo-
theus and Diogenes) to the capital city to join the emis-
saries of Demetrius in opposing his brother. According to
Appian the Romans decided that the two claimants should
223
share the throne between them.
We are told, however, that Orophernes did not hold the
kingdom long, and it is alleged that his reign was signal-
ized by a departure from the more simple customs of his
ancestors and by the introduction of systematic debauch-
ery. To supply his lavish extravagance, he oppressed and
pillaged his subjects, putting many to death and confis-
cating their property.
He deposited 400 talents with the citizens of Priene as a
resource in case of a reversal of fortune, but the Prienni-
ans later returned the money.
When Orophernes’ business affairs were on the decline,
he became alarmed that his soldiers might mutiny over
unpaid wages so he plundered an ancient temple of Zeus
to pay them off. Orophernes was forced at the end to
return to Syria, where he entered into a conspiracy with
the people of Antioch to dethrone Demetrius. The lat-
ter threw Orophernes into chains, but spared his life
that he might still keep Ariarathes in alarm with his
pretensions.[1]
Today Orophernes is mainly known for a poem written by
the celebrated modern Greek poet Constantine P. Cavafy
in 1915. In meditating on a tetradrachm found in Priene,
the poet wrote “Orophernes,” on the pretender’s life and
his adventures.
97.1 References
• Appian, The foreign wars, Horace White (transla-
tor), New York, (1899)
• Cavafy, Constantine; Poiemata, “Orophernes”
(1935)
224 CHAPTER 97. OROPHERNES OF CAPPADOCIA

• Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, “Cappadocia”,

(1911)
• Justin; Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, John Selby
Watson (translator); London, (1886)
• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology, “Olophernes”,
Boston, (1867)

• De Manzini, O., Rossi, S.: Riferimenti numis-

matici in due poesie di Costantino Kavafis http://
www.roth37.it/COINS/Kavafis/index.html

97.2 Notes
[1] Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xxxi. 3; Polybius, xxxii.
25; Appian, “The Syrian Wars” 47; Livy, Periochae, xlvii;
Justin, xxxv. 1

This article incorporates text from a publication now

in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 98

Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia

Ariarathes VI Epiphanes Philopator (Ancient

Greek: Ἀριαράθης Ἐπιφανής Φιλοπάτωρ, Ariaráthēs
Epiphanḗs Philopátōr; reigned 130–116 BC or 126
BC–111 BC), King of Cappadocia, was the youngest son
of Ariarathes V of Cappadocia and Nysa of Cappadocia.
He reigned about 14 years (130–116 BC). He was a child
at his succession, and for this reason the power was kept
by his mother who acted as his regent. At some point her
mother seems to have poisoned all Ariarathes’ five broth-
ers; but the infant king was saved by people loyal to the
dynasty and had Nysa killed. These facts were a good
pretext for his maternal uncle King Mithridates V Euer-
getes of Pontus (150 BC–120 BC), for trying to assert
control over the country. For this he married Ariarathes
to his maternal cousin Laodice of Cappadocia, his first Woodcut illustration of Berenice (or Laodice) of Cappadocia,
daughter. Laodice bore Ariarathes one daughter and two wife of Ariarathes VI
sons: Nysa who married King Nicomedes III Euergetes
of Bithynia; Ariarathes VII Philometor and Ariarathes • Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, “Cappadocia”,
VIII Epiphanes. (1911)
Since this wasn't deemed enough to transform Cappado-
cia in a satellite of Pontus, Mithridates V Euergetes’ son, • Justin; Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, John Selby
Mithridates VI, murdered Ariarathes using Gordius, a Watson (translator); London, (1886)
Cappadocian nobleman.[1] On his death the kingdom was
briefly ruled by Ariarathes’ widow and then seized by • Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and
King Nicomedes III of Bithynia, who married Laodice, Roman Biography and Mythology, “Ariarathes VI”,
the king’s widow. Nicomedes III was soon expelled by Boston, (1867)
Mithridates VI, who placed upon the throne Ariarathes
VII.
98.2 Notes
[1] Justin, xxxvii. 1, xxxviii. 1; Memnon, History of Hera-
98.1 References clea, 22

• Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World, “Ari- This article incorporates text from a publication now
arathes VI”, (1999) in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).

225
226 CHAPTER 98. ARIARATHES VI OF CAPPADOCIA

extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of

Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 99

Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia

Ariarathes VII Philometor (Ancient Greek: Ἀριαρά-

θης Φιλομήτωρ, Ariaráthēs Philomḗtōr; reigned in 116–
101 BC or 111–100 BC), King of Cappadocia, was the
first son of King Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia and his
wife Laodice of Cappadocia. Ariarathes VII had an older
sister called Nysa and a younger brother called Ariarathes
VIII of Cappadocia.
In his first years he reigned under the regency of his
mother Laodice, the eldest sister of the King Mithridates
VI of Pontus. During this period the kingdom was
seized by King Nicomedes III of Bithynia, who married
Laodice. Nicomedes III was soon expelled by Mithri-
dates VI, who restored upon the throne Ariarathes VII;
but when the latter objected to his father’s assassin and
ally of Mithridates VI, Gordius, the King of Pontus had
him killed and put in his place a son of his, Ariarathes IX
of Cappadocia.

99.1 References
• Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World, “Ari-
arathes VII”, (1999)

• Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, “Cappadocia”,

(1911)

227
Chapter 100

Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia

Ariarathes VIII Epiphanes (Ancient Greek: Ἀριαρά- 100.1 References

θης Ἐπιφανής, Ariaráthēs Epiphanḗs; reigned c. 101–c.
96 BC and in 95 BC), King of Cappadocia, was the sec- • Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World, “Ari-
ond son of Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia and wife Laodice arathes VIII”, (1999)
of Cappadocia. Ariarathes VIII had an older sister called
Nysa and an older brother called Ariarathes VII of Cap- • Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, “Cappadocia”,
padocia. (1911)
He ascended to the throne when the Cappadocian • Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek
nobleman rebelled against his maternal uncle, King and Roman Biography and Mythology, “Ariarathes
Mithridates VI of Pontus and his son, the puppet King VIII”, Boston, (1867)
Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia. He was speedily driven
out of the kingdom by Mithridates VI, and shortly after-
wards died a natural death. By the death of these two sons 100.2 Notes
of Ariarathes VI, the royal family was extinct. Mithri-
dates VI restored upon the throne his own son Ariarathes
• Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, xxxviii. 1-2;
IX, who was only eight years old. King Nicomedes III
Strabo, Geography, xii.
of Bithynia sent an embassy to Rome to lay claim to
the throne for a youth, who, he pretended, was a third
son of Ariarathes VI and Laodice. Mithridates VI also, This article incorporates text from a publication now
with equal shamelessness, says Justin, sent an embassy in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
to Rome to assert that the youth, whom he had placed extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of
upon the throne, was a descendant of Ariarathes V of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Cappadocia, who fell in the war against King Eumenes III
of Pergamon. The Roman Senate, however, did not as-
sign the Kingdom to either but granted liberty to the Cap-
padocians and, in 95 BC, ordered to depose Ariarathes
IX. After a short period of direct Pontic rule and a brief
restoration of Ariarathes VIII, an attempt of instauration
of a Republic was made by the Roman Senate. As the
people wished for a king, the Romans allowed them to
choose whom they pleased, and their choice fell upon
Ariobarzanes I.

228
Chapter 101

Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia

Ariarathes IX Eusebes Philopator (Ancient Greek:

Ἀριαράθης Εὐσεβής Φιλοπάτωρ, Ariaráthēs Euse-
bḗs Philopátōr; reigned ca. 101–89 BC or 96 BC–
95 BC), was made king of Cappadocia by his father
King Mithridates VI of Pontus after the assassination
of Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia. Since he was only
eight years old, he was put under the regency of the
Cappadocian Gordius. He was early overthrown by a re-
bellion by the Cappadocian nobility who replaced him
with Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia, whom Mithridates
promptly expelled, restoring Ariarathes IX. In 95 BC
the Roman Senate ordered to depose him and, after a
short period of direct Pontic rule, a brief restoration of
Ariarathes VIII and an attempt of instauration of a Re-
public, put in his place a man chosen by the Cappado-
cians, who rejected the idea of a Republic: the choice
fell on Ariobarzanes I Philoromaios, who was expelled
by Mithridates’s ally Tigranes the Great, bringing to the
brief restoration of Ariarathes IX, who was deposed once
again by the Romans in 89 BC. Two years later, in 87 BC,
Ariarathes IX died fighting for his father in Thessaly.

101.1 References
• Hazel, John; Who’s Who in the Greek World, “Ari-
arathes IX”, (1999)

229
Chapter 102

Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia

in ca. 63 BC–62 BC.

Ariobarzanes I married a Greek woman, whom he had
as his queen a noblewoman called Athenais Philostorgos
I. Athenais bore Ariobarzanes I two children, a son, Ar-
iobarzanes II who succeeded him and a daughter, Isias
Philostorgos who married the King Antiochus I Theos of
Commagene.

102.1 References
Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony (1996). The Ox-
ford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press.

Ariobarzanes I, named Philoromaios (Ancient Greek:

Ἀριοβαρζάνης Φιλορωμαίος, Ariobarzánēs Philorō-
maíos, friend of Rome), was the king of Cappadocia
from 95 BC to ca. 63 BC–62 BC. Ariobarzanes I was
a Cappadocian nobleman of obscure origins who was of
Persian descent.
Ariobarzanes I was originally put in place by the citizens
vote of Cappadocia after the Roman Senate rejected the
claims of Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia and was supported
by the Roman consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla. He was in
control on and off of a kingdom that was considered a
Roman protectorate and he was removed three separate
times by King Mithridates before not only securing but
actually increasing his lands under general Pompey in the
Third Mithridatic War. He eventually abdicated, making
way for the rule of his son Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia

230
Chapter 103

Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia

Ariobarzanes II, surnamed Philopator, “father-loving”,

(Ancient Greek: Ἀριοβαρζάνης Φιλοπάτωρ, Ario-
barzánēs Philopátōr), was the king of Cappadocia from
ca. 63 BC or 62 BC to ca. 51 BC. He was the son
of King Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia and his wife
Queen Athenais Philostorgos I, while his sister was Isias
Philostorgos, who married King Antiochus I Theos of
Commagene. Ariobarzanes II was half Persian and half
Greek.
Ariobarzanes II married the princess Athenais Philostor-
gos II, one of the daughters of King Mithridates VI of
Pontus. He was an ineffective ruler, requiring the aid of
Gabinius in 57 BC to ward off his enemies. He was suc-
cessful in maintaining rule over Cappadocia for approxi-
mately 8 years before being assassinated by Parthian fa-
vorites. By his wife, he had two sons: Ariobarzanes III
of Cappadocia and Ariarathes X of Cappadocia. He was
succeeded by his first son.

103.1 References
• Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony (1996).
The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University
Press.

231
Chapter 104

Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia

Ariobarzanes III, surnamed Eusebes Philorhomaios,

“Pious and Friend of the Romans” (Ancient Greek:
Ἀριοβαρζάνης Εὐσεβής Φιλορώμαιος, Ariobarzánēs
Eusebḗs Philorōmaíos), was the king of Cappadocia from
ca. 51 BC until 42 BC. He was of Persian and Greek an-
cestry. The Roman Senate agreed that he was to be the
successor of his father, Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia;
Cicero, Roman governor of Cilicia, noted that he was sur-
rounded by enemies who included his mother, Athenais.
Originally highly supportive of Pompey despite the cost,
he was maintained in his position after Julius Caesar won
the civil war in Rome, even gaining territory with the ad-
dition of Lesser Armenia. The liberator Cassius Long-
inus had him executed in 42 BC because he would not
allow more Roman intervention in his kingdom. His
brother was Ariarathes X of Cappadocia.

104.1 References
• Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony (1996).
The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University
Press.

232
Chapter 105

Ariarathes X of Cappadocia

Ariarathes X, surnamed Eusebes Philadelphos, “Pious,

brother-loving” (Ancient Greek: Ἀριαράθης Εὐσεϐής
Φιλάδελφος, Ariaráthēs Eusebḗs Philádelphos), was the
king of Cappadocia from ca. 42 BC to 36 BC. He was
of Persian and Greek ancestry. His father was King
Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia and his mother was Queen
Athenais. He became king after his brother Ariobarzanes
III Philoromaios was killed. His rule did not last long as
Mark Antony of Rome removed and executed him, re-
placing him with Sisines, who became Archelaus of Cap-
padocia.

105.1 References
• Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony (1996).
The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University
Press.

233
Chapter 106

Archelaus of Cappadocia

Archelaus (Greek: Ἀρχέλαος; fl. 1st century BC and 106.2 Glaphyra, Mark Antony and
1st century, died 17 AD) was a Roman client prince and
the last king of Cappadocia.[1]
accession to the throne
Years later the mother of Archelaus, Glaphyra, became
one of the mistresses to the Roman Triumvir Mark
Antony.[13] Glaphyra was a Hetaera,[14] or courtesan. His
mother was famed and celebrated in antiquity for her
106.1 Family and early life beauty, charm, and seductivness.[15]
Through their affair, Glaphyra had influenced and in-
Archelaus was a Cappadocian Greek nobleman,[2][3] duced Antony to designate and install her son Archelaus
possibly of Macedonian descent. His full name was as king of Cappadocia.[4] In 36 BC, Antony removed
Archelaus Sisines.[4] He was the first-born son, namesake from his throne and then executed the former Cappado-
of the Roman Client and High Priest Ruler Archelaus, of cian King Ariarathes X and installed Archelaus as his suc-
the temple state of Comana, Cappadocia and the hetaera cessor. His mother appeared to be a powerful lady at
Glaphyra.[5] Archelaus’ father served as the High Priest the Royal Court and was involved with internal politics
of the Roman Goddess of War, Bellona. Archelaus had in Cappadocia.[4] Glaphyra’s powerful influence can be
a brother called Sisines.[6] demonstrated by contemporary invective about the time
The paternal grandfather of Archelaus, also known as of the Battle of Actium in 30 BC, especially by certain
Archelaus, was the first in his family to be High Priest sexually frank and famous verses which Triumvir Octa-
and Roman Client Ruler of the temple state of Comana, vian composed about Antony’s affair.[4]
Cappadocia.[7] His paternal grandfather claimed to be de-
scended from King Mithridates VI of Pontus.[8] Chrono-
logically his paternal grandfather, may have been a 106.3 Reign as king
maternal grandson of the Pontic King, while his fa-
ther Archelaus, was the favorite high-ranking general of After Archelaus assumed the Cappadocian throne, his
Mithridates VI, who may have married one of the daugh- royal title was in Greek: Ἀρχέλαος Φιλοπατρίς Κτί-
ters of Mithridates VI.[9] στης, Archelaus Philopatris Ktistes.[16] Philopatris Ktistes,
In 47 BC the Roman Dictator Gaius Julius Caesar after means in Greek lover and founder of his country. His
the conclusion of his military victory against the Triumvir royal title is known from surviving inscriptions; in partic-
Pompey, deprived and deposed his father of his office of ular from coinage.[17] In his early reign Archelaus married
high priest and rule over Comana.[10] His father was re- his first wife, whom through her marriage to him became
placed by another Greek nobleman called Lycomedes.[11] Queen of Cappadocia. The identity of an earlier wife
Pompey was their family patron[12] and it was he that ap- or wives has not been recorded.[18] His first wife was an
pointed his paternal grandfather as High Priest Ruler of unnamed Princess from Armenia,[18] who died by 8 BC.
the temple state of Comana.[7] There is a possibility that his first wife may have been

234
106.4. TIBERIUS 235

a distant relative of his. His first wife may have been In 18/17 BC, his daughter Glaphyra married prince
a daughter of King Artavasdes II of Armenia (reigned Alexander of Judea in an arranged ceremony. Archelaus
53 BC-34 BC) of the Artaxiad Dynasty, who was of began to have friendly relations with the Herodian Dy-
Armenian, Persian and Greek Macedonian descent. Ar- nasty. Archelaus on occasions acted as a mediator in
tavasdes II was the father of the future Armenian Kings sorting quarrels with members of the dynasty. Archelaus
Artaxias II and Tigranes III. The father of Artavasdes travelled to Jerusalem to visit Herod the Great in order
II was Tigranes the Great,[19] who married Cleopatra of to reconcile him with his son Alexander.[28] For Herod’s
Pontus, a daughter of Mithridates VI from his first wife, appreciation to Archelaus, Herod reconciled him to the
his sister Laodice,[20] thus Artavasdes II was a mater- Roman Governor of Syria.[29]
nal grandson to Mithridates VI and Laodice. With his In 8 BC, Archelaus married for a second time to the
first wife, Archelaus had two children: a daughter called Greek Client Monarch Pythodorida of Pontus, who was
Glaphyra [21] through whom he had further descendants, previously widowed. Pythodorida had two sons and a
and a son called Archelaus of Cilicia. daughter from her first husband Polemon I of Pontus.
Archelaus was an ally to Antony, until his defeat at the When Archelaus married Pythodorida, she moved her
Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Archelaus had deserted and her family from the Black Sea to Elaiussa Sebaste.
him and became an ally to Triumvir Octavian.[17] Before Pythodorida remained with Archelaus until he died and
Archelaus became an ally to Octavian, he was Antony’s they had no children. Archelaus wedding Pythodorida
beneficiary.[22] By Archelaus making peace with Octa- linked their kingdoms together, thus both monarchs had
vian, he was able to retain his crown.[23] indirect control of their spouses’ realms. Their marriage
When Octavian became the first Roman Emperor Au- arrangement too was doubtless orchestrated by Augustus,
gustus, Archelaus became an important client monarch thereby to bind together the royal houses of Anatolia as
to Rome. Augustus considered Archelaus as a loyal ruler surrogates for Roman suzerainty.[22]
to him and of Cappadocia.[24] Augustus had no commit-
ment to provincialization as a matter of policy. In 25 BC,
Augustus assigned Archelaus to rule Cilicia Trachea, the 106.4 Tiberius
harbor city of Elaiussa Sebaste,[25] parts of the surround-
ing Cilician coast and Armenia Minor.[22] Augustus giv- Although Archelaus was liked by the Romans, he experi-
ing Archelaus all these extra territories to govern he was enced less success with his subjects.[22] On one occasion
able to eliminate piracy[25] and able to move to build a during the reign of Augustus, some Cappadocian citizens
more solid bulwark against Parthia.[22] lodged an accusation against Archelaus in Rome.[22] The
On the Galatian border, Archelaus possessed crystal and future Roman Emperor Tiberius, beginning his civil ca-
onyx mines. Archelaus transferred his palace from the reer, defended Archelaus from these accusations which
mainland to Elaiussa Sebaste.[25] After he and his family ended with no action being taken.[22]
settled there, Archelaus developed the city. He built a Archelaus gave greater attention to Gaius Caesar, one of
royal residence, built a palace on the island in the harbor Augustus’ grandsons, instead of Tiberius who was one
and he renamed the city in honor of Augustus.[26] Sebaste of Augustus’ stepsons. This caused Tiberius to become
is the Greek equivalent word of the Latin word Augusta. jealous in time, leading to his hatred of him.[17] Between
Archelaus renamed another city bearing his own name 2 BC–6 AD, Tiberius was living on the Greek island of
Archelaïs. Archelaïs was originally a village town named Rhodes, while Gaius Caesar was in the Eastern Mediter-
Garsaura.[27] He turned the village into an administrative ranean performing various political and military duties
centre, which later became a colony under the Roman on behalf of Augustus. Archelaus showed more attention
Emperor Claudius.[27] to Gaius Caesar over Tiberius because Gaius was in the
Archelaus was an author of a geographical work and had ascendant over Tiberius at the time as successor to the
written treaties called On Stones and Rivers. At some throne.
point during the reign of Augustus, Archelaus had a tem- In 14 AD Augustus died and Tiberius succeeded his
porary mental illness which resulted in the appointment adoptive father as Roman Emperor. By this time,
of a guardian in his realm until he recovered.[21] Archelaus’ health had failed.[21] In 17, Archelaus had
reigned over Cappadocia for fifty years and had lived to
236 CHAPTER 106. ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA

an advanced age.[30] [10] Ancient Library, Archelaus no.3

In Archelaus’ final year in the Roman Empire, there was a
[11] Dueck, Strabo’s cultural geography: the making of a kolos-
shortage of funds for military pay and Tiberius wanted to sourgia, p. 197
integrate Archelaus’ kingdom into a Roman province.[31]
Tiberius enticed Archelaus to come to Rome.[32] When [12] Syme, Anatolica: studies in Strabo, p. 167
he arrived in Rome he was accused by the Roman
Senate of harboring revolutionary schemes. Tiberius [13] Ptolemaic Genealogy, Cleopatra VII
hoped Archelaus would be condemned to death by the
Senate.[17] However Archelaus was obliged to remain [14] Syme, Anatolica: studies in Strabo, p. 144
in Rome, where he died of natural causes (Tacitus
leaves open the possibility that he may have committed [15] Syme, Anatolica: studies in Strabo, pp. 144 and 148
suicide).[32] Cappadocia became a Roman province and
[16] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
his widow with her family returned to Pontus. The Ro-
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
mans gave Armenia Minor to his step-son Artaxias III to
Forschung, p. 1149
rule as Roman Client King, while the Cilician and the re-
maining territories of his former dominion were given to [17] Ancient Library, Archelaus no.4
his son to rule as Roman Client King.
[18] Syme, Anatolica: studies in Strabo, p. 150

106.5 See also [19] Sandler, Ground warfare: an international encyclopedia,

Volume 1, p. 884

• List of rulers of Cappadocia [20] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, pp. 114&138

106.6 References [21] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p. 1159
[1] http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/archelaus/archelaus.html

[2] Eder, Walter; Renger, Johannes; Henkelman, Wouter; [22] Bowman, The Augustan Empire, p. 152
Chenault, Robert (2007). Brill’s chronologies of the an-
cient world New Pauly names, dates and dynasties. Brill. [23] Britannica.com “Archelaus”
p. 111. ISBN 9004153209. “Of greater historical impor-
tance are the Archelai, the descendants of an officer of [24] Bowman, The Augustan Empire, p. 153
Greek origin (Archelaus). […] The grandson, Archelaus,
was the first to have some success in Cappadocia” [25] Dueck, Strabo’s cultural geography: the making of a kolos-
sourgia, p. 205
[3] Plutarch (2007). Plutarch’s Lives, Volume 2 (of 4). Echo
Library. p. 312. ISBN 1406823309. “This Archelaus [26] Rigsby, Asylia: territorial inviolability in the Hellenistic
was a native of Cappadocia, and probably of Greek stock.” world, p. 464
[4] Syme, Anatolica: studies in Strabo, p. 148
[27] Bowman, The Augustan Empire, p. 672
[5] Ancient Library, Archelaus no.3&4
[28] ibid, 16:261–69
[6] Dueck, Strabo’s cultural geography: the making of a kolos-
sourgia, p. 208 [29] Josephus, Antiquity of the Jews, 16:270
[7] Ancient Library, Archelaus no.2
[30] Syme, Anatolica: studies in Strabo, pp. 143 and 148
[8] Ptolemaic Genealogy, Berenice IV, point19
[31] Bowman, The Augustan Empire, p. 210
[9] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, p. 114 [32] Tacitus, The Annals 2.42
106.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 237

106.7 Sources • D. Dueck, H. Lindsay and S. Pothecary, Strabo’s

cultural geography: the making of a kolossourgia,
• Cassius Dio, xlix. 32-51 Cambridge University Press, 2005

• Strabo, xii. p. 540 • A. Mayor. The Poison King: the life and legend
of Mithradates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, Princeton
• Suetonius, Tiberius, 37, Caligula, 1 University Press, 2009
• Tacitus, Ann. ii. 42
This article incorporates text from a publication now
• Egyptian Royal Genealogy - Ptolemaic Dynasty, in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
2005 by Chris Bennett Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge Univer-
sity Press.
• Ancient Library Articles

• http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/archelaus/archelaus.
html 106.8 External links
• http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/ • Coinage of Archelaus of Cappadocia
judaica/ejud_0002_0004_0_03938.html

• http://www.apologetics.com/forums/ubbthreads.
php?ubb=showflat&Number=101896&page=1

• Millar, Fergus, Schürer, Emil and Vermes, The His-

tory of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ
(175 B.C. - A.D. 135), Geza Continuum Interna-
tional Publishing Group, 1973

• A. Wagner, Pedigree and Progress, Essays in the

Genealogical Interpretation of History, London,
Philmore, 1975. Rutgers Alex CS4.W33.

• H. Temporini and W. Haase, Aufstieg und Nieder-

gang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur
Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, Walter de
Gruyter, 1980

• R. Syme and A.R. Birley, Anatolica: studies in

Strabo, Oxford University Press, 1995

• K.J. Rigsby, Asylia: territorial inviolability in the

Hellenistic world, University of California Press,
1996

• A.K. Bowman, E. Champlin and A. Lintott, The

Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.-A.D. 69, Cambridge
University Press, 1996

• S. Sandler, Ground warfare: an international ency-

clopedia, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2002

• A. Dodson and D. Hilton, Complete Royal Families

of Ancient Egypt, London: Thames and Hudson,
2004. MCL 932 Dod
Chapter 107

Bosporan Kingdom

The Bosporan Kingdom, also known as the King-

dom of the Cimmerian Bosporus (Greek: Βασίλειον
του Κιμμερικού Βοσπόρου Basileion tou Kimmerikou
Bosporou), was an ancient state located in eastern Crimea
and the Taman Peninsula on the shores of the Cimmerian
Bosporus, the present-day Strait of Kerch. (It was not
named after the more famous Bosphorus beside Istanbul
at the other end of the Black Sea.) The Bosporan King-
dom was the longest surviving Roman client kingdom. It
was a Roman province from 63 to 68 AD, under Emperor
Nero. The 1st and 2nd centuries BC saw a period of re-
newed golden age of the Bosporan state. At the end of
the 2nd century, King Sauromates II inflicted a critical Panticapaeum and other ancient Greek colonies along the north
defeat on the Scythians and included all the territories of coast of the Black Sea
the Crimea in the structure of his state.
The prosperity of the Bosporan Kingdom was based east Phanagoria (the second city of the region), Kepoi,
on the export of wheat, fish and slaves. The profit of Germonassa, Portus Sindicus and Gorgippia.
the trade supported a class whose conspicuous wealth is
These Greek colonies were originally settled by Milesians
still visible from newly discovered archaeological finds,
in the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Phanagoria (c. 540 BC)
excavated, often illegally, from numerous burial bar-
was a colony of Teos, and the foundation of Nymphaeum
rows known as kurgans. The once-thriving cities of the
may have had a connection with Athens; at least it appears
Bosporus left extensive architectural and sculptural re-
to have been a member of the Delian League in the 5th
mains, while the kurgans continue to yield spectacular
century.
Greco-Sarmatian objects, the best examples of which are
now preserved in the Hermitage in St. Petersburg. These
include gold work, vases imported from Athens, coarse
terracottas, textile fragments and specimens of carpentry 107.2 Geography of the Bosporan
and marquetry.
Kingdom
See also: Roman Crimea
107.1 Early Greek colonies
The Bosporan Kingdom was centred around the Kerch
The whole area was dotted with Greek cities: in the Strait between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, known
west, Panticapaeum (Kerch)—the most significant city in antiquity as the Cimmerian Bosporus from where the
in the region, Nymphaeum and Myrmekion; on the kingdom’s name derived.

238
107.3. KINGS OF CIMMERIAN BOSPORAN
107.3 Kings of Cimmerian Bospo-
ran
See Also: List of kings of Cimmerian Bosporus
107.3.1 Archaeanactidae dynasty
According to Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31)
the region was governed between 480 and 438 BC by a
line of kings called the Archaeanactidae, probably a rul-
ing family, usurped by a tyrant called Spartocus (438 –
431 BC), who was a Thracian.
107.3.2 Spartocid dynasty
Spartocus founded a dynasty which seems to have en-
dured until c. 110 BC, known as the Spartocids. The
Spartocids left many inscriptions, indicating that the ear-
liest members of the house ruled under the titles of
archons of the Greek cities and kings of various minor
native tribes, notably the Sindi (from central Crimea) and
other branches of the Maeotae. Surviving material (texts,
inscriptions and coins) do not supply enough information The house of Spartocus was well known as a line of en-
to reconstruct a complete chronology of kings of the re- lightened and wise princes; although Greek opinion could
gion.
Bosporan Phiale (top view), 4th century BC
239
Satyrus (431 – 387 BC), successor to Spartocus, estab-
lished his rule over the whole region, adding Nymphaeum
to his kingdom and besieging Theodosia, which was
wealthy because, unlike other cities in the region, it had a
port which was free of ice throughout the year, allow-
ing it to trade grain with the rest of the Greek world,
even in winter. Satyrus’ son Leucon (387 – 347 BC)
would eventually take the city. He was succeeded jointly
by his two sons, Spartocus II, and Paerisades; Sparto-
cus died in 342, allowing Paerisades to reign alone un-
til 310. After Paerisades’ death, a civil war between his
sons Satyrus and Eumelus was fought. Satyrus defeated
his younger brother Eumelus at the Battle of the River
Thatis in 310 BC but was then killed in battle, giving Eu-
melus the throne.[3]
Eumelus’ successor was Spartocus III (303 – 283 BC) and
after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the
family names, so it is impossible to assign them a def-
inite order. The last of them, however, Paerisades V,
unable to make headway against increasingly violent at-
tacks from nomadic tribes in the area, called in the help
of Diophantus, general of King Mithridates VI of Pon-
tus, leaving him his kingdom. Paerisades was killed by
a Scythian named Saumacus who led a rebellion against
him.
not deny that they were, strictly speaking, tyrants, they are
always described as dynasts. They maintained close rela-
tions with Athens, their best customer for the Bosporan
grain exports: Leucon I of Bosporus created privileges
for Athenian ships at Bosporan ports. The Attic orators
make numerous references to this. In return the Atheni-
ans granted Leucon Athenian citizenship and made de-
crees in honour of him and his sons.
107.3.3 Mithridates VI
After his defeat by Roman General Pompey in 63
BC, King Mithridates VI of Pontus fled with a small
army from Colchis (modern Georgia) over the Cauca-
sus Mountains to Crimea and made plans to raise yet an-
other army to take on the Romans. His eldest living son,
Machares, regent of Cimmerian Bosporus, was unwilling
to aid his father, so Mithridates had Machares killed, ac-
quiring the throne for himself. Mithridates then ordered
the conscriptions and preparations for war. In 63 BC,
Pharnaces, the youngest son of Mithridates, led a rebel-
240 CHAPTER 107. BOSPORAN KINGDOM

The northern Black sea shores of the Pontic Kingdom (actual

Crimea and Kerch peninsula) shown as part of the empire of
Mithridates VI of Pontus.

lion against his father, joined by Roman exiles in the core

of Mithridates’s Pontic army. Mithridates VI withdrew to
the citadel in Panticapaeum, where he committed suicide.
Pompey buried Mithridates VI in the rock-cut tombs of
his ancestors in Amasia, the capital of the Kingdom of
Pontus.
The stele of Staphhilos from the Panticapaeum, depicting a sol-
dier with the traditional Bosporan long hair and beard.
107.4 Roman client kingdom
After the death of Mithridates VI (63 BC), Pharnaces II place. Polemon married Dynamis in 16 BC and she died
(63 – 47 BC) supplicated to Pompey, and then tried to in 14 BC. Polemon ruled as king until his death in 8 BC.
regain his dominion during Julius Caesar’s Civil War, but After the death of Polemon, Aspurgus, the son of Dy-
namis and Asander, succeeded Polemon.
was defeated by Caesar at Zela and was later killed by his
former governor and son-in-law Asander. The Bosporan Kingdom of Aspurgus was a client state of
Before the death of Pharnaces II, Asander had married the Roman Empire, protected by Roman garrisons. As-
Pharnaces II’s daughter Dynamis. Asander and Dynamis purgus (8 BC – 38 AD) founded a dynasty of kings which
were the ruling monarchs until Caesar commanded a pa- endured with a couple of interruptions until 341 AD.
ternal uncle of Dynamis, Mithridates II to declare war on Aspurgus adopted the Imperial Roman names “Tiberius
the Bosporan Kingdom and claimed the kingship for him- Julius” when he received Roman citizenship and enjoyed
self. Asander and Dynamis were defeated by Caesar’s the patronage of the first two Roman Emperors, Augustus
ally and went into political exile. However, after Caesar’s and Tiberius. All of the following kings adopted these
death in 44 BC, the Bosporan Kingdom was restored to two Roman names followed by a third name, of Thracian
Asander and Dynamis by Caesar’s great nephew and heir (Kotys, Rhescuporis or Rhoemetalces) or local origin
Octavian. Asander ruled as an archon and later as king (such as Sauromates, Eupator, Ininthimeus, Pharsanzes,
until his death in 17 BC. After the death of Asander, Dy- Synges, Terianes, Theothorses or Rhadamsades).
namis was compelled to marry a Roman usurper called The Roman client kings of the dynasty had descended
Scribonius, but the Romans under Agrippa intervened from King Mithridates VI of Pontus and his first wife,
and established Polemon I of Pontus (16 – 8 BC) in his his sister Laodice, through Aspurgus. The kings adopted
107.5. BYZANTINE PERIOD 241

With the coins of the last king Rhescuporis VI in 341,

constructing a chronology becomes very difficult. The
kingdom was probably finally overrun by the Huns, who
defeated the nearby Alans in 375/376 and moved rapidly
westwards towards the Roman empire.

107.5 Byzantine period

A few centuries after the Hunnic invasion, the Bospo-
ran cities enjoyed a revival, under Byzantine and Bulgar-
ian protection. Phanagoria was the capital of Old Great
Bulgaria. From time to time Byzantine officers built
fortresses and exercised authority at Bosporus, which
Ruins of Panticapaeum, modern Kerch, the capital of the Bospo-
constituted an archbishopric.
ran Kingdom.
They also held Ta Matarcha on the eastern side of the
strait, a town which in the 10th and 11th centuries became
the seat of the Kievan Rus principality of Tmutarakan,
a new calendar (the “Pontic Era”) introduced by Mithri- which in turn gave way to Tatar domination.
dates VI, starting with 297 BC to date their coins. Bospo-
Following the Diaspora, and aided by the Khazars,
ran kings struck coinage throughout its period as a client
Judaism emerged in the region, and Jewish communities
state, which included gold staters bearing portraits of
developed in some of the cities of the region (especially
both the Roman emperor and Bosporan king. Like the
Tanais). The Jewish or Thracian influence on the region
Roman, Bosporan coinage became increasingly debased
may have inspired the foundation of a cult to the “Most
during the 3rd century. The coinage makes their lineages
High God,” a distinct regional cult which emerged in the
fairly clear to historians, though scarcely any events from
1st century AD,[2] which professed monotheism without
their reigns are recorded.
being distinctively Jewish or Christian.[6]
The Bosporan Kingdom covered the eastern half of
Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended along the
east coast of the Maeotian marshes to Tanais at the mouth 107.6 Coinage
of the Don in the north-east, a great market for trade with
the interior. Throughout the period there was perpetual
war with the native tribes of Scythians and Sarmatians,
and in this the Bosporan Kingdom was supported by its
Roman suzerains, who lent the assistance of garrisons and
fleets.
In 62 AD for reasons unknown, Roman emperor Nero
deposed the Bosporan king Cotys I.[4] It is possible that
Nero wanted to minimise the power of local client rulers
and wanted the Bosporans to be subsumed into the Ro-
man empire. The Bosporan Kingdom was incorporated
as part of the Roman province of Moesia Inferior from 63
Bronze coin of Sauromates II, c. 172–211 AD
to 68. In 68, the new Roman emperor Galba restored the
Bosporan Kingdom to Rhescuporis I, the son of Cotys I. Although considered rare among collectors prior to the
The balance of power amongst local tribes was severely demise of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, Bosporan
disturbed by westward migration in the 3rd–4th centuries. coins are now well known on the international coin mar-
In the 250s AD, the Goths and Borani were able to seize kets, hinting at the quantities produced. Several large se-
Bosporan shipping and even raid the shores of Anatolia.[5] ries were produced by Bosporan cities from the 5th cen-
242 CHAPTER 107. BOSPORAN KINGDOM

tury BC, particularly in Panticapaeum. Gold staters of [7] “The Bosporan Kingdom”. Classical Numismatic Group
Panticapaeum bearing Pan's head and a griffin are espe- (CNG) 66 (Lot 1018). 19 May 2004. Retrieved 6 Febru-
cially remarkable for their weight and fine workmanship. ary 2013.

There are coins with the names of the later Spartocids

and a complete series of dated solidi issued by the later
or Achaemenian dynasty. In them may be noticed the 107.9 Further reading
swift degeneration of the gold solidus through silver and
potin to bronze.[7] Overview

• Ascherson, Neal (1996). Black Sea. New York: Hill

107.7 See also and Wang. ISBN 9780809015931.
• (German) Das Bosporanische Reich: der Nordosten
• Cimmerians des Schwarzen Meeres in der Antike. Mainz: Philipp
• Cimmerian Bosporus von Zabern. 2002. ISBN 978-3805328951.

• Kingdom of Pontus Social, economic and cultural

• Roman Crimea
• Bekker-Nielsen, Tønnes (2006). Rome and the
Black Sea Region. Domination, Romanisation, Re-
sistance. Aarhus University Press.
107.8 References
• Gabrielsen, Vincent & Lund, John (2007). The
Attribution Black Sea in Antiquity: Regional and Interregional
Economic Exchanges. Aarhus University Press.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in
• Ustinova, Yulia (1998). The Supreme gods of the
the public domain: Minns, Ellis (1911). “Bosporus Cim-
Bosporan Kingdom : Celestial Aphrodite and the
merius”. In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica 4
Most High God. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004112316.
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 286–287.

[1] Hind, John. “The Bosporan Kingdom”. The Cambridge Political and military
Ancient History (Cambridge: CUP). VI - The 4th Century
BC: 476–511. • Mielczarek, Mariusz [trans. by Nicholas Sekunda]
(1999). The Army of the Bosporan Kingdom. Łódź:
[2] Kozlovskaya, Valeriya (10 December 2001). “Review of
Oficyna Naukowa MS. ISBN 978-8385874034.
The Supreme Gods of the Bosporan Kingdom extquotedbl.
Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 6 February 2013. • Munk Højte, Jakob (2009). Mithridates VI and the
[3] Head, Duncan. Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Pontic Kingdom. Aarhus University Press.
Wars. p. 70.
Numismatic
[4] Bunson, Matthew (1995). A dictionary of the Roman Em-
pire. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN
0195102339.
107.10 External links
[5] Pitassi, Michael (2010). The navies of Rome (Repr. in
paperback. ed.). Woodbridge: Boydell. pp. XV. ISBN
1843836009. • Rare and Unique Coins of Bosporan Kingdom. Bul-
letin of the Odessa Numismatics Museum. Issues
[6] Schuerer, E. (1897). “Die Juden im Bosporansichen Re- 7,8,9. 2001. Odessa. Ukraine.
iche und die Genossenschaften der sebomenoi theon up-
siston ebendaselbst”. Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen • Artezian, a fortified settlement on the Crimean
Akademie der Wissenschaft 1. Peninsula
107.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 243

• Гайдукевич В.Ф. Боспорское царство. М.—Л.,

1949 (лит.).
• Фридман А.С Полная библиография работ
П.О. Карышковского на русском и английском
языках на сайте

• Bosporus: Roman control of ancient Crimea

Coordinates: 45°15′36″N 37°02′24″E / 45.26000°N

37.04000°E
Chapter 108

Asander (Bosporan king)

This article is about the general and king of the Bospo- paternal uncle of Dynamis, Mithridates II to declare war
ran kingdom. For the Macedonian general of the same on the Bosporan Kingdom and claimed the kingship for
name, see Asander. himself. Asander and Dynamis were defeated by Mithri-
dates II and had gone into political exile. However af-
Asander named Philocaesar Philoromaios (Greek: ter the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, the Bosporan
Άσανδρoς Φιλοκαισαρ Φιλορώμαίος, Asander, lover Kingdom was restored to Asander and Dynamis by Julius
of Caesar lover of Rome, 110 BC – 17 BC) was an aris- Caesar’s great nephew and heir Octavian (future Roman
tocrat and a man of high rank of the Bosporan Kingdom. Emperor Augustus). Dynamis bore Asander a son called
Aspurgus. There is a possibility that Asander and Dy-
Asander was of Greek and possibly of Persian ancestry. namis may have had other children.
There is not much is known on his family and early life.
According to the Greek geographer Strabo, Asander dur-
He started his political and military career as a general
under Pharnaces II, King of Pontus and the Bosporan. ing his reign as King, had constructed a large wall or ditch
According to some scholars, Asander married as his first which was 360 stadia in length across the Isthmus of the
wife a woman called Glykareia. She is known from one Crimea (modern Isthmus of Perekop). The purpose of
surviving Greek inscription: the constructed wall was to protect the peninsula against
attacks from nomads.
Glykareia, wife of Asander From 44 BC until his death in 17 BC, Asander ruled as
a strong king of the Bosporan, although at times, in his
reign he had experienced very uneasy times. In 17 BC,
By 47 BC, Asander married as his second wife the daugh-
Asander died of voluntary starvation from despair at the
ter of Pharnaces II from his Sarmatian wife, Dynamis.
age of 93, when he witness his troops desert him to the
She was a granddaughter of King Mithridates VI of Pon-
Roman usurper, Scribonius. Scribonius, pretended to be
tus and from his first wife, his sister Laodice. In 47
a relative of Dynamis, so he could seize his throne.
BC, Asander revolted against Pharnaces II, who had ap-
pointed him as regent of the Bosporan Kingdom, during Dynamis was compelled to marry Scribonius. The Ro-
the war against General of the Roman Republic, Gnaeus man statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa discovered the
Domitius Calvinus. He hoped by deserting and betraying deception of Scribonius, intervened in the situation and
his father-in-law, Asander would win favor with the Ro- appointed Polemon I of Pontus as the new Bosporan
mans and they could help him become Bosporan King. King. Dynamis and Polemon married in 16 BC. Dynamis
Pharnaces II was defeated by the Romans. He fled died in 14 BC. Polemon ruled until his death in 8 BC.
and took refuge from the Romans with his supporters. Polemon was succeeded by Aspurgus.
Asander found Pharnaces II and put Pharnaces II and his
supporters to death.
Asander became Bosporan King and was able to retain 108.1 See also
the throne with his wife Dynamis as Queen. This was so,
until Roman Dictator Gaius Julius Caesar commanded a • Bosporan Kingdom

244
108.3. SOURCES 245

• Roman Crimea

108.2 External links

• Coinage of Asander

108.3 Sources
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0388.
html
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0389.
html

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3091.
html

• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
kings/i.html

• On the weapons of Sarmatian type in the Bospo-

ran Kingdom in the 1st-2nd century AD by Mikhail
Treister (Bonn)
• A. Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend
of Mithradates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, Princeton
University Press, 2009
Chapter 109

Dynamis (Bosporan queen)

This article is about Dynamis, Queen of the Bosporan and his supporters to death. Asander and Dynamis be-
Kingdom. For the philosophical concept, see Potentiality came the ruling Monarchs of the Bosporan Kingdom.
and actuality. This was so, until Roman Dictator Gaius Julius Caesar
commanded a paternal uncle of Dynamis, Mithridates II
Dynamis named Philoromaios (Greek: Δύναμις Φι- to declare war on the Bosporan Kingdom and claimed
λορώμαίος, Dynamis, lover of Rome, c. 67 BC – 14 the kingship for himself. Asander and Dynamis were de-
BC) was a Roman Client Queen of the Bosporan King- feated by Mithridates II and had gone into political ex-
dom during the Roman Republic and the reign of the first ile. During their time in political exile, Dynamis and
Roman Emperor Augustus. Asander were sheltered by the tribe of her mother.[4] Af-
ter the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, the Bosporan
Kingdom was restored to Asander and Dynamis by Julius
Caesar’s great nephew and heir Octavian (future Roman
109.1 Life Emperor Augustus). Dynamis bore Asander a son called
Aspurgus. There is a possibility that Asander and Dy-
Dynamis is an ancient Greek name meaning the ‘’Pow- namis may have had other children. From 44 BC until his
erful One”.[1] She was a monarch of Iranian and Greek death in 17 BC, Asander and Dynamis ruled as monarchs
Macedonian ancestry. Dynamis was the daughter born over the Bosporan. In 17 BC, an obscure Roman usurper
to King Pharnaces II of Pontus and his Sarmatian wife.[2] called Scribonius headed a rebellion that broke out in the
She had an older brother called Darius and a younger Bosporan. Scribonius pretended to be a relative of the
brother called Arsaces.[3] Her paternal grandparents were legitimate ruler Dynamis. When Asander saw his troops
the Pontian Monarchs Mithridates VI of Pontus and his desert him for Scribonius, from despair he died of volun-
first wife, his sister Laodice. Dynamis was born and tary starvation.
raised in the Kingdom of Pontus and the Bosporan King-
Scribonius pretended to be Dynamis’ relative, so he could
dom. By 47 BC, Pharnaces II arranged for Dynamis
seize Asander’s throne. Scribonius either won Dynamis
to marry a local high rank aristocrat called Asander.
over by force or persuasion to become her consort. Dy-
Asander married her as his second wife, as this was Dy-
namis became compelled to marry Scribonius. When
namis’ first marriage.
Augustus heard about the rebellion that occurred in the
In 47 BC Asander revolted against Pharnaces II, who Bosporan, Augustus sent the Roman Statesman Marcus
had appointed him as regent of the Bosporan Kingdom, Vipsanius Agrippa to intervene in the situation. When
during the war against General of the Roman Republic Agrippa arrived with his legions, Agrippa discovered
Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus. Asander hoped by desert- Scribonius’ treachery and had him put to death. After
ing and betraying Pharnaces II, he would win favour with Scribonius’ death, Dynamis became the sole ruler of the
the Romans and they could help him become Bosporan Bosporan. Due to the previous dynastic conflicts, Dy-
King. Pharnaces II was defeated by the Romans and he namis finally was able to gain control of her kingdom and
fled and took refuge from the Romans with his support- continue her family reigning over the kingdom.
ers. Asander found Pharnaces II. Asander had put him

246
109.3. SEE ALSO 247

Dynamis in order to preserve protect the Bosporan King- [son] of King Mithridates Eupator
dom; to protect her sovereignty and her son’s future,
married Roman Client King Polemon I of Pontus. This
From Rome, Dynamis obtained recognition as Friend
was Polemon I’s first marriage and had no children and
and Ally. During her reign, she had erected three stat-
this marriage for Dynamis was her second marriage.
ues dedicated to herself and had another statue erected in
Agrippa asked and appointed Polemon I to become the
honor of Augustus’ wife, the first Roman Empress Livia
new Bosporan King. For Dynamis and Polemon I to
Drusilla. In Phanagoria, Dynamis dedicated an inscrip-
be married, Agrippa gain Augustus’ permission and ap-
tion honoring Augustus as
proval for this political alliance to occur.
The marriage that occurred between Dynamis and Pole-
The emperor, Caesar, son of god, the god Au-
mon I appealed to Augustus, because this marriage
gustus, the overseer of every land and sea
showed Dynamis and Polemon I’s allegiances to Augus-
tus and Rome as allies; as ruling client monarchs and as
two broad client states becoming as one state. This union In another inscription, Dynamis calls herself an Empress
unfortunately, didn’t last as Dynamis died in 14 BC. and friend to Rome. This inscription reveals her politi-
cal ambitions that helped her to keep her kingdom and
After Dynamis’ death, Polemon I married Pythodorida
throne. In the temple of the ancient Greek Goddess
of Pontus and through her had two sons and a daugh-
Aphrodite, Dynamis dedicated a statue of Livia in the
ter. Polemon I extended the Kingdom as far to the river
temple. An inscription under Livia’s statue calls Livia the
Tanais. Polemon I died in 8 BC, Aspurgus succeeded
Empress and as the benefactress of Dynamis. The sur-
Polemon I. Pythodorida of Pontus became the sole ruler
viving inscriptions reveals that Dynamis may have had
of Cilicia, Pontus and Colchis.
support from Livia and Augustus and probably she had
become friends with the imperial couple.

109.2 Character, Honors and Alle-

giances 109.3 See also
Dynamis is a noted Queen who had an independent spirit, • Bosporan Kingdom
who had an effective, long live reign over the Bospo-
ran while under the rule of Ancient Rome. Although • Roman Crimea
she was a politically astute ruler, at times Dynamis was
not of an easy character. On surviving coins from her
reign, Dynamis’ royal title is in Greek ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ
ΔΥΝΑΜΕΩΣ or of Queen Dynamis. Dynamis dedicated 109.4 References
a gravestone to a Sarmatian man called Matian, the son
of Zaidar. On the gravestone shows a horseman with a [1] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
bow and quiver.[5] dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.345
During earthworks in Kerch in February 1957, a surviv-
[2] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
ing Greek inscription was found that belonged to Dy-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.362
namis. In this inscription Dynamis, honors her Royal
Pontian ancestry (Corpus Regni Inscriptionum Bospor, [3] http://www.pontos.dk/publications/books/bss-9-files/
31): bss-9-01-gabelko p.2

Ύπὲρ βασιλίσσης Δυνάμεως φιλορωμαίου,
τῇς ὲκ βασιλέως μεγάλου Φαρνάκου, τοῦ ὲκ
βασιλέως Μιθραδάτου Ευπάτρος…
For [ruling] Queen Dynamis Philoromaios,
[the daughter] of King Pharnaces the Great,
[4] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.345
[5] http://www.pontos.dk/publications/
papers-presented-orally/oral-files/treister-weapons
p.12
248 CHAPTER 109. DYNAMIS (BOSPORAN QUEEN)

109.5 External links
• A picture of a Bronze Bust of Dynamis on page
90 from the Encyclopedia of women in the ancient
world. In this picture Dynamis, is wearing a Royal
Persian Headdress called the Tiara Orthe, covered
with stars. In Dynamis’ portrait, she may have imi-
tated one of Livia’s hairstyles.
• The supreme gods of the Bosporan Kingdom: Ce-
lestial Aphrodite and the Most High God, By Yu-
lia Ustinova, Edition: illustrated, Published by
BRILL, 1999, ISBN 90-04-11231-6, ISBN 978-90-
04-11231-5
• Encyclopedia of women in the ancient world, By
Joyce E. Salisbury, Edition: illustrated, Published
by ABC-CLIO, 2001, ISBN 1-57607-092-1, ISBN
978-1-57607-092-5

109.6 Sources • The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, by Adrienne Mayor,
• http://www.snible.org/coins/hn/pontus.html Princeton University Press, 2009

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0388. • The Dynastic History of the Hellenistic Monar-

html chies of Asia Minor According to Chronography of
George Synkellos by Oleg L. Gabelko
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0389.
html • On the weapons of Sarmatian type in the Bospo-
ran Kingdom in the 1st-2nd century AD by Mikhail
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2767. Treister (Bonn)
html
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3651.
html
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3091.
html
• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
kings/i.html
• The Trinity, Oxford University Press, D. Kendall, G.
O'Collins, S. T. Davis. 2002
• The Cambridge ancient history, By Alan K. Bow-
man, John Bagnell Bury, Edward Champlin, Stan-
ley Arthur Cook, Andrew Lintott, Frank E. Ad-
cock, Martin Percival Charlesworth, Norman Hep-
burn Baynes, Charles Theodore Seltman, Edition:
2, illustrated, revised Published by Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1996 ISBN 0-521-26430-8, ISBN
978-0-521-26430-3
• The building program of Herod the Great, By Du-
ane W. Roller, Edition: illustrated, Published by
University of California Press, 1998, ISBN 0-520-
20934-6, ISBN 978-0-520-20934-3
• Anatolica: studies in Strabo, By Ronald Syme, An-
thony Richard Birley, Edition: illustrated, Pub-
lished by Oxford University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-
19-814943-3, ISBN 978-0-19-814943-9
Chapter 110

Mithridates I of the Bosporus

Mithridates I of the Bosporus sometimes known as 110.1 Source

Mithridates II of the Bosporan and Mithridates of
Pergamon (flourished 1st century BC), was a nobleman • Mayor, Adrienne: “The Poison King: The Life and
from Anatolia. Mithridates was one of the sons born Legend of Mithradates, Rome’s Deadliest Enemy”
to King Mithridates VI of Pontus from his mistress, the Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009, ISBN
Galatian Celtic Princess Adobogiona. He also had a full 978-0-691-12683-8
blooded sister called Adobogiona. The Pontic Prince was
of Persian, Macedonian and Celtic ancestry.
His father sent Mithridates to Pergamon to be educated, 110.2 See also
where he became a leading citizen of that city. Mithri-
dates was a tetrarch over the Trocmi tribe. In the win- • Bosporan Kingdom
ter of 48/47 BC, Roman dictator Julius Caesar became
trapped in Alexandria, Egypt. Caesar was besieged in • Roman Crimea
Alexandria by the armies of Achillas, guardian and gen-
eral for King Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator. Mithridates
raised an army and came to Caesar’s relief. In the after-
math of the Battle of Zela, Caesar made him king of the
Bosporan Kingdom, by commanding Mithridates to de-
clare war on his niece Dynamis and her husband Asander
(who were then the ruling monarchs) to keep the king-
ship for himself. Dynamis and Asander were defeated
by Mithridates and his army, and Mithridates became
King of the Bosporan. However after Caesar’s death in
44 BC, the Bosporan Kingdom was restored to Dynamis
and Asander by Caesar’s great nephew and heir, Octa-
vian (future Roman Emperor Augustus). Sometime af-
ter Mithridates abdicated his throne from the Bosporan
Kingdom, he died.
Mithridates was portrayed by Furio Meniconi in the 1963
film Cleopatra.

249
Chapter 111

Tiberius Julius Aspurgus

Tiberius Julius Aspurgus Philoromaios (Greek: Τι- to previous dynastic conflicts during the Roman Republic
βέριος Ἰούλιος Ἀσποῦργoς Φιλορώμαιος, Philoro- and around the period of Asander’s death, the first Roman
maios means lover of Rome, flourished second half of 1st Emperor Augustus and the Roman Senate finally in 14,
century BC & first half of 1st century AD, died 38) was accepted Aspurgus as the legitimate Bosporan King. As-
a Prince and Roman Client King of the Bosporan King- purgus adopted the Roman names “Tiberius Julius”, be-
dom. cause he received Roman citizenship and enjoyed the pa-
The name Aspurgus is a name of Iranian origin. His[1] tronage of Augustus and his heir Tiberius.
name goes back to the Iranian words aspa (horse) and as- Aspurgus married a Thracian Princess called Gepaepyris.
pabara (horseman).[2] Aspurgus was a monarch of Greek Gepaepyris bore Aspurgus two sons who were:
and Iranian ancestry.
• Tiberius Julius Mithridates – Mithridates was
Aspurgus was the son born to the ruling Monarchs
named in honor of Mithridates VI and he died in
Asander and Dynamis. He was the maternal grandchild
68
to the previous ruling Roman Client King of the Bospo-
ran and Pontus, Pharnaces II and his Sarmatian wife. His • Tiberius Julius Cotys I – Cotys was named in honor
maternal grandfather was the youngest son and child born of his late maternal grandfather, Thracian King
to King Mithridates VI of Pontus from his first wife, his Cotys VIII
sister Queen Laodice.[3] He was born and raised in the
Bosporan Kingdom. Through their second son, Aspurgus and Gepaepyris
would have various descendants ruling the Bosporan
In 17 BC the father of Aspurgus, Asander had died of vol-
Kingdom until the mid-4th century. The successors of
untary starvation from despair at the age of 93 because
Aspurgus bore the name Tiberius Julius to show their con-
Asander witnessed his troops desert him to the Roman
nection and ancestry with him. Aspurgus reigned until he
usurper, Scribonius. Scribonius pretended to be a rel-
died in 38. After his death, Gepaepyris ruled with their
ative of the legitimate heir Dynamis, so he could seize
first son.
Asander’s throne and become Bosporan King. Dynamis
became compelled to marry Scribonius. The Roman
statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa discovered Scribo-
nius’ deception and intervened in the situation. Agrippa 111.1 See also
appointed Polemon I of Pontus as the new Bosporan
King. Dynamis married Polemon I as her second hus- • Bosporan Kingdom
band, thus Polemon I became a stepfather to Aspurgus. • Roman Crimea
Dynamis died in 14 BC and Polemon I ruled as Bosporan
King until his death in 8 BC.
After the death of Polemon I, Aspurgus succeeded his 111.2 References
stepfather. Little is known on Aspurgus’ reign; however
he seemed to have been a strong and capable ruler. Due [1] http://www.pontos.dk/publications/

250
111.4. SOURCES 251

papers-presented-orally/oral-files/treister-weapons
p.12

[2] http://www.pontos.dk/publications/
papers-presented-orally/oral-files/treister-weapons
p.12

[3] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.xviii

111.3 External links

• Coinage of Aspurgus

111.4 Sources
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0388.
html

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0389.
html

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3091.
html

• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
kings/i.html

• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/tiberius/
RPC_1903.txt
• http://web.archive.org/web/20091027102003/http:
//geocities.com/christopherjbennett/ptolemies/
cleopatra_vii.htm

• On the weapons of Sarmatian type in the Bospo-

ran Kingdom in the 1st-2nd century AD by Mikhail
Treister (Bonn)
• The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, by Adrienne Mayor,
Princeton University Press, 2009
Chapter 112

Tiberius Julius Mithridates

For other people of the same name, see Mithridates. was named in honor of his ancestor King Mithridates VI
Tiberius Julius Mithridates Philogermanicus of Pontus. Mithridates VI was the paternal grandfather,
of his paternal grandmother Dynamis.
Little is known on the early life of Mithridates. When
Aspurgus died in 38, Mithridates had become joint ruler
with his mother, Gepaepyris. Sometime before 45, the
Roman Emperor Claudius, had given Mithridates the
whole Bosporan Kingdom to rule. Claudius recognised
and appointed him as the legitimate Bosporan King. In
45 for unknown reasons Claudius, deposed Mithridates
from the Bosporan throne and replaced him with his
younger brother Cotys I. Claudius had withdrawn the Ro-
Tiberius Julius Mithridates man garrison under Aulus Didius Gallus from the Bospo-
ran Kingdom and a few Roman cohorts were left with the
Philopatris, sometimes known as Mithridates III of Roman Knight Gaius Julius Aquila in the Bosporan.
the Bosporan (Greek: Τιβέριος Ιούλιος Μιθριδάτης Mithridates despised the situation. He mistrusted Cotys
Φιλογερμανικος Φιλοπατρíς, Philopatris means lover I, Aquila and attempted to regain his throne. Mithridates
of his country, flourished 1st century, died 68) was a was able to entice the leaders of the local tribes and de-
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom. serters into his allies. He was able to seize control of the
Mithridates was the first son of Roman Client Monar- local tribes and collect an army to declare war on Cotys I
chs Aspurgus and Gepaepyris. His younger brother was and Aquila. When Cotys I and Aquila heard news of this
prince and future King Cotys I. He was a prince of Greek, war, they feared that the invasion was imminent. Both
Iranian and Roman ancestry. He was the first grand- men knew they had the support of Claudius. Mithridates
child and grandson of Bosporan Monarchs Asander and with his army, engaged in war with Cotys I’s army and
Dynamis and Roman Client Rulers of Thrace, Cotys VIII Aquila’s battalions, in a three-day war, which Cotys I and
and Antonia Tryphaena. Aquila won unscathed and triumphant at the Don River.

Through his maternal grandmother Antonia Tryphaena,
he was a descendant of Roman triumvir Mark Antony.
Tryphaena was the first great granddaughter born to the
triumvir. Through Tryphaena, Mithridates was also re-
lated to various members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
Mithridates knew that resistance was hopeless and con-
sidered an appeal to Claudius. Mithridates turned to a lo-
cal tribesman called Eunones, to help him. Eunones, sent
envoys to Rome to Claudius with a letter from Mithri-
dates.

Through Aspurgus, Mithridates was a descendant of the In Mithridates’ letter to the Emperor, Mithridates greeted
Greek Macedonian Kings: Antigonus I Monophthalmus, and addressed him with great honor and respect from one
Seleucus I Nicator and Regent, Antipater. These three ruler to another ruler. Mithridates asked Claudius for a
men served under King Alexander the Great. Mithridates pardon and to be spared from a triumphal procession or

252
112.3. SOURCES 253

capital punishment. Claudius wasn’t sure how to punish

or deal with Mithridates. Mithridates was captured and
brought to Rome as a prisoner. He was displayed as a
public figure beside the platform in the Roman Forum
along with his guards and his expression remained un-
doubted.
Claudius was impressed with Mithridates’ mercy from his
letter and allowed Mithridates to live. He was spared
from any capital punishment and was exiled. Mithridates
lived as a destitute exiled monarch until his death. He
never married nor had children.

112.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

112.2 External links

• Coinage of Mithridates

112.3 Sources
• Tacitus, Annals of Imperial Rome
• French version of Wikipedia

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0879.
html
• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
kings/i.html
• http://www.american-pictures.com/genealogy/
persons/per01397.htm
Chapter 113

Gepaepyris

Gepaepyris (Greek: Γηπαιπυρεως, flourished 1st cen- Gepaepyris seems to have been the only child from the
tury) was a Thracian Princess and a Roman Client Queen family of Cotys VIII and Antonia Tryphaena to have chil-
of the Bosporan Kingdom. dren. Gepaepyris bore Aspurgus two sons, who would
Gepaepyris was the first daughter and was among the chil- succeed them and they were:
dren of Roman Client Rulers of Thrace, Cotys VIII and
Antonia Tryphaena. Her maternal grandparents were Ro- • Tiberius Julius Mithridates - he was named in honor
man Client Rulers Polemon Pythodoros and Pythodorida of Mithridates VI of Pontus and he died in 68
of Pontus, while her paternal grandparents were Roman • Tiberius Julius Cotys I – he was named in honor of
Client Rulers Rhoemetalces I and Pythodoris I of Thrace. his late maternal grandfather Cotys VIII
Through her maternal grandmother, she was a descendant
of Roman Triumvir Mark Antony and was related to var-
Through Cotys I, Gepaepyris and Aspurgus would have
ious members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (her mater-
various descendants ruling the Bosporan Kingdom until
nal grandmother, was the first grandchild of Roman Tri-
the mid-4th century. She would have descendants that
umvir Mark Antony). Gepaepyris was of Persian, Greek
bear these Thracian ancestral monarch names: Cotys,
and Roman descent.
Rhoemetalces and Rhescuporis. When Aspurgus died
Gepaepyris is not mentioned by any ancient sources. in 38, Gepaepyris ruled with their first son Mithridates
What is known of this Thracian Princess, has come from in the Bosporan Kingdom until 45. Later, her other son
surviving inscriptions from the Bosporan Kingdom, the Cotys I succeeded her and Mithridates.
ancient Greek city of Cyzicus (modern Turkey) and nu-
mismatic evidence. Cyzicus became the second resi-
dence for her family, where Gepaepyris grew up. From 113.1 See also
coins we know, her royal title was of Queen Gepaepyris.
Little is known on the life of Gepaepyris. She mar- • Bosporan Kingdom
ried, the Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom,
Tiberius Julius Aspurgus, who was of Greek and Iranian • Roman Crimea
ancestry. The Bosporan Kingdom was the longest known
surviving Roman Client Kingdom. Aspurgus was the son
of Bosporan Queen Dynamis from her first marriage to 113.2 External links
General and Bosporan King Asander.
The mother of Aspurgus, was the genuine heir to the • Coinage of Gepaepyris
Bosporan Kingdom. Dynamis was the daughter of Ro-
man Client King of Pontus and Bosporan, Pharnaces II
and her mother was a Sarmatian woman. The paternal 113.3 Sources
grandparents of Dynamis were the Monarchs Mithridates
VI of Pontus and his first wife, his sister Laodice. • French version of Wikipedia

254
113.3. SOURCES 255

• German version of Wikipedia

• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
kings/i.html

• http://www.guide2womenleaders.com/
womeninpower/Womeninpower01.htm

• http://www.tyndalehouse.com/egypt/ptolemies/
cleopatra_vii_fr.htm

• H. Temporini & W. Haase, Aufstieg und Nieder-

gang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur
Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, Walter de
Gruyter, 1980
Chapter 114
Tiberius Julius Cotys I
Tiberius Julius Cotys I Philocaesar Philoromaios
Eusebes, also known as Cotys I or Kotys I (Greek: Τι-
βέριος Ἰούλιος Κότυς Α' Φιλόκαισαρ Φιλορωμαῖος
Eὐσεβής, Philocaesar Philoromaios Eusebes, means lover
of Caesar, lover of Rome who is the Pius one, flourished
1st century) was a prince and Roman Client King of the
Bosporan Kingdom.
Tetranummia editing by Tiberius Julius Cotys I
Cotys I was the second son of Roman Client Monarchs
Aspurgus and Gepaepyris. His eldest brother was prince
and King Mithridates. He was a prince of Greek, Iranian
and Roman ancestry. Cotys I was the second grand-
child and grandson of Bosporan Monarchs Asander and
Dynamis and Roman Client Rulers of Thrace, Cotys VIII
and Antonia Tryphaena.
Through his maternal grandmother Antonia Tryphaena,
he was a descendant of Roman triumvir Mark Antony.
Tryphaena was the first great granddaughter born to the
triumvir. Through Tryphaena, Cotys I was also related to
various members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Through
Aspurgus, Cotys I was a descendant of the Greek Mace-
donian Kings: Antigonus I Monophthalmus, Seleucus I
Nicator and Regent, Antipater. These three men served
under King Alexander the Great. Cotys I was named
in honor of his late maternal grandfather, Roman Client
256
Ruler of Thrace, Cotys VIII.
Little is known on the life of Cotys I. When Aspur-
gus died in 38, his brother had become joint rulers with
his mother. Sometime before 45, the Roman Emperor
Claudius, had given his brother the whole Bosporan King-
dom to rule. Claudius recognised and appointed Mithri-
dates as the legitimate Bosporan King. In 45 for unknown
reasons Claudius, deposed Mithridates from the Bospo-
ran throne and Claudius replaced Mithridates with him.
Claudius had withdrawn the Roman garrison under Aulus
Didius Gallus from the Bosporan Kingdom and a few
Roman cohorts were left with the Roman Knight Gaius
Julius Aquila in the Bosporan.
Cotys I’s brother despised the situation and mistrusted
him and Aquila. Mithridates attempted to regain his
throne. Mithridates was able to entice the leaders of the
local tribes and deserters into his allies. He was able to
seize control of the local tribes and collect an army to
declare war on Cotys I and Aquila.
When Cotys I and Aquila heard news of this war, they
feared that the invasion was imminent. Both men knew
they had the support of Claudius. Mithridates with his
army, engaged in war with Cotys I’s army and Aquila’s
battalions, in a three-day war, which Cotys I and Aquila
won unscathed and triumphant at the Don River.
Mithridates was forced by Claudius to surrender. Mithri-
dates was captured and taken to Rome as a prisoner. He
was displayed as a public figure beside the platform in the
Roman Forum along with his guards and his expression
remained undoubted. Mithridates appealed to the Em-
peror for mercy to be spared from a triumphal proces-
sion or capital punishment. Claudius was impressed with
Mithridates’ mercy from his letter and allowed Mithri-
dates to live. He was spared from any capital punishment
and was exiled. Cotys I’s brother lived as a destitute ex-
114.3. SOURCES 257

iled monarch until his death. • Bosporus: Roman control of ancient Crimea
From 45 until 63, Cotys I reigned as Roman Client King • http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
of the Bosporan Kingdom. Sometime during his reign, kings/i.html
Cotys I had married a Greek noblewoman called Eunice,
through whom had a son called Tiberius Julius Rhescu- • http://www.american-pictures.com/genealogy/
poris I. Cotys I named his son, after Rhescuporis II, a persons/per01397.htm
Thracian prince and king, who was a paternal uncle of
his maternal grandfather.
In 63 for unknown reasons, the Roman Emperor Nero
deposed Cotys I from his throne. Perhaps Nero wanted
to minimise the role, power and influence of local client
rulers and desired the Bosporan Kingdom to be com-
pletely governed by the Roman state. His fate afterwards
is unknown. The Bosporan Kingdom was incorporated
as a part of the Roman Province of Moesia Inferior from
63-68. In 68, the new Roman Emperor Galba had re-
stored the Bosporan Kingdom to Rhescuporis I. Rhescu-
poris I reign from 68 until at least 90. Rhescuporis I was
a contemporary of the ruling Flavian dynasty, in particu-
lar the reign of Domitian. Through Rhescuporis I, Cotys
I would have various descendants ruling on the Bosporan
throne until the mid-4th century and among his descen-
dants would have at least two kings, who bore his name.

114.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom
• Kotys
• Roman Crimea

114.2 External links

• Coinage of Cotys I

114.3 Sources
• Tacitus, Annals of Imperial Rome
• French version of Wikipedia
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0879.
html
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2983.
html
Chapter 115
Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis I
Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis I Philocaesar Philoro-
maios Eusebes, also known as Rhescuporis I (Greek:
Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Ῥησκούπορις Α' Φιλόκαισαρ Φιλο-
ρώμαίος Eυσεbής, Philocaesar Philoromaios Eusebes,
means lover of Caesar, lover of Rome who is the Pius one,
flourished 1st century, died 90) was a prince and Roman
Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
Rhescuporis I was the son and heir of the Roman Client
King Cotys I and Roman Client Queen Eunice. He was of
Greek, Iranian and Roman ancestry. His paternal uncle
Mithridates, was a previous Bosporan King.
His paternal grandmother was the late Bosporan Roman
Client Queen Gepaepyris. Through her, Rhescuporis I
was a descendant of the Roman Triumvir Mark Antony
from his second marriage to his paternal cousin Antonia
Hybrida Minor (second daughter of Roman Republican
Politician Gaius Antonius Hybrida, Antony’s paternal un-
cle), thus Rhescuporis I was related to various members
of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Through Gepaepyris, he
was a descendant of Roman Client Rulers Polemon I of
Pontus, Pythodorida of Pontus and Cotys VIII of Thrace.
The name of Rhescuporis I is an ancestral monarch name
of Thracian origin that derived from the family of his pa- called Sauromates I, who succeed him. Through Sauro-
ternal grandmother.
His paternal grandfather was the late Bosporan Ro- the Bosporan throne until the mid-4th century. Among
man Client King Aspurgus. Through him, Rhescuporis his descendants, he would have five kings who bore his
I, was a descendant of the Greek Macedonian Kings:
Antigonus I Monophthalmus, Seleucus I Nicator and
Regent, Antipater. These three men served under King
Alexander the Great. Through his grandfather, Rhescu-
poris I was a descendant of the Monarchs Mithridates VI
of Pontus and his first wife, his sister Laodice and the
previous Bosporan King Asander.
Little is known of the life of Rhescuporis I. In 63 for un-
known reasons, the Roman Emperor Nero disposed Co-
258
tys I from his throne and his fate afterwards is unknown.
The Bosporan Kingdom was incorporated as a part of the
Roman Province of Moesia Inferior from 63-68. Perhaps
Nero wanted to minimise the role, power and influence
of local client rulers and desired the Bosporan to be com-
pletely governed by the Roman state.
In June 68, Nero had died and Galba succeeded Nero
as Roman Emperor. With the help from his mother,
Rhescuporis I successfully attempted to have the Bospo-
ran Kingdom restored as a client kingdom to him from
Galba. He was able to make the Bosporan Kingdom
stable and semi-independent once more. At least in the
first year of his reign, his mother co-ruled with him and
acted as his regent. The Bosporan Kingdom was able
to continue their trade with Anatolia. His royal title on
coins is in Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΡΗΣΚΟΥΠΟΡΙΔΟΣ
or of King Rhescuporis. Rhescuporis I was a contem-
porary of the rule to the Year of the Four Emperors, the
Flavian dynasty, in particular the reign of Roman Em-
peror Domitian.
Rhescuporis I reign as King until 90. Rhescuporis I mar-
ried an unnamed woman and from this marriage had a son
mates I, Rhescuporis I would have various descendants on
name.
115.1 See also
• Bosporan Kingdom
• Roman Crimea
115.3. SOURCES 259

115.2 External links

• The fourth coin is from the reign of Rhescuporis I

• The fifth and sixth coin are from the reign of Rhes-
cuporis I

• The seventh coin is from the reign of Rhescuporis I

• Coinage of Rhescuporis I

115.3 Sources
• French version of Wikipedia

• A dictionary of the Roman Empire, By Matthew

Bunson, Edition: illustrated Published by Oxford
University Press US, 1995, ISBN 0-19-510233-9,
ISBN 978-0-19-510233-8

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0879.
html

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2983.
html

• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
kings/t.html

• http://www.american-pictures.com/genealogy/
persons/per01403.htm#0

• Bosporus: Roman control of ancient Crimea

• Krzysztof Jarzęcki, Kobiety na tronie bosporańskim
Chapter 116
Eunice (Bosporan queen)
Eunice (Greek: Eὐνείκη, flourished 1st century, died af-
ter 69) was the wife of the Roman Client King, Cotys I
and through her marriage was a Roman Client Queen of
the Bosporan Kingdom.
Eunice was a Greek noblewoman of obscure origins. At
an unknown date in the reign of Cotys I, 45-63, he mar-
ried Eunice as his Queen.[1] Cotys I was a monarch of
Greek, Iranian and Roman ancestry. He was the sec-
ond son born to the Bosporan Roman Client Monarchs
Aspurgus and Gepaepyris, while his eldest brother was
the former Bosporan King Mithridates.
Eunice bore Cotys I, a son and his successor Rhescuporis
I.[2] The name Rhescuporis, is a name of Thracian origin
and is a name that appears in the family of her mother-
in-law.
She is not mentioned in ancient Roman historical sources.
Eunice is only known through surviving inscriptions and
numismatic evidence. In the year 1910, a Greek inscrip-
tion was found on a marble plate in the wall of a house
in Anapa, Russia. Anapa was the ancient Greek city of
Gorgippia. In the upper left corner of the marble plate
appeared the below inscription. This inscription is dated
from the reign of her son Rhescuporis I (68-90) (Corpus
Regni Inscriptionum Bospor CIRB 1118):
[Τὸ]ν ἐκ προγόνων βα[σιλέων βασιλέα
μέγαν]Τιβέριου Ίούλιου Ῥη[σκούποριν
βασιλέως Κότυ]oς καὶ βασιλίσσης
Eὐν[είκης]…
The descendant of the Kings, great King
Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis, son of King Co-
tys and of Queen Eunice
Eunice’s name has also appear in surviving bronze
coinage from the Bosporan Kingdom. On coins on one
260
side appears the Greek legend, KA-ΠE appears with a
temple with five steps. On the other side of coins, ap-
pears with an enclosing wreath with the Greek abbrevia-
tions BAK, BAEY, BAEIY and with the trade denomina-
tion KΔ. KA-ΠE can be read as KAΠE[τολιών]. BAK is
the royal abbreviations of Cotys I in Greek: BA[σιλεύς]
K[ότυος], of King Cotys, while BAEY and BAEIY are
the royal abbreviations for Eunice in Greek: BA[σιλεία]
E[ὐνείκη], of Queen Eunice. No other coins from the
Bosporan bear these abbreviations.[3] These coins can be
dated from the reigns of Coyts I and Rhescuporis I.
These coins reveal the political situation of the Bosporan
Kingdom in the mid-1st century. In 63 for unknown rea-
sons, the Roman Emperor Nero disposed Cotys I from his
throne and his fate afterwards is unknown. The Bospo-
ran Kingdom was incorporated as a part of the Roman
Province of Moesia Inferior from 63-68. Perhaps Nero
wanted to minimise the role, power and influence of local
client rulers and desired the Bosporan to be completely
governed by the Roman state.
In June 68, Nero had died and Galba succeeded as Ro-
man Emperor. The coinage clearly portrays the suc-
cessful attempt of Rhescuporis I to restore the Bospo-
ran Kingdom as a semi-independent Roman Client King-
dom. Cotys I had died by that time, Rhescuporis I had his
throne and his kingdom restored to him.
The surviving coinage and inscriptions reveal clues about
Eunice. Eunice appears to have been a religious
monarch, who seems to be a woman of strong, virtuous
character. She helped her son in restoration of the Bospo-
ran Kingdom and acting as a regent at least in the first year
of her son’s rule. Eunice proved to be a capable ruling
monarch in the Bosporan flourishing again.
116.4. SOURCES 261

116.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

116.2 References
[1] http://www.american-pictures.com/genealogy/persons/
per01399.htm

[2] http://www.american-pictures.com/genealogy/persons/
per01399.htm

[3] http://www.beastcoins.com/BosporusKingdom/
Bosporus-Kingdom.htm

116.3 External links

• The third one is coinage of Eunice

116.4 Sources
• Krzysztof Jarzęcki, Kobiety na tronie bosporańskim
• http://www.american-pictures.com/genealogy/
persons/per01399.htm
• http://www.beastcoins.com/BosporusKingdom/
Bosporus-Kingdom.htm
• Bosporus: Roman control of ancient Crimea
Chapter 117
Tiberius Julius Sauromates I
Tiberius Julius Sauromates I Philocaesar Philoro-
maios Eusebes, also known as Sauromates I (Greek:
Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Σαυροματης Α' Φιλόκαισαρ Φιλο-
ρώμαίος Eυσεbής, Philocaesar Philoromaios Eusebes,
means lover of Caesar, lover of Rome who is the Pius
one, flourished the second half of the 1st century and the
first half of the 2nd century, died 123) was a prince and
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
Sauromates I was the son and heir of the Bosporan King
Rhescuporis I by an unnamed wife. He was of Greek,
Iranian and Roman ancestry. The name Sauromates is
a name of Sarmatian origin. His paternal grandparents
were the previous ruling Bosporan Monarchs Cotys I and
Eunice.
Through his paternal grandfather, Sauromates I was a de-
scendant of the Roman Triumvir Mark Antony from his
second marriage to his paternal cousin Antonia Hybrida
Minor (second daughter of Roman Republican Politi-
cian Gaius Antonius Hybrida, Antony’s paternal uncle),
thus Sauromates I was related to various members of
the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was also a descendant of
Roman Client Rulers Polemon I of Pontus, Pythodorida
of Pontus and Cotys VIII of Thrace. Through his pa-
ternal grandfather, Sauromates I was a descendant of
Greek Macedonian Kings: Antigonus I Monophthalmus,
Seleucus I Nicator and Regent, Antipater. These three
men served under King Alexander the Great. He is also
descended from the Monarchs Mithridates VI of Pon-
tus and his first wife, his sister Laodice and the previous
Bosporan King Asander.
When Rhescuporis I died in 90, Sauromates I succeeded
his father as Bosporan King and reigned until his own
death in 123. He was a contemporary of the Roman
Emperors Domitian, Nerva, Trajan and Hadrian. Sauro-
mates I continued his father’s legacy of rebuilding the
262
Bosporan Kingdom. In 68, Rhescuporis I had restored
the Bosporan Kingdom, previously a part of the Roman
province of Moesia Inferior, as a semi-independent Ro-
man Client State. On coins, his royal title is in Greek:
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΑΥΡΟΜΑΤΟΥ or of King Sauromates.
Sauromates I is mentioned in the letters of Roman Sena-
tor Pliny the Younger. About 103, Pliny served as the Ro-
man Governor of Bithynia. Sauromates I sent his ambas-
sador (legatus) to travel to Bithynia to deliver two letters
to Pliny. The nature of these letters is unknown. The first
letter requested Pliny, for a messenger to use a diploma
(a permit to use an official wagon) to assist the messen-
ger’s journey, which Pliny respected. The second letter
was for Trajan. Pliny learned no more than that it con-
tained news which Trajan needed to know. An imperial
freedman called Lycormas took the second letter from
Bithynia to Rome for Trajan, a journey that would have
taken 6–8 weeks.
Either Rhescuporis I or Sauromates I established
Phanagoria as the new capital city of the Bosporan
Kingdom. From the late 1st century, Panticapaeum,
the original capital city, had gradually lost its impor-
tance. Phanagoria became the new capital city because
of the increasing popularity of the city’s titulary goddess,
Aphrodite, and her cult.
In 105, Sauromates I, entrusted and appointed a priest
as an official to oversee the restoration of the porticos
at the temple at Hermonassa. Out of his personal reli-
gious devotion in 110, he erected a temple dedicated to
Aphrodite in Gorgippia. In an honorific inscription ded-
icated to Sauromates I, found in Nicaea, Sauromates I
was given the honorific title Ktistes or Founder. He was
awarded this title because of his goodness, generosity and
his contributions throughout the Bosporan and Anatolia.
At Panticapaeum, there is in Latin an honorific inscrip-
117.3. EXTERNAL LINKS 263

tion, dedicating and honoring Sauromates I:

‘King Tiberius Julius Sauromates, an outstand-

ing friend of Emperor and the populus Ro-
manus‘.

Sauromates I married an unnamed woman and had a

son called Cotys II. Cotys II would succeed his father.
Through his son, Sauromates I would have three descen-
dants ruling the Bosporan that would bear his name.

117.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

117.2 Sources
• The supreme gods of the Bosporan Kingdom:
Celestial Aphrodite and the Most High God By
Yulia Ustinova Edition: illustrated Published by
BRILL, 1999 ISBN 90-04-11231-6, ISBN 978-90-
04-11231-5

• Rome, the Greek world, and the East By Fergus Mil-

lar, Hannah M. Cotton, Guy M. Rogers Edition: il-
lustrated Published by UNC Press, 2004 ISBN 0-
8078-5520-0, ISBN 978-0-8078-5520-1
• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
kings/t.html
• http://www.american-pictures.com/genealogy/
persons/per01403.htm#0
• http://www.american-pictures.com/genealogy/
persons/per01404.htm#0

117.3 External links

• Coinage of Sauromates I

• Coinage of Sauromates I
Chapter 118

Tiberius Julius Cotys II

Tiberius Julius Cotys II Philocaesar Philoromaios 118.2 External links

Eusebes, also known as Cotys II or Kotys II (Greek:
Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Κότυς Β' Φιλόκαισαρ Φιλορώμαίος • First two coins are of Cotys II
Eυσεbής, Philocaesar Philoromaios Eusebes, means lover
of Caesar, lover of Rome who is the Pius one, flourished
2nd century, died 132) was a prince and Roman Client
King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
118.3 Sources
Cotys II was the son and heir of the Bosporan King • Encyclopedia of ancient Greece By Nigel Guy
Sauromates I by an unnamed wife and was of Greek, Wilson Edition: illustrated Published by Rout-
Iranian and Roman ancestry. Cotys II was named in ledge, 2006 ISBN 0-415-97334-1, ISBN 978-0-
honor of Cotys I, a previous Bosporan King and his pa- 415-97334-2
ternal great grandfather.
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0879.
Cotys II succeeded Sauromates I in 123. Cotys II reigned
html
as Bosporan King until his death in 132 and little is known
on his reign. His royal title on coinage is in Greek: • http://www.american-pictures.com/genealogy/
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΚΟΤΥΟΣ or of King Cotys. During his persons/per01405.htm#0
reign, the city of Chersonesus Taurica was under his di-
rect control. Cotys II is mentioned in the writings of the
Roman Historian Arrian and was a contemporary to the
rule of the Roman Emperor Hadrian.
Cotys II married an unnamed woman. From this mar-
riage he had a son called Rhoemetalces who succeeded
in Cotys II in 132. Cotys II had a descendant who bore
his name and ruled the Bosporan Kingdom in the 3rd cen-
tury.

118.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

264
Chapter 119
Tiberius Julius Rhoemetalces
Tiberius Julius Rhoemetalces Philocaesar Philoro-
maios Eusebes, also known as Rhoemetalces or
Rhoimetalces (Greek: Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Ροιμητάλ-
κης Φιλόκαισαρ Φιλορώμαίος Eυσεbής, Philocaesar
Philoromaios Eusebes, means lover of Caesar, lover
of Rome who is the Pius one, flourished 2nd century,
died 153) was a prince and Roman Client King of the
Bosporan Kingdom.
Tiberius Julius Rhoemetalces
Rhoemetalces was the son and heir of the Bosporan King
Cotys II by an unnamed wife. He was of Greek, Iranian
and Roman ancestry. Rhoemetalces is the only King from
the Bosporan Kingdom to bear this name. His father
named him in honor of his ancestor, King Rhoemetalces
I from the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace, who was the fa-
ther of the Roman Client King Cotys VIII of Thrace.
When Cotys II died in 132, Rhoemetalces succeeded
him. Rheometalces ruled as Bosporan King from 132
until his death in 153. He was a contemporary to the
rule of the Roman Emperors Hadrian and Antoninus
Pius. On coinage his royal title is in Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ
ΡΟΙΜΗΤΑΛΚΑΣ or of King Rhoemetalces.
According to the Augustan History, at an unknown date
in the reign of Antoninus Pius, Rhoemetalces had trav-
elled to Rome for a hearing of a dispute between him
265
and the imperial commissioner. The nature and causes
leading to this dispute are unknown. After the hearing
had concluded, the emperor sent Rhoemetalces back to
the Bosporan.
Like his paternal grandfather Sauromates I, Rhoemetal-
ces appeared to be a religious person and was involved in
the worship of the Goddess Aphrodite and her cult. This
can be confirmed by an inscription found on a statue base
from Phanagoria.
Not much more is otherwise known on the reign and life
of Rhoemetalces. Rhoemetalces married an unnamed
woman, and from this marriage; he had a son called
Eupator, who succeeded him on his death.
119.1 See also
• Bosporan Kingdom
• Roman Crimea
119.2 External links
• Coinage of Rhoemetalces
119.3 Sources
• The supreme gods of the Bosporan Kingdom:
Celestial Aphrodite and the Most High God By
Yulia Ustinova Edition: illustrated Published by
BRILL, 1999 ISBN 90-04-11231-6, ISBN 978-90-
04-11231-5
266 CHAPTER 119. TIBERIUS JULIUS RHOEMETALCES

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2986.
html
• http://www.american-pictures.com/genealogy/
persons/per03025.htm#0
• http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/
Texts/Historia_Augusta/Antoninus_Pius*.html
Chapter 120

Tiberius Julius Eupator

Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΥΠΑΤΟΡΟΣ or of King Eupator.

He was a contemporary to the rule of the Roman emper-
ors Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus.
Eupator is mentioned in the writings of Lucian (Alexan-
der 57). Lucian had witnessed envoys sent by Eupa-
tor to travel to Bithynia to pay the Bosporan Kingdom’s
yearly tribute to Rome. Apart from this, little is known
on his life and reign as King. Eupator married an un-
named woman, and from this marriage had a son called
Sauromates II who succeeded him in 174.

120.1 See also

The personal tamga of Eupator being crowned with laurels by
two winged victories. • Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea
Tiberius Julius Eupator Philocaesar Philoromaios
Eusebes (Greek: Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Ευπάτωρ Φιλό-
καισαρ Φιλορώμαίος Eυσεbής, Philocaesar Philoro-
maios Eusebes, means lover of Caesar, lover of Rome who 120.2 External links
is the Pius one, flourished 2nd century, died 174), also
known as Eupator, was a prince and Roman Client King • Coinage of Eupator
of the Bosporan Kingdom.
Eupator was the son and heir of the Bosporan King
Rhoemetalces by an unnamed wife and was of Greek, 120.3 Sources
Iranian and Roman ancestry. Eupator means in Greek
“born of a noble father”, and was an honorific epithet
also shared by his ancestors: Ptolemaic Prince Ptolemy • Rome and the friendly king, by David Braund, Re-
Eupator, Seleucid King Antiochus V Eupator, King vision of thesis (Ph.D.) -- Cambridge 1984
Mithridates VI of Pontus and Anatolian Prince Polemon
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/1204.
Eupator.
html
When Rhoemetalces died in 153, Eupator succeeded
him. Eupator reigned as Bosporan King from 153 un- • http://www.livius.org/am-ao/antiochus/antiochus_
til his death in 174. On coinage his royal title is in v_eupator.html

267
268 CHAPTER 120. TIBERIUS JULIUS EUPATOR

• http://web.archive.org/web/20091027102132/http:
//geocities.com/christopherjbennett/ptolemies/
eupator.htm
Chapter 121
Tiberius Julius Sauromates II
Bust of Tiberius Julius Sauromates II, from the Acropolis Mu-
seum
Bronze coin of Sauromates II, c. 172–211 CE
Tiberius Julius Sauromates II Philocaesar Philoro-
maios Eusebes, also known as Sauromates II (Greek:
Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Σαυρομάτης Β' Φιλοκαίσαρ Φιλο-
ρωμαίος Eυσεβής, Philocaesar Philoromaios Eusebes,
means lover of Caesar, lover of Rome who is the Pius one,
flourished in the second half of the 2nd and the first half
of the 3rd century AD, died 210/211) was a prince and
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
269
Sauromates II was the son and heir of the Bosporan
King Eupator by an unnamed woman and was of Greek,
Iranian and Roman ancestry. Sauromates II was named
in honor of Sauromates I, a paternal ancestor of his and
a previous Bosporan King.
When Eupator died in 174, Sauromates II succeeded
his father. Sauromates II reigned as Bosporan King
from 174 until his death in 210/211. He expressed
his royal title in Greek on his coinage: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ
ΣΑΥΡΟΜΑΤΟΥ or of King Sauromates. He was a
contemporary of the Roman Emperors Marcus Aure-
lius, Commodus, Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Septimius
Severus and Caracalla.
In 193, Sauromates II engaged in military campaigns
against the Scythians and Sirachi tribes, and success-
fully defeated them. These victories are known from
an inscription found in Tanais, dedicating and celebrat-
ing the King’s military victories. Little is known of the
life and reign of Sauromates II. According to surviving
coinage, he appeared to be a religious person who was
involved in the worship of the Goddess Aphrodite and
her cult.
Sauromates II married an unnamed woman. From this
marriage he had two sons Rhescuporis II and Cotys
III. Rhescuporis II succeeded Sauromates II in 210/211,
while Cotys III succeeded him.
121.1 See also
• Bosporan Kingdom
• Roman Crimea
270 CHAPTER 121. TIBERIUS JULIUS SAUROMATES II

121.2 External links

• Coinage of Sauromates II

121.3 Sources
• Rome, the Greek world, and the East, by Fergus
Millar, Hannah M. Cotton and Guy M. Rogers, Vol
2: Government, Society & Culture in the Roman
Empire

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3062.
html
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3063.
html
Chapter 122

Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis II

Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis II Philocaesar Philoro- 122.2 References

maios Eusebes, also known as Rhescuporis II (Greek:
Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Ῥησκούπορις Β' Φιλόκαισαρ Φιλο- • http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2983.
ρώμαίος Eυσεbής, Philocaesar Philoromaios Eusebes, html
means lover of Caesar, lover of Rome who is the Pius
one, flourished 3rd century – died 227) was a prince and
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
122.3 External links
Rhescuporis II was the first-born son to Bosporan King
Sauromates II by an unnamed woman and was of Greek, • Coinage of Rhescuporis II
Iranian and Roman ancestry. His brother was Cotys
III. Rhescuporis II was named in honor of Rhescuporis
I, a paternal ancestor of his and a previous Bosporan
King. When Sauromates II died in 210/211, Rhescu-
poris II succeeded his father. He reigned as Bosporan
King until his death in 227. His royal title on coins is
in Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΡΗΣΚΟΥΠΟΡΙΔΟΣ or of King
Rhescuporis.
During his reign, Rhescuporis II co-ruled with his son
Rhescuporis III from an unnamed wife. He was a con-
temporary to the rule of the Roman Emperors Caracalla,
Macrinus, Elagabalus and Alexander Severus. Little is
known of the life and reign of Rhescuporis II. In the year
of his death and his son also died. Rhescuporis II was
succeeded by Cotys III.

122.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

271
Chapter 123

Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis III

Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis III Philocaesar Philoro- 123.1 See also

maios Eusebes, also known as Rhescuporis III (Greek:
Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Ῥησκούπορις Γ' Φιλόκαισαρ Φιλο- • Bosporan Kingdom
ρώμαίος Eυσεbής, Philocaesar Philoromaios Eusebes,
means lover of Caesar, lover of Rome who is the Pius • Roman Crimea
one, flourished 3rd century – died 227) was a prince and
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
Rhescuporis III was the son and heir of Bosporan King 123.2 External links
Rhescuporis II by an unnamed woman and was of Greek,
Iranian and Roman ancestry. In 210/211 the paternal • Coinage of Rhescuporis III
grandfather of Rhescuporis III, King Sauromates II died,
Rhescuporis III succeeded with his father Rhescuporis
II. Rhescuporis III co-ruled with his father as Bosporan 123.3 Sources
Kings until their deaths in 227. His royal title on coins
is in Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΡΗΣΚΟΥΠΟΡΙΔΟΣ or King • Rome, the Greek world, and the East, by Fergus
Rhescuporis. Millar, Hannah M. Cotton and Guy M. Rogers, Vol
In 221, in the seaport city located in the Black Sea called 2: Government, Society & Culture in the Roman
Amastris (modern Amasra) there was an honorific in- Empire
scription dedicated to Rhescuporis III. The inscription
• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2983.
describes Rhescuporis III as:
html

”King of the Bosporus and the surrounding

ethne [peoples], philoromaios [friend of the
Romans], and philhellen [friend of the Hel-
lenes].”

He was a contemporary to the rule of the Roman Em-

perors Caracalla, Macrinus, Elagabalus and Alexander
Severus. Little is known of the life and reign of Rhes-
cuporis III. In the year he and his father died, they were
succeeded by Cotys III, a brother of Rhescuporis II and
paternal uncle to Rhescuporis III.

272
Chapter 124

Tiberius Julius Cotys III

Tiberius Julius Cotys III Philocaesar Philoromaios known of the reign and life of Cotys III. When Cotys III
Eusebes, also known as Cotys III or Kotys III (Greek: died, he was succeeded by his third son, Ininthimeus.
Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Κότυς Γ' Φιλόκαισαρ Φιλορώμαίος
Eυσεbής, Philocaesar Philoromaios Eusebes, means lover
of Caesar, lover of Rome who is the Pius one, flourished 124.1 See also
second half of 2nd century and first half of 3rd century
– died 235) was a prince and Roman Client King of the
• Bosporan Kingdom
Bosporan Kingdom.
Cotys III was the second born son of Bosporan King • Roman Crimea
Sauromates II by an unnamed woman and was of Greek,
Iranian and Roman ancestry. His brother and nephew
were the Bosporan Kings Rhescuporis II and Rhescuporis 124.2 External links
III. Cotys III was named in honor of Cotys II, a paternal
ancestor of his and a previous Bosporan King. • Coinage of Cotys III
When his brother and nephew both died in 227, he
succeeded them both and ruled as Bosporan King until
his death in 235. On coins his royal title is in Greek: 124.3 Sources
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΚΟΤΥΟΣ or of King Cotys. Cotys III was
the last King from the Bosporan to rule with the name • http://www.forumancientcoins.com/gallery/
Tiberius Julius Cotys. thumbnails.php?album=1494
During his reign, Cotys III was a contemporary to the rule • The Coin Collector’s Manual, by Henry Noel
of the Roman Emperor Alexander Severus. The wife of Humphreys, published by Harvard University H. G.
Cotys III is an unnamed Sarmatian noble woman. From Bohn 1853 publisher, digitalise 19 July 2007
his marriage Cotys III had three sons, who co-ruled with
him in his reign and they were:

• Sauromates III (229–232)

• Rhescuporis IV (233–235)

• Ininthimeus (235–240)

During the reign of Cotys III, the last Bosporan gold coins
were minted. After his reign, gold coinage disappeared
and was replaced with bronze or silver coins. Little is

273
Chapter 125

Tiberius Julius Sauromates III

Tiberius Julius Sauromates III, sometimes known as • http://www.forumancientcoins.com/gallery/

Sauromates III (Greek: Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Σαυρομα- thumbnails.php?album=1494
της Γ', flourished 3rd century, died 232) was a prince and
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
Sauromates III was the first-born son to the Bospo- 125.3 External links
ran King Cotys III and his mother was an unnamed
Sarmatian noble woman. He was of Greek, Iranian and • The seventieth coin is from his co-rule with his fa-
Roman ancestry. His two younger brothers were princes ther
Rhescuporis IV and Ininthimeus. Sauromates III was
named in honor of his paternal grandfather, previous • Coinage of Sauromates III
Bosporan King Sauromates II.
The father of Sauromates III, Cotys III succeeded his pa-
ternal uncle and cousin Rhescuporis II and Rhescuporis
III in 227, after their deaths. In 229 until 232, Sauro-
mates III co-ruled with his father, Cotys III. Sauromates
III was a contemporary to the rule of the Roman Em-
peror Alexander Severus. On coins his royal title is in
Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΑΥΡΟΜΑΤΟΥ or of King Sauro-
mates. Little is known on the life and reign of Sauromates
III. When Sauromates III died, he was succeeded by his
brother Rhescuporis IV.

125.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

125.2 Sources

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3063.
html

274
Chapter 126

Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis IV

Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis IV, also known as Rhes- 126.2 See also
cuporis IV (Greek: Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Ῥησκούπορις
Δ', flourished 3rd century – died 235) was a prince and • Bosporan Kingdom
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
• Roman Crimea
Rhescuporis IV was the second born son to the Bospo-
ran King Cotys III and his mother was an unnamed
Sarmatian noble woman. He was of Greek, Iranian and
Roman ancestry. He had two brothers: one oldest called
Sauromates III and a younger called Ininthimeus. Rhes-
cuporis IV was named in honor of his paternal uncle
previous Bosporan King Rhescuporis II and his paternal
cousin, previous Bosporan King Rhescuporis III, who co-
ruled with his father, Rhescuporis II.
Rhescuporis IV in 233 succeeded Sauromates III after
his death. His first brother was first co-ruler in the reign
of their father Cotys III. Rhescuporis IV was co-ruler
with Cotys III, until he died in 235. His royal title on
coins is in Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΡΗΣΚΟΥΠΟΡΙΔΟΣ or
of King Rhescuporis. Rhescuporis IV was a contemporary
to the rule of the Roman Emperor Alexander Severus.
Little is known of the life and reign of Rhescuporis IV.
In 235, Rhescuporis IV was succeeded by his brother
Ininthimeus.

126.1 Sources

• http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2983.
html

• http://www.forumancientcoins.com/gallery/
thumbnails.php?album=1494

275
Chapter 127

Tiberius Julius Ininthimeus

Tiberius Julius Ininthimeus Philocaesar Philoro- was succeeded by Rhescuporis V.

maios Eusebes, also known as Ininthimaeus,
Ininthimeus or Inithimeus (Greek: Τιβέριος
Ἰούλιος Iνινθιμηος Φιλόκαισαρ Φιλορώμαίος Eυσε- 127.1 See also
bής, Philocaesar Philoromaios Eusebes, means lover of
Caesar, lover of Rome who is the Pious one, flourished
• Bosporan Kingdom
3rd century – died 240) was a prince and Roman Client
King of the Bosporan Kingdom. • Roman Crimea
Ininthimeus was the youngest born son to the Bosporan
King Cotys III and his mother was an unnamed Sarmatian
noble woman. He was of Greek, Iranian and Roman an- 127.2 External links
cestry. His two eldest brothers were princes Sauromates
III and Rhescuporis IV. Ininthimeus most probably inher- • Coinage of Ininthimeus
ited his name from his maternal ancestry.
In 235, Ininthimeus succeeded his second brother Rhes-
cuporis IV who died and co-ruled with his father Cotys 127.3 Sources
III. Later that year Cotys III died and Ininthimeus suc-
ceeded his father. He ruled as Bosporan King from 235 • http://www.forumancientcoins.com/gallery/
until his death in 240. thumbnails.php?album=1494
His royal title on coins is in Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ • The Coin Collector’s Manual, by Henry Noel
ΙΝΙΝΘΙΜΗΥΟΥ or of King Ininthimeus. Ininthimeus Humphreys, published by Harvard University H. G.
was a contemporary to the rule of the Roman Emper- Bohn 1853 publisher, digitalise 19 July 2007
ors Alexander Severus, Maximinus Thrax and the period
Year of the Six Emperors. During his co-rule with his
father, the last Bosporan gold coins were minted. After
the death of Cotys III, gold coinage disappeared and was
replaced with bronze or silver coins.
According to surviving coinage, Ininthimeus appeared to
have been a religious person who was involved in the wor-
ship of the Goddess Aphrodite and her cult. He also rep-
resents himself on coins as the goddess Astarte. During
the Ininthimeus’ reign, the intrusion of the Goths created
great pressure on the Bosporan Kingdom. Ininthimeus
married an unnamed woman, and from this marriage had
a son called Rhescuporis V. Ininthimeus died in 240 and

276
Chapter 128

Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis V

Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis V Philocaesar Philoro- 128.1 See also

maios Eusebes, also known as Rhescuporis V (Greek:
Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Ῥησκούπορις Ε' Φιλόκαισαρ Φιλο- • Bosporan Kingdom
ρώμαίος Eυσεbής, Philocaesar Philoromaios Eusebes,
means lover of Caesar, lover of Rome who is the Pius • Roman Crimea
one, flourished 3rd century – died 276) was a prince and
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
Rhescuporis V was the son and heir to the Bosporan King 128.2 External links
Ininthimeus and his mother was an unnamed woman and
was of Greek, Iranian and Roman ancestry. Rhescuporis • Coinage of Rhescuporis V
V was named in honor of his paternal uncle, the previous
Bosporan King Rhescuporis IV.
Rhescuporis V succeeded when Ininthimeus died in 240. 128.3 Sources
Rhescuporis V reigned as Bosporan King from 240 until
his death in 276. His royal title on coins is in Greek: • http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2983.
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΡΗΣΚΟΥΠΟΡΙΔΟΣ or of King Rhescu- html
poris. He was a contemporary to the rule of the Roman
• http://www.ancientimports.com/cgi-bin/lotinfo.
Emperors Gordian III, Philip the Arab, Decius and the
pl?id=20346
period Crisis of the Third Century which occurred in the
Roman Empire. • http://www.ancientimports.com/cgi-bin/lotinfo.
According to surviving coinage, Rhescuporis V appeared pl?id=20347
to have been a religious person who was involved in the
• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
worship of the Goddess Aphrodite and her cult. Little is
kings/i.html
known of the reign and life of Rhescuporis V. During his
reign, Rhescuporis V co-ruled with his three sons from • http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
an unnamed woman and they were: kings/rheskuporis_V/t.html

• Pharsanzes (253–254)

• Synges (258–276)

• Teiranes (275–279)

Rhescuporis V died in 276 and was succeeded by his third

son, Teiranes.

277
Chapter 129

Tiberius Julius Pharsanzes

129.2 External links

• Coinage of Pharsanzes

129.3 Sources
• http://ansmagazine.com/Summer05/Bosporus

• http://www.sixbid.com/nav.php?p=viewlot&sid=
Coin of Pharsanzes (left) 69&lot=1741

• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
Tiberius Julius Pharsanzes, also known as
kings/i.html
Pharsanzes (Greek: Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Φαρσαν-
ζης, flourished 3rd century – died 254) was a prince and • The supreme gods of the Bosporan Kingdom:
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom. Celestial Aphrodite and the Most High God By
Pharsanzes was the first-born son to the Bosporan King Yulia Ustinova Edition: illustrated Published by
Rhescuporis V and his mother was an unnamed woman. BRILL, 1999 ISBN 90-04-11231-6, ISBN 978-90-
He was of Greek, Iranian and Roman ancestry. His 04-11231-5
younger brothers were princes Synges and Teiranes.
Between 253–254, Pharsanzes co-ruled with his father
Rhescuporis V. His royal title on coins is in Greek:
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΦΑΡΣΑΝΖΟΥ or of King Pharsanzes. Dur-
ing his brief rule, he was a contemporary to the rule of the
Roman Emperor Gallienus. There was a possibility that
Pharsanzes could have some connections with the Goths.
Pharsanzes died in 254 and was succeeded as a co-ruler
by his second brother Synges in 258.

129.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

278
Chapter 130

Tiberius Julius Synges

Tiberius Julius Synges, also known as Synges (flour-

ished 3rd century – died 276) was a prince and Roman
Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
Synges was the second born son to the Bosporan King
Rhescuporis V and his mother was an unnamed woman.
He was of Greek, Iranian and Roman ancestry. His eldest
brother was prince Pharsanzes and younger brother was
prince Teiranes.
Synges succeeded his eldest brother Pharsanzes who co-
ruled with their father, Rhescuporis V. Pharsanzes died
in 254 and Synges succeeded as second co-ruler with
their father in 258 and ruled with his father as Bospo-
ran King until around 276. Synges was a contemporary
to the Crisis of the Third Century. Little is known of the
life and reign of Synges. Synges died around 276 and was
succeeded by his younger brother Teiranes.

130.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom
• Roman Crimea

130.2 Source
• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
kings/i.html

279
Chapter 131

Tiberius Julius Teiranes

Tiberius Julius Teiranes, possibly known as Gaius 131.2 External links

Julius Teiranes or Teiranes (Greek: Τιβέριος Ἰού-
λιος Τειρανης, flourished 3rd century – died 279) was • Coinage of Teiranes
a prince and Roman Client King of the Bosporan King-
dom.
Teiranes was the third born son to the Bosporan King 131.3 Sources
Rhescuporis V and his mother was an unnamed woman.
He was of Greek, Iranian and Roman ancestry. His first • North Pontic archaeology - By Gocha R. Tset-
brother was prince Pharsanzes and second brother was skhladze
prince Synges.
• http://www.angelfire.com/ego/et_deo/bosphore.
Teiranes succeeded his second brother Synges, who died
wps.htm
around 276 as the third co-ruler with their father Rhes-
cuporis V. Later in 276, Teiranes’ father died and he suc- • http://www.pontos.dk/publications/
ceeded Rhescuporis V. Teiranes ruled as Bosporan King papers-presented-orally/oral-files/Sme_coinage_
from around 276 until his death in 279. alloys.htm
His royal title on coins is in Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ • http://en.museum-of-money.org/view/the_coins_
ΤΕΙΡΑΝΟΥ or of King Teiranes. Teiranes was a contem- of_bosporan_kingdom_early_4th_century_b_c_
porary to the Crisis of the Third Century in the Roman mid_4th_century_a_d/
Empire. During his reign, a copper-base alloy was added
to the bronze and silver coins that were minted in the
Bosporan Kingdom. Little is known of the life and reign
of Teiranes.
During his short reign, Teiranes co-ruled with his first
son from an unnamed woman called Sauromates IV who
died in 276 and later his second son Theothorses. When
Teiranes died in 279, he was succeeded by his second son
Theothorses.

131.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

280
Chapter 132

Tiberius Julius Sauromates IV

Tiberius Julius Sauromates IV, also known as Sauro- 132.3 Sources

mates IV (Greek: Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Σαυροματης Δ',
flourished 3rd century – died 276) was a prince and • http://www.museum.com.ua/en/faces/tsar/index.
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom. html
Sauromates IV was the first-born son to the Bosporan
• http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bosporos/
King Teiranes and an unnamed mother. His younger
kings/i.html
brother was prince Theothorses and was of Greek,
Iranian and Roman ancestry. Sauromates IV was named
in honor of Sauromates III, his father’s first paternal great
uncle and a previous Bosporan King. Sauromates IV was
the last Bosporan King to rule with the name Tiberius
Julius Sauromates.
In 276 the paternal grandfather of Sauromates IV, King
Rhescuporis V died and Teiranes succeeded him. Sauro-
mates IV was raised to co-ruler, but died later that
year. On coins his royal title is in Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ
ΣΑΥΡΟΜΑΤΟΥ or of King Sauromates. In 278, his
brother Tiberius Julius Theothorses succeeded him as co-
ruler.

132.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

132.2 External links

• The eighteenth coin is from the co-rule of Sauro-

mates IV with his father

281
Chapter 133

Tiberius Julius Theothorses

Tiberius Julius Theothorses, also known as The sons of Theothorses were the last kings to rule the
Thothorses or Fophors (Greek: Τιβέριος Ἰού- Bosporan Kingdom.
λιος Θοθωρσης, flourished second half of 3rd century
& first half of 4th century – died 309) was a prince and
Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom. 133.1 See also
Theothorses was the second-born son to the Bosporan
King Teiranes and his mother was an unnamed woman. • Bosporan Kingdom
He was of Greek, Iranian and Roman ancestry. His elder
brother was prince Sauromates IV, who co-ruled briefly • Roman Crimea
with his father before his death in 276.
In 278, during his father’s reign, Theothorses was el-
evated by Teiranes to co-ruler. In 279, Teiranes died
133.2 External links
and Theothorses succeeded him as the sole ruler of
the Bosporan Kingdom, reigning from 278 until his • Coinage of Theothorses
death around 308/309. On coins his royal title is in
Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΘΟΘΩΡΣΟΥ or of King Thothorses.
Theothorses’ reign was contemporary to the Crisis of the 133.3 Sources
Third Century and the Tetrarchy in the Roman Empire.
During his reign, large amounts of lead were added to the • http://www.museum.com.ua/en/faces/tsar/index.
bronze coinage that was minted in the Bosporan King- html
dom. Otherwise, little is known of the life and reign of • http://www.museum.com.ua/en/istor/sev-vost/
Theothorses. The name of Theothorses’ wife is unknown. bospor/bospor.htm
They had the following children:
• http://www.pontos.dk/publications/
papers-presented-orally/oral-files/Sme_coinage_
• Prince Rhescuporis VI. Rhescuporis VI became a
alloys.htm
co-ruler with his father in 303 and later succeeded
him. • (French) Settipani, Christian (2006), Continuité des
élites à Byzance durante les siècles obscurs. Les
• Prince Rhadamsades. After the death of princes caucasiens et l'Empire du VIe au IXe siècle,
Theothorses, Rhadamsades succeeded his father as p. 406. De Boccard, ISBN 2-7018-0226-1
second co-ruler with his brother, Rhescuporis VI.

• Princess Nana, who became Queen of Kingdom of

Iberia and later a saint of the Georgian Orthodox
Church.

282
Chapter 134

Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis VI

Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis VI (Greek: Τιβέριος VI are now on display at the Hermitage Museum, Saint
Ἰούλιος Ῥησκούπορις Στ'; died 342) was the last ruler Petersburg, Russia.
of the Bosporan Kingdom, a client king of the Roman
Empire.
Rhescuporis VI was the first-born son to the Bospo- 134.1 See also
ran King Theothorses and his mother was an unnamed
woman. He was of Thrace, Iranian and Roman ancestry. • Bosporan Kingdom
His younger brother was prince Rhadamsades. Rhescu-
poris VI was named in honor of Rhescuporis V, the pa- • Roman Crimea
ternal grandfather of his father and a previous Bosporan
King. He was the last Bosporan King to rule with the
name Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis. 134.2 External links
In 303, Rhescuporis VI became co-ruler with his father,
Theothorses. When Theothorses died around 308/309, • Coinage of Rhescuporis VI
the brother of Rhescuporis VI, Rhadamsades succeeded • Coinage of Rhescuporis VI
their father and became co-ruler with him. Rhescuporis
VI ruled from 303 until his death in 342. His royal title
on coins is in Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΡΗΣΚΟΥΠΟΡΙΔΟΣ
or of King Rhescuporis.
134.3 Sources
During his and his brother’s co-rule, various metals were • Greek and Roman gold and silver plate By Donald
used including brass to create and mint coins in the Emrys Strong
Bosporan. Rhescuporis VI was a contemporary to the
ruling of the Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty in the • http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2983.
Roman Empire. When Rhadamsades died in 323, Rhes- html
cuporis VI became the sole and last ruler of the Bosporan.
Little is known of the life and reign of Rhescuporis VI. • http://www.museum.com.ua/en/istor/sev-vost/
bospor/bospor.htm
The King of the Goths, Ermanaric had conquered the
Bosporan Kingdom. Ermanaric killed Rhescuporis VI; • http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/05/
subjected the kingdom and the citizens to his rule. When hm5_4_2_2_1.html
Rhescuporis VI died, he was buried in a royal tomb
in the original capital city of the Bosporan Kingdom • http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/
Panticapaeum. Placed in the tomb with Rhescuporis VI cleopatra_vii.htm#Cleopatra.43
were his various possessions, which included a golden
mask and ornament plates. The golden mask and orna-
ment plates that were placed in the tomb of Rhescuporis

283
Chapter 135

Tiberius Julius Rhadamsades

Tiberius Julius Rhadamsades, sometimes known as 135.3 Sources

Rhadamsades (Greek: Τιβέριος Ἰούλιος Ραδαμσα-
δης, flourished second half of 3rd century & first half of • http://www.pontos.dk/publications/books/
4th century – died 323) was a prince and Roman Client bss-1-files/BSS1_24_Tunkina.pdf
King of the Bosporan Kingdom.
• “Coinage alloys of the Northern Black Sea littoral
Rhadamsades was the second born son to the Bosporan
states”. pontos.dk. Retrieved 2014-02-11.
King Theothorses and an unnamed woman. He was of
Greek, Iranian and Roman ancestry. His eldest brother
was prince Rhescuporis VI.
Around 308/309, Rhadamsades succeeded his father
when he died. Rhadamsades became co-ruler with his
older brother Rhescuporis VI. Rhadamsades ruled as
Bosporan King with Rhescuporis VI from around 309
until his death in 323. Rhadamsades was contempo-
rary with the Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty in the
Roman Empire. On coins his royal title is in Greek:
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΡΑΔΑΜΣΑΔΗΣ or of King Rhadamsades.
During his reign, various metals were used including
brass to create and mint coinage in the Bosporan. Other-
wise, little is known of the life and reign of Rhadamsades.
When Rhadamsades died in 323, his brother Rhescuporis
VI became the sole ruler of the Bosporan.

135.1 See also

• Bosporan Kingdom

• Roman Crimea

135.2 External links

• Coinage of Rhadamsades

284
Chapter 136

List of Armenian kings

See also: List of Armenian consorts • Ardashir (2nd half of the 5th century BC)

This is a list of the kings and queens of Armenia, for

Attested satraps
more information on ancient Armenia and Armenians,
please see History of Armenia. For information on the
• Orontes (401–344 BC)
medieval Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia, please see the
separate page Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. • Darius Codomannus (344–336 BC)
See List of Kings of Urartu for kings of Urartu (Ararat),
the predecessor state of Greater Armenia.
Yervandian (Yervanduni or Orontid) Dynasty

136.1 Greater Armenia Main article: Orontid Dynasty

This is the historical designation of the largest and

longest-lasting Armenian kingdom. • Orontes II (336–331 BC)

• Mithranes (331–323 BC)

136.1.1 Orontid Kings and Satraps
• Perdiccas (non-dynastic) (323 BC)
In Armenian tradition
• Neoptolemus Orontid (non-dynastic) (323–321 BC)
Early kings in traditional Armenian chronology according
• Eumenes (non-dynastic) (321 BC)
to Moses of Chorene.
Note that the early dates are traditional and of uncertain • Mithranes (321–317 BC)
accuracy.
• Orontes III (317–260 BC)
• Orontes I Sakavakyats (570–560 BC)
• Sames (260–243 BC)
• Tigranes Orontid (560–535 BC)
• Arsames (243–228 BC)
• Vahagn (530–515 BC)
• Xerxes (228–212 BC)
• Hidarnes I (late 6th century BC)
• Hidarnes II (early 5th century BC) • Orontes IV (212–200 BC)

• Hidarnes III (middle of the 5th century BC) • Abdisares ( 189–166 BC)

285
286 CHAPTER 136. LIST OF ARMENIAN KINGS

136.1.2 Artashesian (Artaxiad) Dynasty 136.1.4 Arshakuni (Arsacid) Kings of Ar-

menia
• Artaxias I (190–159 BC)
• Tiridates I (second time) 52–58
• Tigranes I (159–123 BC)
• Tigranes VI 59–62 (Roman protectorate)
• Artavasdes I (123–95 BC)
• Tiridates I 62–88 (Parthian protectorate 62–63;
• Tigranes the Great (Tigranes II, 95–55 BC) from 63 Armenia again becomes a Roman protec-
torate)
• Artavasdes II (55–34 BC)
• Sanatruces (Sanatruk) 88–110
• Artaxias II (33–20 BC)
• Axidares (Ashkhadar) 110–113
• Tigranes III (20–10 BC)
• Parthamasiris (Partamasir) 113–114
• Tigranes IV with Erato (10 BC–2 BC)
• Roman Province 114–117/8
• Vologases I (Vagharsh I) 117/8–144
136.1.3 Roman and Parthian non-dynastic
candidates • Sohaemus 144–161
• Bakur 161–164
• Ariobarzanes, 2 BC to 4 (Roman protectorate)
• Sohaemus (second time) 163/4–186?
• Artavasdes III 4 to 6
• Vologases II (Vagharsh II) 186–198
• Tigranes V, 6 then ruled with Erato 6–12
• Khosrov I 198–217
• Vonones (former king of Parthia) 12–16 (Roman
protectorate) • Tiridates II 217–252
• Khosrov II c. 252
• Roman interregnum 16–18 (Vonones as nominal
king) • Sassanid Occupation 252–287

• Artaxias III 18–35 (Roman protectorate) --- Artavasdes IV 252–287 Sassanid Client King

• Arsaces I of Armenia (son of Artabanus III) 35
(Parthian protectorate)
• Orodes of Armenia (pretender, son of Artabanus
III) 35
• Mithridates 35–37 (Roman protectorate)
• Orodes (now king) 37–42 (Parthian protectorate)
• Mithridates (second time) 42–51 (Roman protec-
torate)
• Rhadamistus (son of Pharasmanes I of Iberia) 51–
53 (Roman protectorate)
• Tiridates I (son of Vonones II of Parthia) 53 (Roman
protectorate)
• Rhadamistus (second time) 53–54 (Roman protec-
torate)
• Tiridates III 287–330 (Roman protectorate again)
• Khosrov III 330–339
• Tigranes VII (Tiran) 339 – c. 350
• Arsaces II (Arshak II) c. 350–368
• Sassanid Occupation 368
• Papas (Pap) 370–374
• Varasdates (Varazdat) 374–378
• Arsaces III (Arshak III) 378–387 with co-ruler
Vologases III (Vagharsh III) 378–386
• Khosrov IV 387–389
• Vramshapuh 389–417
• Local Independent Government 417–422
• Artaxias IV (Artashir IV) 422–428
136.1. GREATER ARMENIA 287

136.1.5 Marzpanate • Hamarakar 591 (governor)

• Veh Mihr Shapur 428–442 • Unknown 591–603 (governors)

• Smbat IV Bagratuni 603–611
Vasak, king of Siunik 442–451
• Shahrayanpet (in the East) 611–613
Vartan Mamikonian[AKA Vartan Zoravar, legendary
Armenian general killed in battle but preserved Armenia • Shahin Vahmanzadaghan (in the West) 611–613
as first Christian nation in the world]
• Parsayenpet 613–616
• Adhur Hormizd (Adrormizd) 451–465 • Namdar Gushnasp 616–619
• Adhur Gushnasp (Ardervechnasp) 465–481 • Shahraplakan (Sarablagas) 619–624
• Sahak Bagratuni 481–482 • Rozbihan 624–627
• Byzantine province 627–628
Military occupation by General Mihran 482
• Varaztirots Bagratuni 628–634
• Vahan Mamikonian (provisional) 482–483
• Unknown 634–?
• Zarmihr Karen (military occupation) 483
• Mjej Gnuni 627–635
• Shapur of Ray 483–484
• Vahan 636
• Vahan Mamikonian (second time) 484–505/510
• Davith Saharuni 636–638
(provisional government 484–485)
• Several extquotedblnakharar extquotedbl 638–643
• Vard Mamikonian (brother) 505/510–509/514
• Theodore Rshtuni 643–645
• Gushnasp Vahram ? 509/514–518
• Varaztirots Bagratuni 645–646
• Mjej Gnuni 518–548

• Tan-Shapur 548–552
136.1.6 Presiding Princes of Armenia
• Gushnasp Vahram (second time?) 552–554
• Theodore Rshtuni 646–653
• Tan-Shapur (second time) 554–558/60
• Smbat I Bagratuni 646–653 (together Theodoros, in
• Varazdat 558/560–564 753 alone)
• Sunen 564–572 • Theodore Rshtuni (second time) 653–654
• Tamkhosrau 577–580 • Musel Mamikonian 654
• Varaz Vzur 580–581 • Maurianos 654
• Aspahbad Pahlav 581–582/588 • Theodore Rshtuni (third time) 654–655
• Frahat 582/588–588/589 • Maurianos (second time) 655
• Hratzin 588/589–590 • Theodore Rshtuni (fourth time) 655
• To Byzantium 590 • Hamazasp Mamikonian 655–661
• Musel Mamikonian 590–591 (governor) • Grigor Mamikonian 661–685
288 CHAPTER 136. LIST OF ARMENIAN KINGS

• Ashot Bagratuni 685–690 136.2 Armenian Kingdom of Cili-

• Nerseh Kamsarakan 690–693 cia
• Smbat II Bagratuni (son of Varaztirots Bagratuni)
693–695 (Muslim protectorate) 136.2.1 Lords/Princes
• Abd Allah ibn Hatim al-Bahili 695–696
136.2.2 Kings and Queens
• Smbat II Bagratuni (second time) 696–705 (inde-
pendent) 136.2.3 Claimants
• To Umayyad Caliphate 705
The title passed to the branch of the Lusignans in Con-
• Ashot III Bagratuni the Blind 732–745 stantinople and eventually Russia. The title is contested
by the House of Savoy.
• Grigor Mamikonian 745–746
• Ashot III Bagratuni the Blind (second time) 746–
750 136.3 References
• Grigor Mamakonian (second time) 750–751
General
• Musel Mamikonian (brother of Grigor) 751–?
• Arab occupation 751–754 • Boase, T. S. R. (1978). The Cilician Kingdom of Ar-
menia. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press. ISBN
• Sahak Bagratuni, lord of Taron 754–771
0-7073-0145-9.
• Smbat Bagratuni 771–772
• Mutafian, Claude (2001). Le Royaume Arménien de
• vacant 772–781 Cilicie. Paris: CNRS Editions. ISBN 2-271-05105-
3.
• Tachat Andzevatsi 781–785
• vacant 785–806 • Histoire Des Princes de Lusignan, Anciens Rois
de Jérusalem, de la Petite Arménie et de Chypre,
St.Petersbourg, Soikine, Stremiannaya 12, 1903
136.1.7 Bagratuni Kings
• Ashot I the Great, 885–890 136.4 See also
• Smbat I the Martyr, 890–914
• List of rulers of Commagene
• Ashot II the Iron, 914–928
• List of monarchs of the Armenian Kingdom of Cili-
• Abas I of Armenia, 928–952
cia
• Ashot III the Merciful, 952–977
• Smbat II the Conqueror, 977–989
• Gagik I, 989–1020
• Hovhannes-Smbat of Ani - Hovhannes [John]-
Smbat III (XI) (son), 1020–1040
--- Ashot IV the Valiant, 1021–1039 (concur-
rently in certain regions after rebellion against
Hovhannes-Smbat)
• Gagik II, 1042–1045, died c. 1079
Chapter 137

Orontid Dynasty

The Orontid Dynasty (also known by their native name,
Yervanduni (Armenian: Երվանդունիներ, Persian:
‫ )اروﻧﺪی‬was a hereditary Armenian dynasty and the rulers
of the successor state to the Iron Age kingdom of
Urartu (Ararat).[1][2][3] The Orontids established their
supremacy over Armenia around the time of the Scythian
and Median invasion in the sixth century BC.
Of probable Iranian origin,[4] members of the dynasty
ruled Armenia intermittently during the period spanning
the sixth century to at least the second century BC, first
as client kings or satraps of the Median and Achaemenid
empires who established an independent kingdom after
the collapse of the Achaemenid empire, and later as kings
of Sophene and Commagene who eventually succumbed
to the Roman Empire.
137.1 Historical background
nian. The name is only attested in Greek (Gr.:Ὀρόντης).
Its Avestan connection is Auruuant (brave, hero) and
Middle Persian Arwand (Modern Persian ‫ اروند‬Arvand).
Some have suggested a continuity with the Hittite name
Arnuwanda. Various Greek transcriptions of the name in
Classical sources are spelled as Orontes, Aruandes or Ar-
doates. The presence of this dynasty is attested from at
least 400 BC, and it can be shown to have ruled, originally
from Armavir and subsequently Yervandashat. The pre-
cise date of the foundation of the Orontid Dynasty is de-
bated by scholars to this day but there is a consensus that it
occurred after the destruction of Urartu by the Scythians
and the Medes around 612 BC.
137.2 Orontids Kings and satraps
of Armenia
Black Sea Caspian Sea

Kou
ra

ia
rian

en
Akhu

Lake
rm
Kour
Yervandashat Sevan a
rA

Armavir
e
ss
Le

GREATER ARMENIA xe
Eu

Ara
ph
ra
te

Arshamashat
Lake
Dsopk Van
Van

Musasir Lake

Urmia

MEDIA
Méditerraneen Sea

Antioch
Tig
re
Seleucia
Ecbatana

SELEUCID EMPIRE
Eu 0 (km) 200
ph
ra (mi) 120
te 0

Orontid Armenia in 250 BC

The Satrapy of Armenia under the Orontid Dynasty. Xenophon mentions an Armenian king named Tigranes
in his Cyropaedia. He was an ally of Cyrus the Great with
The name Orontes is the Hellenized form of a masculine whom he hunted. Tigranes paid tribute to Astyages. His
name of Iranian origin; Երուանդ Eruand in Old Arme- elder son was also named Tigranes. Upon the outbreak

289
290
of hostilities between Medes and Babylonians, Tigranes
had renounced his treaty obligations to the Medes. As
a successor of Astyages, Cyrus demanded to be paid the
same tribute. Strabo corroborates this in his Geography
(xi.13.5). In 521 BC, with the disturbances that oc-
curred after the death of Cambyses and the proclama-
tion of Smerdis as King, the Armenians revolted. Darius
I of Persia sent an Armenian named Dâdarši to suffo-
cate the revolt, later substituting him for the Persian Vau-
misa who defeated the Armenians on May 20, 521 BC.
Around the same time, another Armenian by the name
of Arakha, son of Haldita, claimed to be the son of the
last king of Babylon, Nabonidus, and renamed himself
Nebuchadnezzar IV. His rebellion was short lived and was
suppressed by Intaphrenes, Darius’ bow carrier.
An Armenian tribute bearer carrying a metal vessel with griffin
handles. Fifth century BC
These events are described in detail within the Behistun
inscription. After the administrative reorganization of
the Persian Empire, Armenia was converted into several
satrapies. Armenian satraps regularly intermarried with
the family of the King of Kings. These satraps provided
contingents to Xerxes' invasion of Greece in 480 BC.
Herodotus says that the Armenians in the army of Xerxes
“were armed like the Phrygians.” In 401 BC Xenophon
marched through Armenia with a large army of Greek
mercenaries. Xenophon mentions two individuals by the
name Orontes, apparently both Persian. One was a no-
bleman and military officer of high rank, belonging to the
CHAPTER 137. ORONTID DYNASTY
royal family; as the commander of the citadel of Sardis,
he waged war against Cyrus the Younger and he tried to
betray him to Artaxerxes II Memnon shortly before the
battle of Cunaxa, but was taken prisoner and sentenced
to death by a court martial. Xenophon’s Anabasis has a
detailed description of the country, there it is also written
that the region near the river Centrites was defended by
the satrap of Armenia for Artaxerxes II, named Orontes
son of Artasyras who had Armenian contingents as well
as Alarodians. Tiribaz is mentioned as hipparchos (vice-
governor) of Armenia under Orontes, who later became
satrap of Lydia.
Silver Rhyton, Yerznka, Armenia, Fifth Century BC.
In 401 BC Artaxerxes gave him his daughter Rhodogoune
in marriage. In two inscriptions of king Antiochus I of
Commagene on his monument at Nemrut an Orontes,
called Aroandes (son of Artasouras and husband of Ar-
taxerxes’s daughter Rhodogoune), is reckoned, among
others, as an ancestor of the Orontids ruling over
Commagene, who traced back their family to Darius
I. Diodorus Siculus mentions another Orontes, possibly
the same, that in 362 BC was satrap of Mysia and was
137.3. ORONTIDS OF COMMAGENE 291

the leaders of the revolting satraps of Asia Minor for 137.3 Orontids of Commagene
which position he was best fitting because of his noble
birth and his hatred of the king. Misled by his love In Nemrut Dagi, opposite the statues of Gods there are
of power and fraud, he betrayed his fellow satraps to a long row of pedestals, on which stood the steles of the
the king. But he revolted a second time, probably ow- Greek ancestors of Antiochos. At a right angle to this
ing to his dissatisfaction with the king’s rewards, and row stood another row of steles, depicting his Orontid
launched several attacks, which were continued in the and Achaemenid ancestors. From these steles the ones
reign of the new king Artaxerxes III Ochus. During of Darius and Xerxes are well preserved. In front of each
that time he also conquered and occupied the town of stele is a small altar. Inscriptions have been found on two
Pergamum, but finally he must have become reconciled of those altars. Much attention was given by Antiochos
with the king. In 349 he was honored by a decree of that everyone would be aware that he was related to the
the Athenians with the civic rights and a golden wreath. dynasty of the King of Kings, Darius I, by the marriage
Many coins were struck by him during the Satraps’ Re- of princess Rhodogune to his ancestor Orontes. The fa-
volt in Clazomenae, Phocaea, and Lampsacus. All sub- ther of Rhodogune was the Persian king, Artaxerxes. In
sequent Orontids are his descendants. Darius III was the 401 BC he defeated his younger brother, who tried to
satrap of Armenia following Orontes, from 344 to 336 throw him from his throne. Because of the help Artax-
BC. An Armenian contingent was present at the Battle erxes received from his military commander and satrap
of Gaugamela under the command of Orontes and a cer- of Armenia, Orontes, he gave his daughter in marriage to
tain Mithraustes. Diodorus mentions that Orontes was him. Their descendant, Orontid Mithradates I Kallinikos
a friend of the Macedonian general Peucestas. Armenia married Seleucid Princess Laodike Thea Philadelphos.
formally passed to the Macedonian Empire, as its rulers
submitted to Alexander the Great. Alexander appointed
an Orontid named Mithranes to govern Armenia follow-
ing the defeat of Orontes II. With the agreement at Baby- 137.4 Orontid Kings in Armenian
lon after Alexander’s death (323 BC) Armenia was as- tradition
signed to Neoptolemus, and kept it till his death in battle
in 321 BC. Around 302 BC the capital was transferred • Orontes I Sakavakyats (570–560 BC)
from Armavir to Yervandashat by Orontes.
Starting from 301 BC Armenia is included within the • Tigranes Orontid (560–535 BC)
sphere of influence of the Seleucid Empire, but it main-
• Vahagn (530–515 BC)
tained a considerable degree of autonomy, retaining its
native rulers. According to Polyaenus, in 227 BC the Se- • Hidarnes I (late 6th century BC)
leucid rebel king Antiochus Hierax took refuge in Ar-
menian territory governed by King Arsames, founder of • Hidarnes II (early 5th century BC)
the city Arsamosata. Towards the end 212 BC the coun-
try is divided between two kings both vassals of the Se- • Hidarnes III (middle of 5th century BC)
leucids: Greater Armenia and Armenia Sophene includ-
• Ardashir (2nd half of 5th century BC)
ing Commagene or Armenia Minor. Antiochus III the
Great, decided to suppress the local dynasties, he be-
sieged Arsamosata. Xerxes surrendered and implored the
clemency of the king, whom he accepted as his sovereign. 137.5 Kings and Satraps
Antiochus gave his sister Antiochis as a wife to Xerxes,
who later murdered Xerxes. Greater Armenia was ruled • Orontes (401–344 BC)
by an Orontid descendant of Hydarnes, the last Orontid
ruler of Greater Armenia (Strabo xi.14.15); he was ap- • Darius Codomannus (344–336 BC)
parently subdued by Antiochus III the Great, who then
divided the land between his generals Artaxias (Artashes)
and Zariadres (Zareh), both of whom would claim de- 137.5.1 Orontid Dynasty
scent from the Orontid family.
• Orontes II (336–331 BC)
292
• Mithranes (331–323 BC)
• Perdiccas (non-dynastic) (323 BC)
• Neoptolemus (non-dynastic) (323–321 BC)
• Eumenes (non-dynastic) (321 BC)
• Mihran (321–317 BC)
• Orontes III (317–260 BC)
• Sames of Sophene (Armenia and Sophene circa 260
BC, unknown previous tenure as Satrap of Sophene)
• Arsames I (260 BC–228 BC) (Armenia, Sophene,
and Commagene)
• Charaspes (doubtful)
• Arsames II (Sophene ca. 230 BC, possibly same
person as Arsames I)
• Xerxes (228–212 BC) (Sophene and Commagene)
• Abdissares (212–200 BC) (Sophene and Comma-
gene)
• Orontes IV (228–200 BC) (Armenia)
• Ptolemaeus (201 BC–163 BC) (Commagene)
• Seleucid rule (200–189 BC)
• Artaxiad rule (189–163 BC)
137.6 Orontid Kings of Comma-
gene
• Ptolemaeus 163 BC–130 BC
• Sames II Theosebes Dikaios 130 BC–109 BC
• Mithridates I Callinicus 109 BC–70 BC
• Antiochus I Theos 70 BC–38 BC
• Mithridates II 38 BC–20 BC
• Mithridates III 20 BC–12 BC
• Antiochus III 12 BC–17
• Ruled by Rome 17–38
• Antiochus IV 38–72 and wife, Iotapa
CHAPTER 137. ORONTID DYNASTY
137.7 See also
• Artaxiad Dynasty
• Commagene
• List of rulers of Commagene
137.8 Notes
[1] Toumanoff, Cyril (1963). Studies in Christian Caucasian
history. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
pp. 278ff.
[2] (Armenian) Tiratsyan, Gevorg. «Երվանդունիներ»
(Yerevanduniner). Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. vol.
iii. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1977, p.
640.
[3] Krause, Todd B. and John A.C. Greppin, and Jonathan
Slocum. extquotedblThe Yervanduni Dynasty.” The A.
Richard Diebold Center for Indo-European Language and
Culture at the University of Texas. Jan. 22, 2009.
[4] Garsoïan, Nina (1997). “The Emergence of Armenia” in
The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, Vol-
ume I, The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Four-
teenth Century. Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.) New York:
St. Martin’s Press, pp. 46-47. ISBN 0-312-10169-4.
137.9 Additional reading
• Cyril Toumanoff. “A Note on the Orontids.” Le
Museon. 72 (1959), pp. 1–36 and 73 (1960), pp.
73–106.
• (Armenian) Hakop Manandyan. Քննական
Տեսություն Հայ Ժողովրդի Պատմության (A Crit-
ical Study of the History of the Armenian People).
vol. i. Yerevan: Haypethrat, 1944.
137.10 External links
• The Yervanduni Dynasty-A. Richard Diebold Cen-
ter for Indo-European Language and Culture
Chapter 138

Orontes I

Orontes I (Armenian: Երուանդ Ա, Yervand I) alone. He captured the city of Pergamon and sent bribe
Armenian King of Orontid Dynasty reigning in the pe- money to Athens, where a decree records his name for an
riod between 401 BC – 344 BC. The Persian version of alliance. He had enough funds to plot such things as he is
the name is Auruand which meant “Great Warrior” in recorded to have had a personal fortune of 3,000 talents
the Avestan language. It is likely this was a special ti- of silver.
tle given by the Persian king to a chosen Armenian man, In 355 BC he rebelled against the new king of the
though this seems to have become a hereditary title in that Achaemenid Empire, Artaxerxes III. He still had pos-
family. session of parts of western Anatolia, he fought a battle
against the satrap of Daskyleion and minted his own coins
in Ionia, such as the one displayed in the Bibliothèque Na-
tionale in Paris. He handed back Pergamon to the king
138.1 Biography and subsequently died.
The kings of the Kingdom of Commagene claimed de-
According to the Greek sources (Herodotus, Strabo)
scent from Orontes with Darius I of Persia as their
Orontes was made Satrap of Sophene and Matiene
ancestor, by his marriage to Rodogoune, daughter of
(Mitanni),[1] these comprised western and eastern
Artaxerxes II who had a family descent from king Dar-
Armenia.
ius I. Some ancient Greek sources called Orontes a “Bac-
He was given these Satrapies after the Battle of Cunaxa trian”, though it was because his father, Artasyrus (Ar-
in 401 BC for supporting Artaxerxes II against Cyrus the taxerxes), had been the Satrap of Bactria in the reign of
Younger. It is likely he ruled from Armavir as the previ- king Artaxerxes II.
ous Satrap of Armenia, Hydarnes, had ruled from there.
It is interesting that during the Achaemenid Empire
He also married Rodogoune, the daughter of king Artax-
Bactria was ruled by the heir to the throne. It is possible
erxes II by one of his concubines. He is next recorded
that Artasyrus is the same person as king Artaxerxes II.
in 381 BC for the campaign to recapture Cyprus from
This king had seven known children and eleven children
its rebel leader, King Evagoras, commanding the army,
whose names are not known in western historical records.
whilst the navy was under the command of Tiribazus.
They managed to lay siege to the city of Salamis, how- Xenophon's Anabasis mentions the region near the river
ever Orontes then impeached Tiribazus to king Artax- Centrites was defended by the satrap of Armenia for
erxes II. Before three Persian noble judges, Orontes was Artaxerxes II, named Orontes son of Artasyras who had
found guilty. Armenian contingents. Xenophon mentioned that he had
a son called Tigranes. His successor was Codomannus
In 362 BC a great rebellion occurred in Anatolia, led by
(Darius III) and after Codomannus these Satrapies were
Datames, Satrap of Cappadocia (Revolt of the Satraps).
ruled by Orontes II. Whether he was the same person as
Some sources say that it was Orontes who was chosen by
Tigranes but had adopted the name Orontes or that they
the rebels as their leader. However Orontes stayed loyal to
were brothers is not known.
king Artaxerxes II and aided in the collapse of the rebel-
lion. Apparently he wanted to rule Anatolia and Armenia

293
294 CHAPTER 138. ORONTES I

138.2 References
J. M. Cook [2] Richard G. Hovannisian [3]

[1] Petrie, Flinders. Mitannian (Armenian) origin

[2] The Persian Empire, 1993

[3] The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 2

vols. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997
Chapter 139

Orontes II

Orontes II (Armenian: Երուանդ Բ, Yervand II) was the

son of Orontes I. After Codomannus ascended the throne
of Persia as Darius III in 336 BC Orontes was given the
Satrapy of Armenia to rule.
At the Battle of Gaugamela he fought on the right flank for
king Darius III, with 40,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry[1]
under his command. He died there.
Ironically his son, Mithrenes, Satrap of Lydia, had joined
king Alexander III after being defeated at Sardis in 334
BC. He then fought at the Battle of Gaugamela on the
side of Alexander. After the battle he was made Satrap
of Armenia by Alexander.

139.1 References
J. M. Cook[2] Richard G. Hovannisian[3] Professor David
Marshall Lang[4]

[1] Lang, David Marshall. “Iran, Armenia and Georgia: Po-

litical Contacts”. Cambridge History of Iran 3.

[2] The Persian Empire

[3] The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 2

vols. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997

[4] Iran, Armenia and Georgia: Political Contacts. In Cam-

bridge History of Iran, Volume 3

295
Chapter 140

Mithrenes

Mithrenes (Armenian: Միհրան, Greek: Mιθρένης or 140.2 Notes

Mιθρίνης) was an Armenian commander of the Persian
force that garrisoned the citadel of Sardis. After the [1] Curtius, Historiae Alexandri Magni, vi. 3
battle of the Granicus Mithrines surrendered voluntar-
ily to Alexander the Great, and was treated by him with [2] Justin, Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum Pompei Trogi,
xxxviii. 7
great distinction. He fought for Alexander at Gaugamela,
and ironically he was fighting against an army that in- [3] Neoptolemus (general)
cluded his father Orontes II. After the battle, Alexander
appointed him Satrap of Armenia, as his father had been.
This article incorporates text from a publication now
It’s not clear, however, whether Mithrenes actually man- in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
aged to take control of his satrapy. According to Curtius, extquotedblarticle name needed extquotedbl. Dictionary of
in his speech given at Hecatompylos in 330 BC Alexan- Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
der the Great listed Armenia among lands conquered
by Macedonians, implying that Mithrenes succeeded in
conquering it;[1] on the other hand, Justin reproduced
Pompeius Trogus’ rendition of a speech attributed to
Mithridates VI of Pontus, which mentioned that Alexan-
der did not conquer Armenia.[2]
In summary, Mithrenes ruled on behalf of the new Mace-
donian regime. However after the death of Alexander III,
Neoptolemus was made Satrap of Armenia from 323 to
321 BC.[3]
After the death of Neoptolemus, and the struggles go-
ing on with the Diadochi it seems Mithrenes not only re-
turned to his ancestral seat but declared himself king.

140.1 References

• Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and

Roman Biography and Mythology, “Mithrenes”,
Boston, (1867)

296
Chapter 141

Orontes III

Orontes III (Armenian: Երուանդ Գ, Yervand III) was

King of Armenia. In his reign he struggled for control of
the Kingdom of Sophene with king Antiochus II Theos
until being defeated in 272 BC and was forced to pay
a large tribute which included 300 talents of silver and
1,000 horses and mules. Orontes III was subsequently
murdered in 260 BC, whether at the instigation of King
Antiochus II is not recorded. His son, Sames, continued
to rule in Sophene.

141.1 References
Richard G. Hovannisian[1]

[1] The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 2

vols. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997

• Diodor 19,23; 31,19,4f.

• Polyainos 4,8,3
• Appian Syriaca 55

297
Chapter 142

Sames of Commagene

For other uses, see Sames (disambiguation). tradition of Satraps with Armenian and Persian names.
The neighbouring region of Osroene maintained a strong
Sames (Armenian: Շամուշ, Greek: Σαμωσ) was Satrap Aramaic culture that the Armenian and Persian occupiers
of Commagene. never replaced. Although Sames had a very Babylonian
(Aramaic) name, his name might have been “Mihrdat”
War between the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic which many of his successors had, but replaced it with
Kingdom seems to have allowed Sames an opportunity the Babylonian equivalent for cultural reasons on taking
of independence. What side he took in the Syrian Wars control of Commagene.
is unknown as most of the records of that era have been
He was succeeded by his son, Arsames I.
lost, though it would make sense that he would have sup-
ported the Ptolemaic Kingdom against his large and pow-
erful neighbour, the Seleucid Empire.
142.1 See also
Most sources give Orontes III as his father. After Orontes
III died in 260 BC, there is no record for when Sames be-
gan his rule, only his year of death, in 260 BC as well. • Kingdom of Commagene
This seems to be blundered, chronogically. It may be • List of rulers of Commagene
that Sames was meant to succeed Orontes IV, but died
the same year. That they both died in the same year
looks suspicious, and may have been a Seleucid plot to
take control, however it seems Arsames I took control of
142.2 References
Commagene, Sophene and Armenia after 260 AD, and
even that makes him look suspect. Richard G. Hovannisian[1]
Commagene was outside the boundary of historic
Armenia, yet the Armenian Satraps remained in occu- • Wayne G. Sayles, “Ancient Coin Collecting VI:
pation of many regions of Anatolia, such as Cappadocia Non-Classical Cultures”, Krause Publications,
and Pontus. It may have been that the son and heir to the 1999, ISBN 0-87341-753-4, p. 29
Armenian kingdom would rule another region, just as the
son or heir to the Achaemenid Empire had always ruled
an outlying region, such as Bactria or Hyrkania. Viewing [1] The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 2
it from this perspective it would make sense, as his father vols. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997
Orontes III was of the Orontid family.
Sames founded the city of Samosata, which has been sub-
merged by the Ataturk Dam since 1989.
Shamash was a Babylonian god, equivalent to Mithra,
it was a dramatic break from a seemingly continuous

298
Chapter 143

Arsames I

For other people named Arsames, see Arsames (disam- 143.1 Children
biguation).
• Xerxes, King of Armenia and Sophene 228 - 212
Arsames I (Armenian: Արշամ) seems to have taken BC
control of Commagene, Sophene and Armenia in the
• Orontes IV, King of Armenia 212 - 200 BC
year 260 BC after the death of his grandfather Orontes
III, king of Armenia, and his father Sames, king of • Mithrenes II, High Priest of the temple to the Sun
Commagene. and Moon at Armavir.
Quite why they both died in the same year is not recorded,
though it looks suspicious. It is known the Seleucid Em-
pire was always trying to overthrow the Armenian dynas- 143.2 See also
ties who still ruled the lands their forebears had in the
time of the Achaemenid Empire. • Commagene
Ziaelas of Bithynia found refuge at the court of king • List of rulers of Commagene
Arsames, and upon the death of king Nicomedes I of
Bithynia Ziaelas returned to take the kingdom in 254 BC.
Arsames also supported Antiochus Hierax against his 143.3 References
brother, Seleucus II Callinicus, who was defeated at a bat-
tle against king Mithridates II of Pontus near Ankara in
Richard G. Hovannisian[1]
239 BC, after which Seleucus lost control of any lands he
had across the Taurus mountains. This was to the benefit
of Arsames. [1] The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 2
vols. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997
Arsames then founded the cities of Arsamosata in
Sophene and Arsameia (known today as Eski Kale) in
Commagene in 235 BC.
After his death his eldest son Xerxes, became king of
Commagene, Sophene and Armenia. Orontes IV would
succeed Xerxes whilst another son known as “Mithras”
(or Mithrenes II) is recorded as being the High Priest of
the temple to the Sun and Moon at Armavir.

299
Chapter 144

Charaspes

Charaspes was a Scythian king ruling in the Black Sea

region.
He was initially thought to be the King of Sophene c. 230
BC, attested only by a single coin currently kept in the
Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.
However, there is controversy whether or not this king
is actually an Armenian: he is not mentioned in the in-
scriptions on Mount Nemrut which list the ancestors of
Antiochus I Theos, and from other coin finds it appears
that Charaspes was the name of a Scythian king in the
western Black Sea region. It is quite possible that he is
not an Armenian king, but rather a numismatical error.

300
Chapter 145

Arsames II

For other people named Arsames, see Arsames (disam-

biguation).

Arsames II was the King of Sophene who offered asylum

to Antiochus Hierax. Prince Cyril Toumanoff considers
Arsames II to be the same person as Arsames I.

145.1 External links

• http://www.acsearch.info/record.html?id=413117

301
Chapter 146

Xerxes of Armenia

Xerxes (Armenian: Շավարշ – Šavarš, Ancient Greek: • Commagene

Ξέρξης - Xerxes, Old Persian: Ḫšayāršā).
• List of rulers of Commagene
He succeeded his father Arsames I to rule both Sophene
and Commagene in 228 BC, his brother Orontes IV ruled
Armenia. The Satraps of Upper Media, Lower Media
and Persis Persis rebelled against king Antiochus III in
146.3 References
223 BC. Also in 223 BC Achaeus, the Satrap of Asia
Minor, rebelled. By 220 BC he put down most of the • Johann Gustav Droysen, Geschichte des Hellenis-
rebellions, Achaeus was not defeated until 213 BC. mus, vol. ii. p. 73

All of these rebellions helps to understand the context, • Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, vol. iii. p. 204.
and motives for the subsequent actions of Antiochus III
on king Xerxes. By 212 BC Antiochus III had invaded Richard G. Hovannisian[1]
the domain of Xerxes and defeated him after laying siege
to the city of Arsamosata. Shortly afterwards Antiochus [1] The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 2
III arranged for Xerxes to marry his sister, Antiochis. vols. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997
This move seems to show the power or influence Xerxes
had in the region. However within the same year she
arranged to have her new husband assassinated, think-
ing that Antiochus III would be able to take control of
Sophene. Whether Xerxes had still ruled Commagene by
the time of his assassination is not known.
Antiochus III had many military campaigns to take com-
mand of and so rather than ruling Sophene he seems to
have preferred to place Sophene under the rule of Xerxes
son, Abdissares (Zareh).

146.1 Notes
• ^ Polybius, VIII.25

146.2 See also

• Antiochus III the Great

302
Chapter 147

Abdissares

Abdissares ruled the kingdom of Sophene after the as-

sassination of his father, Xerxes in 212 BC.
There are no known western sources for this king, only
numismatic. His coins are almost similar to those of his
father.
His name seems to include the Aramaic prefix “Abd”
which means slave. Aramaic was widely used in that re-
gion, and yet why would he have such a name, compared
to his Armenian father Xerxes or brother Orontes IV?
This may have seem as a slur by the local Aramaic peo-
ple, yet it is borne on his coins.
“Ssares” sounds like Zareh (known in Greek sources as
Zariadres), and it was Zareh who overthrew Abdissares
in 200 BC.
These coups were the workings of king Antiochus III
which also saw Zareh’s son Artaxias (Artaxerxes) over-
throw Orontes IV to become King of Armenia.

147.1 References
Richard G. Hovannisian[1]

[1] The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 2

vols. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997

303
Chapter 148

Orontes IV

Orontes IV (Armenian: Երվանդ Դ, Yervand IV) was

the son of King Arsames and is recorded as ruling
Armenia from inscriptions found at the historic capital of
the Orontid dynasty, Armavir. In his reign the religious
site of Bagaran was founded. Large bronze statues in the
Hellenistic style of the gods, Zeus (Aramazd), Artemis
(Anahit) and Herakles (Vahagn) were brought there and
set up in temples dedicated to them. He is also said to
have founded a shrine at Armavir dedicated to Apollo
(Mithra), a golden statue of four horses pulling a chariot
with Apollo as god of the Sun. This was later destroyed
by the Sassanid Persian army in the 4th century AD.
King Antiochus III instigated a revolt against King
Orontes IV. Strabo, who wrote about this 200 years later,
stated that it was general Artaxias I, who was also an
Orontid, who overthrew King Orontes IV. Aramaic in-
scriptions found at Armavir state that King Orontes IV
died at the hands of his own army, in other words by be-
trayal from Artaxias I. This was most likely bribery of the
Armenian army by King Antiochus III.
Artaxias I took over as King of Armenia soon afterwards,
according to Strabo.

148.1 References
J. M. Cook[1] Richard G. Hovannisian[2]

[1] The Persian Empire, 1993

[2] The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 2

vols. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997

148.2 External links

304
Chapter 149
Artaxiad dynasty
The Artaxiad dynasty or Ardaxiad dynasty (Ar-
tashessian Dynasty, Armenian: Արտաշեսեան
արքայատոհմ) ruled the Kingdom of Armenia from
189 BC until their overthrow by the Romans in AD 12.
Their realm included Greater Armenia, Sophene and in-
termittently Lesser Armenia and parts of Mesopotamia.
Their main enemies were the Romans, the Seleucids
and the Parthians, against whom the Armenians had to
conduct multiple wars. During this period, Armenian
culture experienced considerable Hellenistic influence.
149.1 Historical background
Dynasty of Artaxiad
According to the geographer Strabo, Artaxias and
Zariadres were two satraps of the Seleucid Empire, who
ruled over the provinces of Greater Armenia and Sophene
respectively. After the Seleucid defeat at the Battle of
Magnesia in 190 BC, they revolted and declared their in-
dependence, with Artaxias (Armenian: Արտաշես) be-
305
coming the first king of the Artaxiad dynasty of Arme-
nia in 188. However, some Armenian scholars believe
that Artaxias and Zariadres were not foreign generals
but local figures related to the previous Orontid dynasty,
as their Irano-Armenian (and not Greek) names would
indicate.[1]
According to Encyclopaedia Iranica, Artaxiad dynasty
has now been identified as a branch of the earlier
Eruandid dynasty of Iranian origin attested as ruling in
Armenia from at least the 5th century B.C.E.[2]
149.2 Consolidation of Armenian
lands under Artaxias
Artaxias is regarded as one of the most important kings
in Armenian history. He presented himself as a legiti-
mate descendant of Orontids, although it is unknown if
he was in fact related to that dynasty. In the beginning of
his rule, parts of the Armenian Highlands with Armenian
speaking populations remained under the rule of neigh-
bouring states. Artaxias made the reunification of those
lands under his domain a priority. Greek geographer and
historian Strabo recounts the conquests of Artaxias to-
wards West, East, North and South as well as stating that
the population of those territories was Armenian speak-
ing. Strabo, Geography, book 11, chapter 14:
According to report, Armenia, though a small
country in earlier times, was enlarged by Ar-
taxias and Zariadris, who formerly were gen-
erals of Antiochus the Great, but later, after his
defeat, reigned as kings (the former as king of
Sophene, Acisene, Odomantis, and certain other
countries, and the latter as king of the coun-
306 CHAPTER 149. ARTAXIAD DYNASTY

try round Artaxata), and jointly enlarged their lus seized the Armenian capital Tigranocerta, he found
kingdoms by cutting off for themselves parts of a troupe of Greek actors who had arrived to perform
the surrounding nations,--I mean by cutting off plays for Tigranes.[3] Tigranes’ successor Artavasdes II
Caspiane and Phaunitis and Basoropeda from even composed Greek tragedies himself. Nevertheless,
the country of the Medes; and the country along Armenian culture still retained a strong Iranian element,
the side of Mt. Paryadres and Chorsene and particularly in religious matters.[4]
Gogarene, which last is on the far side of the
Cyrus River, from that of the Iberians; and
Carenitis and Xerxene, which border on Lesser
Armenia or else are parts of it, from that of the
Chalybians and the Mosynoeci; and Acilisene
149.4 Armenian Empire
and the country round the Antitaurus from that
of the Cataonians; and Taronitis from that of
the Syrians; and therefore they all speak the
same language.

According to Strabo and Plutarch, Artaxias also founded

the Armenian capital Artaxata with the aid of the
Carthaginian general Hannibal who was being sheltered
from the Romans within Artaxias’ court. The population
of the previous Orontid capital of Ervandashat was trans-
ferred to Artaxata. Over a dozen stone boundary markers
have been discovered on the territory of modern Arme-
nia from the time of the reign of Artaxias with Aramaic
inscriptions, before their discovery the existence of these The Armenian empire under Tigranes the Great
stones was attested by Moses of Khorene. In these in-
scriptions Artaxias claims descent from the Orontid Dy- During the reign of Tigranes the Great (95–55 BC), the
nasty: King Artaxias, the son of Orontid Zariadres. kingdom of Armenia was at the zenith of its power and
briefly became the most powerful state to the Roman east.
Artaxias and his followers had already constructed the
149.3 Hellenistic culture base upon which Tigranes built his empire. Despite this
fact, the territory of Armenia, being a mountainous one,
Though Greater Armenia had only been superficially af- was governed by nakharars who were largely autonomous
fected by the conquests of Alexander the Great, the coun- from the central authority. Tigranes unified them in or-
try began to be influenced by the Hellenistic world under der to create internal security in the kingdom. The bor-
the Orontids in the third century and this process reached ders of Armenia stretched from the Caspian Sea to the
its peak under the Artaxiads, particularly King Tigranes Mediterranean Sea. At that time, the Armenians had be-
the Great. During this time, Armenia incorporated many come so expansive, that the Romans and Parthians had
Greek elements into its culture. This is shown by the to join forces in order to beat them. Tigranes found
contemporary Armenian coins (which had first appeared a more central capital within his domain and named it
under the Orontids). They clearly follow Greek models Tigranocerta.
and have inscriptions in the Greek language. Some coins Large chunks of lands were taken from Parthians, who
describe the Armenian kings as “Philhellenes” (“lovers were forced to sign a treaty of friendship with Tigranes.
of Greek culture”). Knowledge of Greek in Armenia is Iberia, Albania, and Atropatene also lost territories and
also evidenced by surviving parchments and rock inscrip- the remainder of their Kingdoms became vassal states.
tions. Cleopatra, the wife of Tigranes the Great, invited The Greeks within the Seleucid Empire offered Tigranes
Greeks such as the rhetor Amphicrates and the historian the Seleucid crown in 83, after which the Armenian em-
Metrodorus of Scepsis to the Armenian court, and - ac- pire reached as far south as modern Acre, Israel resulting
cording to Plutarch - when the Roman general Lucul- in a conflict with Hasmoneans.
149.7. NOTES 307

149.5 Decline • Artaxias II (33 BC–20 AD)

• Tigranes III (20 BC–10 AD)

Roman involvement in Asia Minor brought Tigranes’ em-
pire to an end. Tigranes had allied himself with Rome’s • Tigranes IV with Erato (10–2 BC)
great enemy Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus, and
during the Third Mithridatic War, in 69 BC, a Roman • Ariobarzanes (2 BC–4 AD)
army led by Lucullus invaded the Armenian empire and • Artavasdes III (4–6 AD)
routed Tigranes outside Tigranocerta. In 66, Lucullus’
successor Pompey finally forced Tigranes to surrender. • Tigranes V 6 then ruled with Erato (6–12 AD)
Pompey reduced Armenia to its former borders but al-
lowed Tigranes to retain the throne as an ally of Rome.
From now on, Armenia would become a buffer state be- 149.7 Notes
tween the two competing empires of the Romans and the
Parthians. [1] Hovannisian pp.47-48
Tigranes’ heir Artavasdes II maintained the alliance
[2] Encyclopædia Iranica. Tigran II.
with Rome, giving helpful advice to the Roman gen-
eral Marcus Licinius Crassus on his campaign against [3] Grousset pp.90-91
the Parthians – advice which went unheeded and led
to Crassus’ disastrous defeat at the Battle of Carrhae. [4] This section: Hovannisian pp.50-52
When Mark Antony became ruler of Rome’s eastern [5] This section: Hovannisian pp.58-62
provinces, he began to suspect the loyalty of Artavas-
des, who had married his sister to the heir to the Parthian [6] Dates from Hovanissian page 62
throne. In 35, Antony invaded Armenia and sent Artavas-
des into captivity in Egypt, where he was later executed.
Antony installed his own six-year old son by Cleopatra, 149.8 See also
Alexander Helios, on the throne of Armenia. Artavasdes’
son Artaxias II gained help from the Parthians, seized the • Artaxiad dynasty of Iberia
throne back and massacred the Roman garrisons in Ar-
menia, but after a reign of ten years he was murdered.
The kingdom broke down into a civil war between pro-
Roman and pro-Parthian parties until it decisively be-
149.9 Bibliography
came a Roman protectorate under the emperor Augustus.
The Artaxiad dynasty petered out in chaos and it was a • Hovannisian, Richard G. (2004). The Armenian
considerable time before the Arsacid dynasty emerged as People From Ancient to Modern Times: Vol. I: The
their undisputed successors.[5] Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth
Century. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 372 pages. ISBN
1-4039-6421-1.
149.6 Artaxiad Kings of Armenia
• Grousset, René (originally 1947; 1995 ed.). Histoire
de l'Arménie des origines à 1071. Payot. p. 644
(Note: Some dates are approximate or doubtful).[6]
pages. ISBN 2-228-88912-1.

• Artaxias I (190–159 BC)

• Tigranes I (159–123 BC)
• Artavasdes I (123–95 BC)
• Tigranes the Great (Tigranes II, 95–55 BC)
• Artavasdes II (55–34 BC)
Chapter 150
Artaxias I
For the king of Iberia, see Artaxias I of Iberia.
Artaxias I (Greek: Άρταξίας, Artashes Armenian: king; Artaxias over Greater
Արտաշես; reigned 190/189 BC – 160/159 BC) was the
founder of the Artaxiad Dynasty whose members ruled According to Strabo and Plutarch, Artashes also founded
the Kingdom of Armenia for nearly two centuries.
150.1 Biography
By the end of the 3rd century BC, the kingdom of Arme-
nia was made up of around 120 dynastic domains ruled
by nakharars, loosely united under the Orontid kings of
Greater and Lesser Armenia.[1] Even though Alexander
the Great did not conquer Armenia, Hellenistic cul-
ture had strongly impacted Armenian society. When
Antiochus the Great wrestled Armenia from Orontid rule,
he appointed Artaxias as strategos.
Artaxias I Funeral
Following his monarch’s defeat by the Romans at the
Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, Artaxias and his co-
308
strategos Zariadres revolted and, with Roman con-
sent, began to reign autonomously with the title of
[2]
Armenia and Zariadres over
Sophene/Lesser Armenia.
the Armenian capital Artashat (Artaxata) with the aid of
the Carthaginian general Hannibal who was being shel-
tered from the Romans within Artashesians’ court. The
population of the previous Yervanduni (Orontid) capi-
tal of Yervandashat was transferred to Artashat (Artax-
ata). Over a dozen stone boundary markers have been
discovered on the territory of modern Armenia from the
time of the reign of Artashes with Aramaic inscriptions,
before their discovery the existence of these stones was
attested by Moses of Chorene. In these inscriptions Ar-
tashes claims descent from the Yervanduni (Orontid) Dy-
nasty: King Artaxias, the son of Orontid Zariadres.
From the time of the state of Hayasas, until that of Artax-
ias I, more than one thousand years elapsed, and during
that period the Hayasas, the Armens, the people of Nairi
and other ethnic elements were integrated, became one
nation, spoke the same language, and lived together in a
country that became known as Armenia.[3]
Artaxias was married to Satenik, daughter of the king of
Alans. They had six sons: Artavasdes (Artavazd), Vruyr,
Mazhan, Zariadres (Zareh), Tiran and Tigranes (Tigran).
Artaxias founded a capital, Artaxata on the Araks River
near Lake Sevan. Hannibal took refuge there at his court
when Antiochus could not protect him any longer. Artax-
ias was taken captive by Antiochus IV Epiphanes when he
attacked Armenia around 165 BC.
150.4. EXTERNAL LINKS 309

150.2 Quotes
• It is said that when Hannibal fled from the Romans
and came to Armenia, he suggested different projects
to the Armenian king and taught him several useful
things. When he saw the beautiful landscape and na-
ture in Armenia he drew a sketch for the future city.
Then he took Artashes to the spot and asked him to
personally supervise the building of the city. Thus a
big and beautiful city was named after the king, Ar-
tashat, and became his capital. [4]

150.3 Notes
[1] Pliny, Natural history 6.9.

[2] Strabo, Geography 11.14.15

[3] Kersam Aharonian. A Historical Survey of the Armenian

Case. Baikar Publishings, Watertown, Massachusetts,
1989, p. 62

[4] Plutarch, Roman historian (AD 46–120), Lucullus

150.4 External links

• Artaxias I entry in Encyclopaedia Iranica
• Artashes biography

• King Artashes Illustrations

• About King Artashes
Chapter 151

Tigranes I

Tigranes I

Tigranes I of Armenia (Armenian: Տիգրան Առաջին)

reigned as King of Armenia from 115 BC to 95 BC.
Artavasdes I did not leave any heir; his brother, Tigranes
ascended to the throne of the Artaxiads. According to
Appian, Tigranes II was not the son of Artavasdes, but of
Tigranes I.[1]

151.1 References
[1] Manandyan, Hakob; George A. Bournoutian (2007).
Tigranes II and Rome: a new interpretation based on pri-
mary sources. p. 19.

310
Chapter 152

Artavasdes I of Armenia

Artavasdes I of Armenia (also called Artavazd,

Armenian: Արտավազդ Առաջին) (reigned 160 BC –
115 BC) reigned as King of Armenia from 160 BC to 115
BC and was the son of Artaxias I and Queen Satenik.
Artavasdes repelled several attempts by Parthians
to invade Armenia but was eventually defeated by
Mithridates, who annexed parts of Eastern Armenia and
took his son, Tigranes the Great as hostage.
According to Professor Cyril Toumanoff, Artavasdes I
can be identified with the Armenian king who, accord-
ing to the medieval Georgian annals, interfered in Iberia
at the request of local nobility and installed his son,
Artaxias, on the throne of Iberia, thereby inaugurating
the Iberian Artaxiad dynasty.[1]

152.1 References
[1] Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), Studies In Medieval Georgian
Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts, p.
282. Peeters Bvba ISBN 90-429-1318-5.

311
Chapter 153

Tigranes the Great

This article is about a king of Armenia in the 1st century Armenians in 105 BC. Other sources give the date as
BC. For other historical figures with the same name (in- much earlier, at around 112–111 BC.[3] After the death
cluding other kings of Armenia) see Tigranes. of King Tigranes I in 95 BC, Tigranes bought his free-
Tigranes II (Armenian: Տիգրան Բ), more commonly dom, according to Strabo, by handing over “seventy val-
leys” in Atropatene to the Parthians.[4]
When he came to power, the foundation upon which
Tigranes was to build his Empire was already in place, a
legacy of the founder of the Artaxiad Dynasty, Artaxias
I, and subsequent kings. The mountains of Armenia,
however, formed natural borders between the different
regions of the country and as a result, the feudalistic
nakharars had significant influence over the regions or
provinces in which they were based. This did not suit
Tigranes, who wanted to create a centralist empire. He
thus proceeded by consolidating his power within Arme-
The Kingdom of Armenia at its greatest extent under Tigranes the nia before embarking on his campaign.[5]
Great He deposed Artanes, the last king of Armenian Sophene
and a descendant of Zariadres.[4]
known as Tigranes the Great (Armenian: Տիգրան
Մեծ Tigran Mets; Ancient Greek: Τιγράνης ὁ Μέγας
Tigránes ho Mégas; Latin: Tigranes Magnus)[1] (140 –
55 BC) was emperor of Armenia under whom the coun- 153.2 Alliance with Pontus
try became, for a short time, the strongest state east
of the Roman Republic.[2] He was a member of the During the First Mithridatic War (89–85 BC), Tigranes
Artaxiad Royal House. Under his reign, the Armenian supported Mithridates VI of Pontus but was careful not
kingdom expanded beyond its traditional boundaries, al- to become directly involved in the war.
lowing Tigranes to claim the title Great King, and involv-
He rapidly built up his power, allying with Mithridates VI
ing Armenia in many battles against opponents such as
of Pontus and marrying his daughter Cleopatra. Tigranes
the Parthian and Seleucid empires, and the Roman Re-
had agreed that he was to extend his influence in the
public.
East, while Mithridates was to conquer Roman land in
Asia Minor and in Europe. By creating a stronger Hel-
lenistic state, Mithridates was to contend with the well-
153.1 Early years established Roman foothold in Europe.[5] Mithridates
then put into effect a planned a general attack on Roman
Tigranes had been a hostage until the age of 40 at the and Italians in Asia Minor, tapping into local discontent
court of King Mithridates II of Parthia who defeated the with the Romans and their taxes and urging the peoples of

312
153.4. WARS AGAINST ROME
Asia Minor against all foreign influence. 80,000 people
were slaughtered in the province of Asia Minor, known as
the Asiatic Vespers. The two kings’ attempts to control
Cappadocia and then the massacres resulted in guaran-
teed Roman intervention. The senate decided on Lucius
Cornelius Sulla, who was then one of the current consuls,
to be commander of the army against Mithridates.[6]
153.3 Wars against the Parthians
and Seleucids
After the death of Mithridates II of Parthia in 88 BC,
Tigranes took advantage of the fact that the Parthian Em-
pire had been weakened by Scythian invasions and inter-
nal squabbling:
When he acquired power, he
recovered these (seventy) valleys,
and devastated the country of the
Parthians, the territory about Ninus
(Nineveh), and that about Arbela.
He subjected to his authority the
Atropatenians , and the Goryaeans
(on the Upper Tigris); by force of
arms he obtained possession also of
the rest of Mesopotamia and, af-
ter crossing the Euphrates, of Syria
and Phoenicea. (Strabo)[7]
In 83 BC, after a bloody strife for the throne of Syria,
governed by the Seleucids, the Syrians decided to choose
Tigranes as the protector of their kingdom and offered
him the crown of Syria.[3] Magadates was appointed as
his governor in Antioch.[8] He then conquered Phoenicia
and Cilicia, effectively putting an end to the last remnants
of the Seleucid Empire, though a few holdout cities ap-
pear to have recognized the shadowy boy-king Seleucus
VII Philometor as the legitimate king during his reign.
The southern border of his domain reached as far as
Ptolemais (modern Akko). Many of the inhabitants
of conquered cities were sent to his new metropolis of
Tigranakert (Latin name, Tigranocerta).
At its height, his empire extended from the Pontic Alps
(in modern north-eastern Turkey) to Mesopotamia, and
from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean. Tigranes ap-
parently invaded territories as far away as Ecbatana and
took the title king of kings which, at the time, according
313
to their coins, even the Parthian kings did not assume. He
was called “Tigranes the Great” by many Western histo-
rians and writers, such as Plutarch. The “King of Kings”
never appeared in public without having four kings at-
tending him. Cicero, referring to his success in the east,
said that he “made the Republic of Rome tremble before
the prowess of his arms.”[9]
Tigranes’ coin consist of tetradrachms and copper coins
having on the obverse his portrait wearing a decorated
Armenian tiara with ear-flaps. The reverse has a com-
pletely original design. There are the seated Tyche of
Antioch and the river god Orontes at her feet.
153.4 Wars against Rome
Tigranes the Great with four Kings surrounding him
Mithridates had found refuge in Armenian land after con-
fronting Rome, considering the fact that Tigranes was his
ally and relative. The “King of Kings” eventually came
into direct contact with Rome. The Roman commander,
Lucullus, demanded the expulsion of Mithridates from
Armenia – to comply with such a demand would be, in
effect, to accept the status of vassal to Rome and this
Tigranes refused.[10] Charles Rollin, in his Ancient His-
tory, says:
Tigranes, to whom Lucullus had sent an
ambassador, though of no great power in the
beginning of his reign, had enlarged it so much
by a series of successes, of which there are few
examples, that he was commonly surnamed
“King of Kings.” After having overthrown and
314
almost ruined the family of the kings, succes-
sors of the great Seleucus; after having very of-
ten humbled the pride of the Parthians, trans-
ported whole cities of Greeks into Media, con-
quered all Syria and Palestine, and given laws
to the Arabians called Scenites, he reigned with
an authority respected by all the princes of
Asia. The people paid him honors after the
manners of the East, even to adoration.[11]
Lucullus’ reaction was an attack that was so precipitate
that he took Tigranes by surprise. According to Roman
historians Mithrobazanes, one of Tigranes generals, told
Tigranes of the Roman approach. Tigranes was, accord-
ing to Keaveney, so impressed by Mithrobazanes’ courage
that he appointed Mithrobazanes to command an army
against Lucullus – Mithrobazanes was however defeated
and killed.[12] After this defeat Tigranes withdrew north
to Armenia to regroup which left Lucullus free to put
Tigranocerta under siege.[13]
When Tigranes had gathered a large army he returned to
confront Lucullus. On October 6, 69 BC, Tigranes’ much
larger force was decisively defeated by the Roman army
under Lucullus in the Battle of Tigranocerta. Tigranes’
treatment of the inhabitants (the majority of the popula-
tion had been forced to move to the city) led disgruntled
city guards to open the gates of the city to the Romans.
Learning of this, Tigranes hurriedly sent 6000 cavalry-
men to the city in order to rescue his wives and some of
his assets.[5] Tigranes escaped capture with a small escort.
On October 6, 68 BC, the Romans approached the old
capital of Artaxata. Tigranes’ and Mithridates’ combined
Armeno-Pontian army of 70,000 men formed up to face
them but were resoundingly defeated. Once again, both
Mithridates and Tigranes evaded capture by the victori-
ous Romans. However, the Armenian historians claim
that Romans lost the battle of Artaxata and Lucullus’ fol-
lowing withdrawal from the Kingdom of Armenia in re-
ality was an escape due to the above-mentioned defeat.
The Armenian-Roman wars are depicted in Alexandre
Dumas' Voyage to the Caucasus.
The long campaigning and hardships that Lucullus’ troops
had endured for years, combined with a perceived lack of
reward in the form of plunder,[5] led to successive mu-
tinies among the legions in 68–67. Frustrated by the
rough terrain of Northern Armenia and seeing the wors-
ening moral of his troops, Lucullus moved back south and
put Nisibis under siege. Tigranes concluded (wrongly)
CHAPTER 153. TIGRANES THE GREAT
that Nisibis would hold out and sought to regain those
parts of Armenia that the Romans had captured.[14] De-
spite his continuous success in battle, Lucullus could still
not capture either one of the monarchs. With Lucullus’
troops now refusing to obey his commands, but agreeing
to defend positions from attack, the senate sent Gnaeus
Pompey to recall Lucullus to Rome and take over his
command.
153.5 Pompey and the reconcilia-
tion with Rome
In 67 BC[15] Pompey was given the task of defeating
Mithradates and Tigranes.[16] Pompey first concentrated
on attacking Mithradates while distracting Tigranes by
engineering a Parthian attack on Gordyeyne.[17] Phraates
III, the Parthian king was soon persuaded to take things
a little further than an anexation of Gordyeyne when
a son of Tigranes (also named Tigranes) went to join
the Parthians and persuaded Phraates to invade Arme-
nia in an attempt to replace the elder Tigranes with the
younger.[18] Tigranes decided not to meet the invasion in
the field but instead ensured that his capital, Artaxata, was
well defended and withdrew to the hill country. Phraates
soon realized that Artaxata would not fall without a pro-
tracted siege, the time for which he could not spare due
to his fear of plots at home. Once Phraates left Tigranes
came back down from the hills and drove his son from
Armenia. The son then fled to Pompey.[19]
In 66 BC, Pompey advanced into Armenia with the
younger Tigranes, and Tigranes the Great, now almost
75 years old, surrendered. Pompey treated him gener-
ously and allowed him to retain his kingdom shorn of
his conquests[20] in return for 6,000 talents/180 tonnes
of silver. His unfaithful son was sent back to Rome as a
prisoner.[21]
Tigranes continued to rule Armenia as an ally of Rome
until his death in 55/54.[22]
153.6 Halley’s comet
An ABC News article on May 19, 2004 noted that ac-
cording to the Armenian and Italian researchers, the
“symbol on his crown that features a star with a curved
tail may represent the passage of Halley’s Comet in
153.7. LEGACY
Statue of Tigranes the Great in Yerevan
87 BC.”[23][24] Tigranes could have seen Halley’s comet
when it passed closest to the Sun on August 6 in 87, ac-
cording to the researchers, who said the comet would
have been a 'most recordable event'– heralding the New
Era of the King of Kings.
315
153.7 Legacy
Over the course of his conquests, Tigranes founded four
cities that bore his name. Tigranakert near Silvan and
Tigranakert of Artsakh are the two best known ones.
Some 20 operas have been composed about Tigranes
the Great, including by prominent Italian and Ger-
man composers, such as Alessandro Scarlatti (Tigrane,
1715), Antonio Vivaldi (La virtu trionfante dell'amore
e dell'odio ovvero il Tigrane, 1724),[25] Niccolò Pic-
cinni (Tigrane, 1761), Tomaso Albinoni, Giovanni
Bononcini, Francesco Gasparini, Pietro Alessandro
Guglielmi, Johann Adolph Hasse, Giovanni Battista
Lampugnani, Vincenzo Righini, Antonio Tozzi, etc.[26]
“Sea to sea Armenia” (Armenian: Ծովից ծով Հա-
յաստան Tsovits tsov Hayastan) is a popular expression
used by Armenians to refer to the Kingdom of Armenia
of Tigranes the Great which extended from the Caspian
Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.[27][28]
• Illustration of Tigranes the Great in 1898 book Il-
lustrated Armenia and the Armenians
• Obverse of the 1993 Armenian 500 dram
• The Tigran the Great Order of the Republic of Ar-
menia
• The ruins of the city of Tigranakert of Artsakh,
which was presumably established by Tigran II
153.8 See also
• History of Armenia
153.9 References
[1] Emmius, Ubbo (1620). Appendix Genealogica: illus-
trando pperi chronologico adjecta (in Latin). Groningen:
Excudebat Ioannes Sassivs. p. D5.
[2] Manaseryan, Ruben (2007). Տիգրան Մեծ՝ Հայկական
Պայքարը Հռոմի և Պարթևաստանի Դեմ, մ.թ.ա. 94–
64 թթ. [Tigran the Great: The Armenian Struggle Against
Rome and Parthia, 94–64 B.C.] (in Armenian). Yerevan:
Lusakan Publishing. p. needed.
316
[3] Manaseryan, Ruben (1985). extquotedblՏիգրան Բ
[Tigran II] extquotedbl. Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia (in
Armenian) 11. Yerevan: Armenian Encyclopedia Pub-
lishing. pp. 697–698.
[4] Strabo. Geographica, 11.14.15.
[5] Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1996). Պատմութիւն Հայոց [His-
tory of Armenia, Volume I] (in Armenian). Athens:
Council of National Education Publishing. pp. 67–76.
[6] Appian. The Civil Wars, 1.55.
[7] Strabo. Geographica, 11.14.16.
[8] The House Of Seleucus V2 by Edwyn Robert Bevan.
[9] Boyajian, Zabelle C. (1916). An Anthology of Legends
and Poems of Armenia. Aram Raffi; Viscount Bryce.
London: J.M. Dent & sons, ltd. p. 117.
[10] Greenhalgh 1981, p. 74.
[11] Rollins, Charles (1844). Ancient History, vol. 4: History
of the Macedonians, the Seleucidae in Syria, and Parthi-
ans. New York: R. Carter. p. 461.
[12] Keaveney 1992, pp. 106-107.
[13] Keaveney 1992, p. 107.
[14] Keaveney 1992, p. 119.
[15] The Encyclopaedia of Military History, R E Dupuy and T
N Dupuy
[16] Greenhalgh 1981, p. 105.
[17] Greenhalgh 1981, p. 105, 114.
[18] Greenhalgh 1981, p. 114.
[19] Greenhalgh 1981, p. 115.
[20] Scullard, H.H (1959). From the Gracchi to Nero: A His-
tory of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68. New York: F.A.
Praeger. p. 106.
[21] (French) Chaumont, M. L. “Tigrane le Jeune, fils de
Tigrane le Grand,” Revue des Études Arméniennes 28
(2001-2002): pp. 225-247.
[22] Fuller, J.F.C. (1965). Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and
Tyrant. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. p. 45. ISBN
0-306-80422-0.
[23] “Halley’s comet portrayed on ancient coin”. ABC Science
Online. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
CHAPTER 153. TIGRANES THE GREAT
[24] See V. G. Gurzadyan and Vardanian, R.
extquotedblHalley’s comet of 87 BC on the coins
of Armenian king Tigranes?.” Astronomy & Geophysics.
Vol. 45, 2004.
[25] “Vivaldi as opera composer”. Long Beach Opera. Re-
trieved 31 August 2013.
[26] Towers, John (1910). Dictionary-catalogue of Operas and
Operettas which Have Been Performed on the Public Stage:
Libretti. Acme Publishing Company. pp. 625–6.
[27] Verluise, Pierre (1995). Armenia in Crisis: The 1988
Earthquake. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p.
xxiv. ISBN 9780814325278.
[28] Coe, Barbara (2005). Changing Seasons: Letters from
Armenia. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford. p. 215. ISBN
9781412070225.
153.9.1 Bibliography
• Greenhalgh, P. A. L. (1981). Pompey, the Roman
Alexander, Volume 1. University of Missouri Press.
ISBN 9780826203359.
• Keaveney, Arthur (1992). Lucullus: A Life. Lon-
don: Routledge. ISBN 9781134968558.
153.10 Further reading
• Manandyan, Hakob. Tigranes II and Rome: A New
Interpretation Based on Primary Sources. Trans.
George Bournoutian. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Pub-
lishers, 2007.
• (Armenian) Manaseryan, Ruben. Տիգրան Մեծ՝
Հայկական Պայքարը Հռոմի և Պարթևաստանի
Դեմ, մ.թ.ա. 94–64 թթ. (Tigran the Great: The Ar-
menian Struggle Against Rome and Parthia, 94–64
B.C.). Yerevan: Lusakan Publishing, 2007.
• Lendering, Jona. “Tigranes II the Great”.
Livius.org. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
Chapter 154
Artavasdes II of Armenia
Artavasdes II (Ancient Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΟΣ ΑΡ-
ΤΑΥΑΖΔΟΥ Basileos Artavazdou, Armenian: Արտա-
վազդ Երկրորդ Artavazd Ikrord) was a King of the
Kingdom of Armenia from 54 BC until 34 BC and a
member of the Artaxiad Dynasty. He succeeded his fa-
ther, Tigranes the Great, also known as Tigranes II. Ar-
tavasdes II was an ally of Rome, but when Orodes II of
Parthia invaded Armenia following his victory over the
Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of
Carrhae in 53 BC, he was forced to join the Parthians.
He gave his sister in marriage to Orodes’ son and heir
Pacorus.[1]
In 36 BC the Roman General Mark Antony invaded Ar-
menia and Artavasdes II again switched sides, but aban-
doned the Romans once they had left Armenia to con-
quer Atropatene.[2] In 34 BC Antony planned a new in-
vasion of Armenia. First he sent his friend Quintus Del-
lius, who offered a betrothal of Antony’s six-year-old son
Alexander Helios to a daughter of Artavasdes II, but the
Armenian king hesitated.[3] Now the triumvir marched
into the Roman western Armenia. He summoned Ar-
tavasdes II to Nicopolis, allegedly to prepare a new war
against Parthia. Artavasdes II didn't come, so the Ro-
man general quickly marched to the Armenian capital
Artaxata. He arrested the king and went with him some
time around because he hoped to obtain by the help of his
hostage the great treasures in the Armenian castles. His
son Artaxias II was elected as successor. After a lost bat-
tle Artaxias II fled to the Parthian king. Finally Antony
took Artavasdes II to Alexandria.[4]
The Armenian king and his family, who were bound with
golden chains, had to follow Antony in his triumphal
procession.[5] Cleopatra VII of Egypt awaited the tri-
umvir on a golden throne, but Artavasdes II refused to
render homage to the Egyptian Queen by Proskynesis.[6]
317
After the Battle of Actium 31 BC, the Armenian king
was executed by beheading at the behest of Cleopatra.
In the past he had been an enemy of his namesake, King
Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, who had become an
ally of Antony. She sent his head to Artavasdes I of Me-
dia Atropatene to secure his help.[7]
Plutarch describes Artavasdes II as a well educated man,
who had a great fondness for all things Greek and was
an accomplished scholar who composed Greek tragedies
and histories.[8] From an unnamed wife, he was survived
by two sons: Artaxias II,[9] Tigranes III[10] and an un-
named daughter[11] who possibly married King Archelaus
of Cappadocia.
154.1 References
[1] Plutarch, Crassus 19; 22; 33.
[2] Plutarch, Antony 37-39; Cassius Dio, Roman History
49.25
[3] Cassius Dio, Roman History 49.39.2
[4] Cassius Dio, Roman History 49.39.3 - 49.40.1
[5] Tacitus, The Annals 2.3
[6] Cassius Dio, Roman History 49.40.3-4; Velleius, Roman
History 2.82.4; Plutarch, Antony 50.6-7
[7] Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.5.5; Strabo, Geography,
book 11, p. 532
[8] Plutarch, Crassus 33
[9] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.112
[10] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.47
318 CHAPTER 154. ARTAVASDES II OF ARMENIA

[11] Cassius Dio, Roman History 49.39.2

154.2 Sources
• Plutarch, Life of Crassus
• This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press.
• P.M. Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Histori-
cal Commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History,
Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-A.D. 14) (Google eBook), Ox-
ford University Press, 2004
• Prantl, H. “Artavasdes II. - Freund oder Feind
der Römer? extquotedbl in A. Coşkun (hg),
Freundschaft und Gefolgschaft in den auswärtigen
Beziehungen der Römer (2. Jahrhundert v. Chr. -
1. Jahrhundert n. Chr.) (Frankfurt M. u. a., 2008)
(Inklusion, Exklusion, 9), 91-108

• M. Bunsen, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, In-

fobase Printing, 2009
Chapter 155
Artaxias II
Artaxias II,[1] also known as Artaxes II[2] and Ar-
tashes[3] (Armenian: Արտաշես Երկրորդ, flourished
1st century BC – murdered 20 BC[4] ) was a Prince of the
Kingdom of Armenia and member of the Artaxiad Dy-
nasty who served as a Roman Client King of Armenia
from 34 BC until 20 BC.[5]
155.1 Family Background & Early
Life
Artaxias II was the eldest son of Artavasdes II of Arme-
nia[6] by an unnamed mother and was the namesake of
his paternal ancestor, a previous ruling Armenian King
Artaxias I. Artaxias II had two siblings: a younger brother
called Tigranes III[7] and an unnamed sister[8] who possi-
bly married King Archelaus of Cappadocia. He was born
and raised in Armenia.
155.2 Kingship
Artaxias II ascended to the Armenian throne in 34 BC as
he regained the throne lost by his father.[9] The Roman
Triumvir Mark Antony, had captured Artavasdes II with
his family, in which they were taken as political prison-
ers to Alexandria where Artavasdes II was later executed
there on the orders of Ptolemaic Greek Queen Cleopatra
VII of Egypt.[10] Artaxias II had escaped and fled to King
Phraates IV of Parthia.[11] Phraates IV invaded Armenia
and place Artaxias II on the throne.[12] After ascending
to the Armenian throne and regaining the country, with
the support of Phraates IV, Artaxias II was successful in
a military campaign against Artavasdes I of Media At-
ropatene, a former enemy of Artavasdes II.[13] From this
319
moment on, Artaxias II became pro-Parthian and anti-
Roman.[14]
Artaxias II the young King who was spiteful and
vengeful,[15] massacred the remaining Roman
garrison[16] and slaughtered all the Roman traders
in Armenia, as these acts went unavenged.[17] A possible
consequence of this action, when Artaxias II sent
emissaries in Rome to try to secure the release of his
family then in Roman captivity and the Roman emperor
Augustus refused Artaxias II’s request.
Artaxias II proved to be an unpopular leader with his
people.[18] As the Armenians lost faith in their ruling
monarch, they sent messengers to Augustus requesting
him to remove Artaxias II from his throne and to in-
stall his brother, Tigranes III as his successor. In 20 BC,
Tigranes III had lived in Rome for 10 years.[19] Augus-
tus agreed to the request from the Armenians.[20] Augus-
tus sent his step-son Tiberius, with Tigranes III[21] with
a large army to depose Artaxias II. Before Tiberius and
Tigranes III arrived in Armenia, a cabal within the palace
was successful in murdering Artaxias II.[22] The Romans
installed Tigranes III as the new King of Armenia unop-
posed.
155.3 References
[1] Temporini, Politische Geschichte (Provinzen Und Randv
Lker: Griechischer Balkanraum; Kleinasien): Griechis-
cher Balkanraum; Kleinasien), p.979
[2] Daryaee, The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, p.173
[3] Sicker, The Pre-Islamic Middle East, p.156
[4] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.48
[5] Coinage and information on Artaxias II
320 CHAPTER 155. ARTAXIAS II

[6] Tacitus, The Annals 2.3 155.5 External links

[7] Coinage and information on Artaxias II
• Coinage and information on Artaxias II
[8] Cassius Dio, Roman History 49.39.2
[9] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.48
[10] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.47
[11] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.48
[12] Daryaee, The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, p.173
[13] Coinage and information on Artaxias II
[14] Naroll, Military Deterrence in History: A Pilot Cross-
Historical Survey, p.p.161-162
[15] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.48
[16] Sicker, The Pre-Islamic Middle East, p.156
[17] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.48
[18] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.48
[19] Naroll, Military Deterrence in History: A Pilot Cross-
Historical Survey, p.161
[20] Temporini, Politische Geschichte (Provinzen Und Randv
Lker: Griechischer Balkanraum; Kleinasien): Griechis-
cher Balkanraum; Kleinasien), p.979
[21] Temporini, Politische Geschichte (Provinzen Und Randv
Lker: Griechischer Balkanraum; Kleinasien): Griechis-
cher Balkanraum; Kleinasien), p.979
[22] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.48

155.4 Sources
• R. Naroll, V.L. Bullough & F. Naroll, Military De-
terrence in History: A Pilot Cross-Historical Sur-
vey, SUNY Press, 1974
• H. Temporini & W. Haase, Politische Geschichte
(Provinzen Und Randv Lker: Griechischer Balka-
nraum; Kleinasien): Griechischer Balkanraum;
Kleinasien), Walter de Gruyter, 1980
• M. Sicker, The Pre-Islamic Middle East (Google
eBook), Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000
• M. Bunsen, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, In-
fobase Printing, 2009
• T. Daryaee, The Oxford Handbook of Iranian His-
tory, Oxford University Press, 2012
• Coinage and information on Artaxias II
Chapter 156

Tigranes III

Tigranes III[1] (flourished 1st century BC, died before
6 BC[2] ) was a Prince of the Kingdom of Armenia and
member of the Artaxiad Dynasty who served as a Roman
Client King of Armenia from 20 BC until 10 BC.[3]
156.1 Family Background & Early
Life
Tigranes III was the second son born to Artavasdes II
of Armenia[4] by an unnamed mother. Tigranes III had
an elder brother called Artaxias II[5] and an unnamed
sister[6] who possibly married King Archelaus of Cap-
padocia. He was born and raised in Armenia. Tigranes
III was the namesake of his paternal grandfather, a previ-
ous ruling Armenian King Tigranes the Great, also known
as Tigranes II.
Egypt in 30 BC in which he annexed the country to the
rule of the Roman Republic, Tigranes III was taken from
Alexandria to live in Rome. In Rome, Tigranes III had
lived in political exile, in which during that time he was
educated there. In 20 BC after living in Rome for 10
years,[10] Artaxias II proved to be an unpopular leader
with his people.[11]
As the Armenians lost faith in their ruling monarch, they
sent messengers to Augustus requesting him to remove
Artaxias II from his throne and to install Tigranes III as
his successor. Augustus agreed to the request from the
Armenians.[12] Augustus sent his step-son Tiberius, with
Tigranes III[13] with a large army to depose Artaxias II.
Before Tiberius and Tigranes III arrived in Armenia, a
cabal within the palace was successful in murdering Ar-
taxias II.[14] The Romans installed Tigranes III as the new
King of Armenia unopposed.

156.2 Life in Roman Captivity &

Rise to the Armenian King-
ship 156.3 Armenian Kingship
The Roman Triumvir Mark Antony had captured Ar-
tavasdes II with his family, in which they were taken as Tigranes III ruled as King of Armenia for 10 years.[15]
political prisoners to Alexandria where Artavasdes II was Although he reigned for a substantial period of time, little
later executed there on the orders of Ptolemaic Greek is known on his reign. His Armenian kingship brought
Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt.[7] In 34 BC, Artaxias II peace, stability to Armenia in which peaceful relations
had escaped and fled to King Phraates IV of Parthia.[8] between Rome and Armenia were maintained.
With the support of Phraates IV, he invaded Armenia andTigranes III was survived by two children from two dif-
place Artaxias II on the throne.[9] ferent unnamed mothers: a son called Tigranes IV and a
Sometime after the Battle of Actium in September 31 BC daughter, called Erato,[16] who succeeded their father on
and Octavian (future Roman emperor Augustus) invaded the Armenian throne.[17]

321
322 CHAPTER 156. TIGRANES III

156.4 References • H. Temporini & W. Haase, Politische Geschichte

[1] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.114
[2] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.114
[3] Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, p.613
[4] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.47
[5] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.112
[6] Cassius Dio, Roman History 49.39.2
(Provinzen Und Randv Lker: Griechischer Balka-
nraum; Kleinasien): Griechischer Balkanraum;
Kleinasien), Walter de Gruyter, 1980
• E. Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, Cam-
bridge University Press, 1983
• P.M. Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Histori-
cal Commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History,
Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-A.D. 14) (Google eBook), Ox-
ford University Press, 2004
• M. Bunsen, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, In-
fobase Printing, 2009
• T. Daryaee, The Oxford Handbook of Iranian His-
tory, Oxford University Press, 2012

[7] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.47 • History of Armenia by Vahan Kurkjian, Chapter 14:
Artavazd – The last Tigranes
[8] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.48

[9] Daryaee, The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, p.173

156.6 External links
[10] Naroll, Military Deterrence in History: A Pilot Cross-
Historical Survey, p.161 • Coinage of Tigranes III
[11] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.48

[12] Temporini, Politische Geschichte (Provinzen Und Randv

Lker: Griechischer Balkanraum; Kleinasien): Griechis-
cher Balkanraum; Kleinasien), p.979

[13] Temporini, Politische Geschichte (Provinzen Und Randv

Lker: Griechischer Balkanraum; Kleinasien): Griechis-
cher Balkanraum; Kleinasien), p.979

[14] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.48

[15] Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, p.613

[16] History of Armenia by Vahan Kurkjian, Chapter 14: Ar-

tavazd – The last Tigranes

[17] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.200

156.5 Sources
• Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Paragraph 27 - 1st century

• R. Naroll, V.L. Bullough & F. Naroll, Military De-

terrence in History: A Pilot Cross-Historical Sur-
vey, SUNY Press, 1974
Chapter 157
Tigranes IV
Tigranes IV[1] (flourished 1st century BC, died about
2 BC) was a Prince of the Kingdom of Armenia and
member of the Artaxiad Dynasty who served as a Roman
Client King of Armenia from 10 BC until 5 BC.[2]
157.1 Family Background & Early
Life
Tigranes IV was the son born to Tigranes III by an un-
named mother.[3] His known sibling was his younger pa-
ternal half-sister Erato who was born to another unnamed
woman.[4] Although Tigranes IV was the namesake of his
father, the name Tigranes was the most common royal
name in the Artaxiad Dynasty and was among the most
ancient names of the Armenian Kings.[5] Tigranes IV was
born and raised either in Rome where his father lived in
political exile for 10 years[6] from 30 BC until 20 BC or
during his father’s Kingship of Armenia in which he ruled
from 20 BC until 10 BC.[7]
157.2 Kingship of Armenia
Tigranes III died before 6 BC.[8] In 10 BC, the Ar-
menians installed Tigranes IV as King as the successor
to his father.[9] In accordance with Oriental custom[10]
or Hellenistic custom, Tigranes IV married his sister
Erato in order to preserve the purity of the Artax-
iad Royal blood line. Erato through marriage to her
brother, became Queen[11] and his Queen consort.[12]
From their sibling union at an unknown date, Erato bore
Tigranes IV an unnamed daughter who later married
King Pharasmanes I of Iberia who ruled from 1 until 58,
and by whom he had three sons: Mithridates I of Iberia,
323
Rhadamistus and Amazaspus (Amazasp) who is known
from a Greek inscription found in Rome.
Although Tigranes IV and Erato were Roman Client
Monarchs governing Armenia, they were both anti Ro-
man and were not the choices of the Roman emperor
Augustus[13] for the Armenian throne, as their dual rule
did not have Roman approval and they leaned towards
Parthia for support.[14]
Rome and Parthia competed with one another for their
protégés to have influence and govern Armenia.[15] Ro-
man Historian of the 4th century, Sextus Rufus informs
us that anti-Roman sentiment was building in Armenia
during the reign of Tigranes IV and Erato. Rufus also
emphasizes that the Kingdom of Armenia was very strong
during this period.
The dispossessed and the discontent of the ruling Artax-
iad monarchs and their subjects towards Ancient Rome
had instigated war with the aid of King Phraates V of
Parthia. To avoid a full scale war with Rome, Phraates V
soon ceased his support to the Armenian ruling Monar-
chs. This lead Tigranes IV and Erato, acknowledging
Roman suzerainty;[16] sending their good wishes and sub-
mission to Rome.[17] Augustus receiving their submission
to Rome and good wishes, allowed them to remain in
power.[18]
Tigranes IV issued bronze coins with portraits of himself
with Augustus with the inscription in Greek βασιλεύς
μέγας νέος Τιγράνης (of great new king Tigranes), also
issued coins shared by Erato with the inscription in Greek
Έρατω βασιλέως Τιγράνου άδελφή (Erato, sister of
King Tigranes).[19] Other coinage Tigranes IV and Er-
ato issued together, is a portrait of Tigranes IV heav-
ily bearded with Erato with the Greek legend great king,
Tigranes.[20]
324 CHAPTER 157. TIGRANES IV

Sometime about 2 BC Tigranes IV was killed in battle,[21] [13] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.p.199-200
perhaps ending an internal Armenian revolt[22] of those
[14] Armenia and Iran ii. The pre-Islamic period under Darius
who were infuriated by the royal couple becoming allies
and Xerxes had much narrower boundaries than the future
to Rome. The war and the chaos that occurred after- Armenia of the Artaxiads and the Arsacids. Armenia and
wards, Erato abdicated her throne and ended her rule over Iran, ii. The Pre-Islamic Period: 3. The Artaxiad dynasty
Armenia.[23] b. Tigranes the Great
From the situation surrounding Tigranes IV and Erato, [15] Ehrlich, Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins,
the Armenians requested to Augustus, a new Armenian Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1, p.1111
King.[24] Augustus found and appointed Ariobarzanes
as the new King of Armenia[25] in 2 BC. Ariobarzanes [16] Armenia and Iran ii. The pre-Islamic period under Darius
through his father was a distant relative of the Artax- and Xerxes had much narrower boundaries than the future
Armenia of the Artaxiads and the Arsacids. Armenia and
iad Dynasty as he was a descendant of an unnamed Ar-
Iran, ii. The Pre-Islamic Period: 3. The Artaxiad dynasty
taxiad Princess who was a sister of King Artavasdes b. Tigranes the Great
II of Armenia who married Ariobarzanes’ paternal an-
cestor Mithridates, a previous ruling King of Media [17] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.200
Atropatene.[26]
[18] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.200

[19] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-

tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
157.3 References A.D. 14), p.120

[1] Sayles, Ancient Coin Collecting IV: Roman Provincial
Coins, p.62
[2] Lang, David M. “Iran, Armenia and Georgia.” In: Cam-
bridge History of Iran, Vol. III, Part I, p. 513.
[20] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.129
[21] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36

[3] Kurkjian, A History of Armenia, p.73 [22] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
[4] Kurkjian, A History of Armenia, p.73 A.D. 14), p.p.128-129

[5] Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Mod- [23] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
ern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiq- tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
uity to the Fourteenth Century, p.48 A.D. 14), p.128

[24] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36

[6] Naroll, Military Deterrence in History: A Pilot Cross-
Historical Survey, p.161 [25] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[7] Lang, David M. “Iran, Armenia and Georgia.” In: Cam- [26] Cassius Dio, 36.14
bridge History of Iran, Vol. III, Part I, p. 513.

[8] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-

tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.114
[9] Sayles, Ancient Coin Collecting IV: Roman Provincial
Coins, p.62
[10] Kurkjian, A History of Armenia, p.73
[11] Kurkjian, A History of Armenia, p.73
157.4 Sources
• R. Naroll, V.L. Bullough & F. Naroll, Military De-
terrence in History: A Pilot Cross-Historical Sur-
vey, SUNY Press, 1974
• E. Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol.
III, Part I, Cambridge University Press, 1983

[12] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen- • W.G. Sayles, Ancient Coin Collecting IV: Roman
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.- Provincial Coins (Google eBook), F+W Media, Inc,
A.D. 14), p.130 1998
157.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 325

• R.G. Hovannisian, The Armenian People from An-

cient to Modern Times, Volume 1: The Dynastic
Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century,
Palgrave Macmillan, 2004
• P.M. Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Histori-
cal Commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History,
Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-A.D. 14) (Google eBook), Ox-
ford University Press, 2004
• V.M. Kurkjian, A History of Armenia, Indo-
European Publishing, 2008
• M. Bunsen, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, In-
fobase Printing, 2009
• M.A. Ehrlich, Encyclopedia of the Jewish Dias-
pora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume
1 (Google eBook), ABC-CLIO, 2009

• Armenia and Iran ii. The pre-Islamic period under

Darius and Xerxes had much narrower boundaries
than the future Armenia of the Artaxiads and the
Arsacids. Armenia and Iran, ii. The Pre-Islamic
Period: 3. The Artaxiad dynasty b. Tigranes the
Great

157.5 External links

• Coinage of Tigranes IV & Erato

• Coinage of Tigranes IV
• Coinage of Tigranes IV
Chapter 158
Erato of Armenia
Queen Erato of the Artaxiad Dynasty
Erato also known as Queen Erato[1] (flourished second
half of 1st century BC & first half of 1st century, died
sometime after 12) was a Princess of the Kingdom of Ar-
menia and member of the Artaxiad Dynasty. She served
as a Roman Client Queen of Armenia from 10 BC until 2
BC with her brother-husband King Tigranes IV.[2] After a
number of years living in political exile, she co-ruled with
her distant paternal relative the Herodian Prince Tigranes
V as Roman Client Monarchs of Armenia from 6 until 12.
She as Armenian Queen ruled on the Armenian throne
twice. As a Queen of Armenia, she can be viewed as one
326
of the last hereditary rulers of her nation.[3]
158.1 Origin of her name
Erato is a name of ancient Greek origins which means
“desired” or “lovely”. In Greek mythology, Erato was one
of the Muses and the name derived from the same root
as Eros the Greek God of love.
158.2 Family background & early
life
Erato was the second child and the known daughter born
to Tigranes III by an unnamed mother.[4] Her known sib-
ling was her older paternal half-brother Tigranes IV born
to a previous unnamed wife of Tigranes III.[5] Erato was
born and raised either in Rome where her father lived
in political exile for 10 years[6] from 30 BC until 20 BC
or during her father’s Kingship of Armenia in which he
ruled from 20 BC until 10 BC.[7]
158.3 Co-rule with Tigranes IV:
10–2 BC
Her father, Tigranes III died before 6 BC.[8] In 10 BC, the
Armenians installed Tigranes IV as King to the successor
of Tigranes III.[9] In accordance with Oriental custom[10]
or Hellenistic custom, Tigranes IV married Erato in order
to preserve the purity of the Artaxiad Royal blood line.
Erato through marriage to her brother, became Queen[11]
and his Queen consort.[12]
158.4. POLITICAL EXILE: 2 BC – 6 AD
Erato was the second Seleucid Greek descendant to
have ruled as an Armenian Queen and as an Arme-
nian Queen consort. The previous one was her pater-
nal great, grandmother Cleopatra of Pontus, daughter of
King Mithridates VI of Pontus from his first wife, his
sister Laodice.[13] The first Seleucid Greek Princess to
have married a King of Armenia, in which she became
an Armenian Queen and as an Armenian Queen consort,
was her ancestor Antiochis, one of the sisters of King
Antiochus III the Great.
Between 10 BC until 2 BC at an unknown date from
their sibling union, Erato bore Tigranes IV an un-
named daughter. Their daughter went later on to marry
King Pharasmanes I of Iberia who ruled from 1 until
58 by whom had three sons: Mithridates I of Iberia,
Rhadamistus and Amazaspus (Amazasp) who is known
from a Greek inscription found in Rome.
Although Tigranes IV and Erato were Roman Client man[27]
Monarchs governing Armenia, they were both anti Ro-
man and were not the choices of the Roman emperor
Augustus[14] for the Armenian throne, as their dual rule
did not have Roman approval and they leaned towards
Parthia for support.[15]
Rome and Parthia competed with one another for their
protégés to have influence and govern Armenia.[16] Ro-
man Historian of the 4th century, Sextus Rufus informs
us that anti-Roman sentiment was building in Armenia
during the reign of Tigranes IV and Erato. Rufus also
emphasizes that the Kingdom of Armenia was very strong
during this period.
The dispossessed and the discontent of the ruling Artax-
iad monarchs and their subjects towards Ancient Rome
had instigated war with the aid of King Phraates V of
Parthia. To avoid a full-scale war with Rome, Phraates V
soon ceased his support to the Armenian ruling Monar-
chs. This lead Tigranes IV and Erato, acknowledging
Roman suzerainty;[17] sending their good wishes and sub-
mission to Rome.[18] Augustus receiving their submission
to Rome and good wishes, allowed them to remain in
power.[19]
Sometime about 2 BC Tigranes IV was killed in battle,[20]
perhaps ending an internal Armenian revolt[21] of those
who were infuriated by the royal couple becoming allies
to Rome. The war and the chaos that occurred after-
wards, Erato abdicated her throne and ended her rule over
Armenia.[22]
From the situation surrounding Tigranes IV and Erato,
327
the Armenians requested to Augustus, a new Armenian
King.[23] Augustus found and appointed Ariobarzanes of
Media Atropatene as the new King of Armenia[24] in 2
BC. Ariobarzanes through his father was a distant rela-
tive of the Artaxiad Dynasty as he was a descendant of
an unnamed Artaxiad Princess who was a sister of King
Artavasdes II of Armenia who married Ariobarzanes’ pa-
ternal ancestor Mithridates, a previous ruling King of
Media Atropatene.[25]
158.4 Political exile: 2 BC – 6 AD
After abdicating her throne, leaving behind the war and
chaos in Armenia,[26] Erato had lived in political exile
at an unknown location. Little is known on her during
this period. Between 2 BC until 6, Armenia saw two Ro-
Client Kings Ariobarzanes who ruled from 2 BC un-
til 4 and his son, Artavasdes III who ruled from 4 until
[28]
6.
158.5 Co-rule from Tigranes V: 6–
12 AD
In the year 6, Artavasdes III who served as King of Ar-
menia was murdered by his subjects, as he was an un-
popular ruler with the Armenians. As the Armenians
grew weary of foreign Kings, Augustus revised his for-
eign policy and appointed the Herodian Prince Tigranes
V as King of Armenia.[29] Tigranes V was related to Ar-
taxiad Dynasty as his late maternal grandmother was an
Armenian Princess who may have been the daughter of
Artavasdes II of Armenia[30] who possibly married King
Archelaus of Cappadocia.
Tigranes V was accompanied by his maternal grandfa-
ther, Archelaus of Cappadocia and the future Roman
emperor Tiberius to Armenia, where he was installed as
King at Artaxata.[31] Artaxata became Tigranes V’s cap-
ital. In 6, Tigranes V ruled Armenia as a sole ruler.
Sometime into his reign, the Armenian nobles being un-
satisfied with his reign rebelled against Tigranes V. The
same Armenian nobles restored Erato back to the Ar-
menian throne. Erato wanting to cooperate with Rome,
co-ruled with Tigranes V. Her co-rule with Tigranes V
is known and based from numismatic evidence.[32] Erato
and Tigranes V co-ruled together in Artaxata. There is a
possibility that Erato and Tigranes V may have married
328 CHAPTER 158. ERATO OF ARMENIA

and she may had served as a Queen consort to Tigranes
V.[33]
Little is known on Erato and Tigranes V co-ruling Ar-
menia together. Erato and Tigranes V were overthrown
under unknown circumstances in 12. Augustus kept Ar-
menia as a client kingdom and appointed Vonones I of
Parthia as King of Armenia.[34] The fate of Erato after-
wards is unknown and Tigranes V may had remained liv-
ing in Armenia.
[2] Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, p.613
[3] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.199
[4] Kurkjian, A History of Armenia, p.73
[5] Kurkjian, A History of Armenia, p.73
[6] Naroll, Military Deterrence in History: A Pilot Cross-
Historical Survey, p.161
[7] Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, p.613

[8] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-

tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
158.6 Surviving evidence A.D. 14), p.114

[9] Sayles, Ancient Coin Collecting IV: Roman Provincial

The Roman Historians that mentions, discusses and in- Coins, p.62
forms us about Erato is Tacitus of the 1st and 2nd cen-
turies, Cassius Dio of the 2nd and 3rd centuries and [10] Kurkjian, A History of Armenia, p.73
Sextus Rufus of the 4th century. [11] Kurkjian, A History of Armenia, p.73
At the National Library in Paris, currently have an image [12] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
of her that appears on an ancient coin. Coinage has sur- tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
vived from her rule with Tigranes IV that they both issued A.D. 14), p.130
together. Tigranes IV and Erato share issued coins with
the inscription in Greek Έρατω βασιλέως Τιγράνου [13] Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend of Mithra-
άδελφή (Erato, sister of King Tigranes).[35] Other shared dates, Rome’s deadliest enemy p.p.114 & 138
issued coinage of Tigranes IV and Erato, is a portrait of [14] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.p.199-200
Tigranes IV heavily bearded with Erato with the Greek
legend great king, Tigranes.[36] Coinage has also survived [15] Armenia and Iran ii. The pre-Islamic period under Darius
from Erato’s co-rule with Tigranes V.[37] and Xerxes had much narrower boundaries than the future
Armenia of the Artaxiads and the Arsacids. Armenia and
Iran, ii. The Pre-Islamic Period: 3. The Artaxiad dynasty
b. Tigranes the Great
158.7 Modern honors [16] Ehrlich, Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins,
Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1, p.1111
Erato is seen as a major and significant historical figure
[17] Armenia and Iran ii. The pre-Islamic period under Darius
from pre-Christianity Armenia. From the 1st century un-
and Xerxes had much narrower boundaries than the future
til present, Erato is still a highly regarded monarch and
Armenia of the Artaxiads and the Arsacids. Armenia and
woman in Armenian History and society. Erato is com- Iran, ii. The Pre-Islamic Period: 3. The Artaxiad dynasty
memorated by the Marriott Hotel in Yerevan Armenia, b. Tigranes the Great
as they have called one of their seven meeting venues the
Queen Erato Meeting Room after her. Another meeting [18] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.200
venue at the hotel has been named the Tigran Mets Ball- [19] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.200
room, named after the Kings of Armenia called Tigranes
or Tigran.[38] [20] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36

[21] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-

tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
158.8 References A.D. 14), p.p.128-129

[22] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-

[1] Ehrlich, Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1, p.1111 A.D. 14), p.128
158.10. EXTERNAL LINKS
[23] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[24] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[25] Cassius Dio, 36.14
[26] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[27] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[28] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[29] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.1164
[30] Cassius Dio, Roman History 49.39.2
[31] Syme, Anatolica: studies in Strabo, p.323
[32] Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Mod-
ern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiq-
uity to the Fourteenth Century, p.62
[33] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.p.120 & 130
[34] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.1160
[35] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.120
[36] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.129
[37] Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Mod-
ern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiq-
uity to the Fourteenth Century, p.62
[38] Marriott Hotel – Yerevan, Armenia
158.9 Sources
• R. Naroll, V.L. Bullough & F. Naroll, Military De-
terrence in History: A Pilot Cross-Historical Sur-
vey, SUNY Press, 1974
• H. Temporini & W. Haase, Aufstieg und Nieder-
gang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur
Roms im spiegel der neueren Forschung, Walter de
Gruyter
329
• E. Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, Cam-
bridge University Press, 1983
• R. Syme & A.R. Birley, Anatolica: studies in
Strabo, Oxford University Press, 1995
• W.G. Sayles, Ancient Coin Collecting IV: Roman
Provincial Coins (Google eBook), F+W Media, Inc,
1998
• P.M. Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Histori-
cal Commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History,
Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-A.D. 14) (Google eBook), Ox-
ford University Press, 2004
• R.G. Hovannisian, The Armenian People from An-
cient to Modern Times, Volume 1: The Dynastic
Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century,
Palgrave Macmillan, 2004
• V.M. Kurkjian, A History of Armenia, Indo-
European Publishing, 2008
• M.A. Ehrlich, Encyclopedia of the Jewish Dias-
pora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume
1 (Google eBook), ABC-CLIO, 2009
• M. Bunsen, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, In-
fobase Printing, 2009
• A. Mayor, The Poison King: the life and legend
of Mithradates, Rome’s deadliest enemy, Princeton
University Press, 2009
• Armenia and Iran ii. The pre-Islamic period under
Darius and Xerxes had much narrower boundaries
than the future Armenia of the Artaxiads and the
Arsacids. Armenia and Iran, ii. The Pre-Islamic
Period: 3. The Artaxiad dynasty b. Tigranes the
Great
• Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant
Lines
• Marriott Hotel – Yerevan, Armenia
158.10 External links
• Coinage of Tigranes IV & Erato
Chapter 159

Ariobarzanes II of Atropatene

Ariobarzanes II of Atropatene[1] also known as Ari- Tigranes IV with his wife who was his paternal half-sister
obarzanes of Media;[2] Ariobarzanes of Armenia;[3] Erato, instigated war with the aid of King Phraates V of
Ariobarzanes II;[4] Ariobarzanes II of Media At- Parthia. To avoid a full-scale war with Rome, Phraates V
ropatene and Ariobarzanes[5] (40 BC-June 26,4[6] ) was soon ceased his support to the Armenian ruling Monar-
a Prince who served as King of Media Atropatene who chs. Sometime after Tigranes IV was killed in battle and
ruled sometime from 28 BC to 20 BC until 4[7] and was Erato, had abdicated her throne.[13] Following the mur-
appointed by the Roman emperor Augustus[8] to serve as der of the previous ruling Armenian King the tyrannical
a Roman Client King of Armenia Major[9] from 2 BC Artaxias II by his courtiers;[14] the situation surrounding
until 4.[10] Tigranes IV and Erato, the Armenians requested to the
Roman emperor Augustus, a new Armenian King.[15]
Augustus found and appointed Ariobarzanes II as the new
159.1 Family Background & Early King of Armenia[16] in 2 BC. Ariobarzanes II through his
father was a distant relative of the Artaxiad Dynasty as
Life he was a descendant of an unnamed Artaxiad Princess
who was a sister of King Artavasdes II of Armenia who
Ariobarzanes II was a monarch of Median, Armenian married Ariobarzanes II’s paternal ancestor Mithridates,
and Greek descent. He was the first son and among a previous ruling King of Media Atropatene.[17]
the children born to the ruling monarchs Artavasdes I of
Media Atropatene and his wife Athenais of Media At- Ariobarzanes II served as a loyal Roman Client King
ropatene.[11] Ariobarzanes II was the namesake of his pa- to Augustus and was [18]
used as a key element in Augus-
ternal grandfather Ariobarzanes I, a previous ruling King tus’ Asian Policy. Ariobarzanes II during his Arme-
[12]
of Media Atropatene. He is also the namesake of his nian Kingship also served as King of Media Atropatene.
Pontian ancestors who governed with this name and of He accompanied Augustus’ grandson and adopted son
his mother’s maternal grandfather, uncle and cousin who Gaius Caesar to Armenia. When Gaius and Ariobarzanes
ruled with this name as Kings of Cappadocia. He was II arrived in Armenia, the Armenians being fiery and
born and raised in Media Atropatene. proud, refused to acknowledge Ariobarzanes II as their
new King, especially as he was a foreigner in their coun-
try. The Armenians revolted against Rome under the
leadership of a local man named Addon.[19]
159.2 Kingship of Media At-
Gaius with his Roman legions ended the revolt and re-
ropatene & Armenia duced the city of Artagira.[20] In Artagira, Gaius made
Ariobarzanes II the new King of Armenia.[21] Ario-
At an unknown date in the 20 BCs, Ariobarzanes II barzanes II made Artagira, his capital city when he ruled
succeeded his relative Asinnalus as King of Media At- Armenia and Media Atropatene together.[22] The Arme-
ropatene and little is known on his reign. nians eventually came to respect Ariobarzanes II as their
ruling King, because of his noble personality, spirit[23]
The ruling Armenian monarchs of the Orontid Dynasty,

330
159.5. REFERENCES
and his physical beauty.[24] In 4, Ariobarzanes II died and
was succeeded his son Artavasdes[25] in his Kingship of
Media Atropatene and Armenia.
159.3 Family & Issue
Ariobarzanes II from an unnamed wife had two sons:
• Artavasdes II, who served as Artavasdes III[26]
• Gaius Julius Ariobarzanes I, who may had a son
called Gaius Julius Ariobarzanes II[27]
159.4 Inscription Evidence
Ariobarzanes II is mentioned in paragraphs 27 and 33
of the Res Gestae Divi Augusti. In Rome, two Epitaph
inscriptions have been found bearing the name of an Ar-
tavasdes. The Epitaphs are probably of the son and the
grandson of a Median Atropatenian King called Ario-
barzanes.[28] However it is uncertain, if the Ariobarzanes
refers to Ariobarzanes I or Ariobarzanes II.[29]
159.5 References
[1] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.114
[2] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[3] A Chronology of the Roman Empire, p.365
[4] Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Persian
satrap of Media, made himself independent in 321 B.C.
Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named the territory
as Media Atropatene or, less frequently, Media Minor:
Parthian period
[5] Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Paragraphs 27 & 33
[6] A Chronology of the Roman Empire, p.365
[7] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.114
[8] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
331
[9] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.p.114-115
[10] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[11] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[12] Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Persian
satrap of Media, made himself independent in 321 B.C.
Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named the territory
as Media Atropatene or, less frequently, Media Minor:
Parthian period
[13] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[14] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[15] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[16] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[17] Cassius Dio, 36.14
[18] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[19] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[20] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[21] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.47
[22] Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Persian
satrap of Media, made himself independent in 321 B.C.
Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named the territory
as Media Atropatene or, less frequently, Media Minor:
Parthian period
[23] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[24] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.129
[25] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[26] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[27] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[28] Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Persian
satrap of Media, made himself independent in 321 B.C.
Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named the territory
as Media Atropatene or, less frequently, Media Minor:
Parthian period
[29] Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Persian
satrap of Media, made himself independent in 321 B.C.
Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named the territory
as Media Atropatene or, less frequently, Media Minor:
Parthian period
332 CHAPTER 159. ARIOBARZANES II OF ATROPATENE

159.6 Sources
• Res Gestae Divi Augusti, 1st century

• P.M. Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Histori-

cal Commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History,
Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-A.D. 14) (Google eBook), Ox-
ford University Press, 2004

• M. Bunsen, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, In-

fobase Printing, 2009

• Edited by Timothy Venning, A Chronology of the

Roman Empire, Continuum International Publish-
ing Group, 2011
• Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Per-
sian satrap of Media, made himself independent in
321 B.C. Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named
the territory as Media Atropatene or, less frequently,
Media Minor: Parthian period
• Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant
Lines
Chapter 160

Artavasdes III of Armenia

Artavasdes III of Armenia;[1] also known as Artavas- Unfortunately, the reign of Artavasdes didn't last. As his
des II of Atropatene;[2] Artavasdes II of Media At- father, as King was respected by his subjects,[17] this was
ropatene and Armenia Major;[3] Artavasdes II[4] and the opposite for Artavasdes. As a ruling King, over the
Artavasdes[5] (20 BC-6[6] ) was a Prince who served as Atropatenians and Armenians, he proved to be an unpop-
King of Media Atropatene.[7] During his reign of Me- ular monarch. In 6,[18] Artavasdes was quickly killed[19]
dia Atropatene, Artavasdes also served as a Roman Client by his subjects.
King of Armenia Major.[8][9] In his Kingship of Media Atropatene, Artavasdes was
succeeded by his paternal first cousin Artabanus and in
the Kingship of Armenia the Roman emperor Augustus,
160.1 Family Background & Early appointed the Herodian Prince Tigranes.[20] Artavasdes
Life from an unnamed wife was survived by a son called Gaius
Julius Artavasdes.[21]
Artavasdes was a monarch of Median, Armenian
and Greek descent. He was the first son born to
King Ariobarzanes II of Atropatene[10] by an unnamed
wife.[11] He had a younger brother called Gaius Julius Ar- 160.3 Coinage & Inscription Evi-
iobarzanes I and may had a possible nephew called Gaius dence
Julius Ariobarzanes II.[12] Artavasdes was the namesake
of his paternal grandfather, a previous ruling King of Me-
dia Atropatene and Sophene, Artavasdes I.[13] He was Coinage has survived from the reign of [22]
Artavasdes.
born and raised in Media Atropatene. They have been dated from 2 until 10. An exam-
ple of this is on one surviving coin dated from his
reign, is on the obverse side shows the head of Au-
gustus with the Greek inscription ΘΕΟΥ ΚΑΙΣΑΡΟΣ
160.2 Kingship of Media At- ΕΥΕΡΓΕΤΟΥ which means of Caesar, the God, the
ropatene & Armenia Benefactor, while on the reverse side shows the head
of Artavasdes, with the Greek inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ
The father of Artavasdes, Ariobarzanes II died on June ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ[23] ΑΡΤΑΥΑΖΔΟΥ which means of Great King
[14]
26, 4 and Artavasdes succeeded his father as King of Artavasdes.
Media Atropatene and Armenia.[15] Like his father, Ar- Artavasdes is mentioned in paragraphs 27 and 33 of the
tavasdes in his kingship of Media Atropatene and Arme- Res Gestae Divi Augusti. In Rome, two Epitaph inscrip-
nia, based his rule at Artagira, which his late father made tions have been found bearing the name of an Artavasdes.
the city, their capital.[16] As Artavasdes, was both King The Epitaphs are probably of the son and the grandson
of Media Atropatene and Armenia, as King of Media At- of a Median Atropatenian King called Ariobarzanes.[24]
ropatene he is known as Artavasdes II and as King of Ar- However it is uncertain, if the Ariobarzanes refers to
menia, he is known as Artavasdes III. Ariobarzanes I or Ariobarzanes II.[25]

333
334
160.4 Note
Although archaeological evidence reveals and shows that
Artavasdes is the son of Ariobarzanes II, there is some
confusion, and there are different, various theories on the
origins of Artavasdes. Some modern historical sources
and reference books state that he is a son of Artavasdes
II of Armenia. While others state he is either a brother
or a paternal first cousin of Tigranes IV and Erato. In
fact, Artavasdes through his father was a distant relative
of Artavasdes II of Armenia, Tigranes IV and Erato.
160.5 References
[1] A Chronology of the Roman Empire, p.365
[2] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.114
[3] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.115
[4] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[5] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[6] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[7] Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Persian
satrap of Media, made himself independent in 321 B.C.
Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named the territory
as Media Atropatene or, less frequently, Media Minor:
Parthian period
[8] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.p.114-115
[9] A Chronology of the Roman Empire, p.365
[10] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.p.114-115
[11] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[12] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[13] Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commen-
tary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-
A.D. 14), p.114
[14] A Chronology of the Roman Empire, p.365
CHAPTER 160. ARTAVASDES III OF ARMENIA
[15] Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Persian
satrap of Media, made himself independent in 321 B.C.
Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named the territory
as Media Atropatene or, less frequently, Media Minor:
Parthian period
[16] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36&47
[17] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[18] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[19] Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p.36
[20] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.1164
[21] Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant Lines
[22] Regal coinage of Armenia – Artavasdes III
[23] Regal coinage of Armenia – Artavasdes III
[24] Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Persian
satrap of Media, made himself independent in 321 B.C.
Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named the territory
as Media Atropatene or, less frequently, Media Minor:
Parthian period
[25] Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Persian
satrap of Media, made himself independent in 321 B.C.
Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named the territory
as Media Atropatene or, less frequently, Media Minor:
Parthian period
160.6 Sources
• Res Gestae Divi Augusti, 1st century
• H. Temporini & W. Haase, Aufstieg und Nieder-
gang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur
Roms im spiegel der neueren Forschung, Walter de
Gruyter
• P.M. Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Histori-
cal Commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History,
Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-A.D. 14) (Google eBook), Ox-
ford University Press, 2004
• M. Bunsen, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, In-
fobase Printing, 2009
• Edited by Timothy Venning, A Chronology of the
Roman Empire, Continuum International Publish-
ing Group, 2011
160.6. SOURCES 335

• Regal coinage of Armenia

• Ptolemaic Genealogy: Affiliated Lines, Descendant

Lines

• Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History, Atropates, Per-

sian satrap of Media, made himself independent in
321 B.C. Thereafter Greek and Latin writers named
the territory as Media Atropatene or, less frequently,
Media Minor: Parthian period
Chapter 161

Tigranes V of Armenia

Tigranes V, also known as Tigran V [1] (Greek: Τι- Tigranes was born and raised in Herod’s court in
γράνης, Armenian: Տիգրան, 16 BC-36) was a Herodian Jerusalem. After the death of Tigranes’ father in 7
Prince who served as a Roman Client King of Armenia BC Herod acted in an extreme and brutal manner by
from the years 6 to 12. returning his mother to Cappadocia, forcing her to
leave her children under the sole custody of Herod in
Jerusalem. Tigranes and his brother remained under
161.1 Family & Life in the Hero- Herod’s guardianship so he could be able to control their
fates.[9] Another son of Herod’s, Antipater, was con-
dian Court cerned for Tigranes and his brother as he expected them
to attain higher station than their own late fathers, be-
Tigranes was the first-born son of Alexander and cause of the assistance Antipater considered [10]
likely from
[2] [3] their maternal grandfather Archelaus.
Glaphyra. His younger brother was called Alexander
and he also had a younger unnamed sister.[4] His nephew Herod died in 4 BC in Jericho.[11] After the death
Tigranes VI served as a Roman Client King of Armenia of Herod, Tigranes and his brother decided to leave
during the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero (reigned Jerusalem and to live with their mother and her family
54-68).[5] His father Alexander was a Judean Prince of in the Cappadocian Royal Court. After Tigranes and his
Jewish, Nabataean and Edomite descent and was a son of brother arrived in Cappadocia, they disowned their Jew-
King of Judea Herod the Great and his wife Mariamne. ish descent, deserted their Jewish religion and embraced
His mother Glaphyra was a Cappadocian Princess, who their Greek descent, including the religion.[12] However,
was of Greek, Armenian and Persian descent. She was the family connections with the Herodian Dynasty wasn’t
the daughter of the King Archelaus of Cappadocia [6] and wholly broken. After Tigranes and his brother disowned
her mother was an unnamed Princess from Armenia,[7] their Jewish descent, they were considered to be gentiles
possibly a relation of the Artaxiad Dynasty. by fellow Jews.[13] Archelaus had sent Tigranes to live and
[14]
Tigranes was named in honor of his mother’s Armenian be educated in Rome.
and Hellenic lineage. The name Tigranes was the most
common royal name in the Artaxiad Dynasty and was
among the most ancient names of the Armenian Kings.[8]
Roman Emperor Augustus mentions Tigranes’ Armenian
161.2 King of Armenia
ancestry in his political testament:
In the year 6, Artavasdes III who served as King of Arme-
nia was murdered by his subjects, as he was an unpopu-
When he was murdered I sent into that king-
lar ruler with the Armenians. After the death of Artavas-
dom Tigranes [Tigrans V, ca. A.D. 6], who
des III, Augustus revised his foreign policy and appointed
was sprung from the royal family of the Arme-
Tigranes as King of Armenia.[15] Tigranes was accom-
nians.
panied by Archelaus and Tiberius to Armenia, where he
[Res Gestae Divi Augusti, V. xxvi. pp.390/1] was installed as King at Artaxata.[16] Artaxata became

336
161.4. REFERENCES
Tigranes’ capital. In the year 6, Tigranes ruled Armenia
as a sole ruler. Sometime into his reign, the Armenian no-
bles were unsatisfied with his reign. They rebelled later
that year and restored Erato back to the throne. From
the years 6-12, Tigranes co-ruled with Erato. His co-rule
with Erato is based on numismatic evidence.[17]
Little is known about his reign of Armenia although some
coinage has survived from his reign.[18] The surviving
coinage is a reflection from his Hellenic and Armenian
descent and is evidence that he relinquished his Jewish
connections.[19] His royal title is in Greek ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ
ΤΙΓΡΑΝΟΥ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ which means of great King
Tigranes. In 12, Erato and Tigranes were overthrown
for unknown reasons. Augustus kept Armenia as a client
kingdom and appointed Vonones I of Parthia as King of
Armenia.[20]
161.3 Life after being King of Ar-
menia
After his kingship, Tigranes may have remained in Ar-
menia in contention to reclaim his throne in the first
years of the reign of the Roman Emperor Tiberius.[21]
Around about the year 18 Vonones I died. His maternal
grandfather attempted to re-establish Tigranes as King of
Armenia.[22] Tigranes may have called upon Archelaus
to assist him in regaining his throne and Archelaus may
have been charged for treason in Rome for helping a
relative who for unknown reasons wasn’t now in favor
with the Romans.[23] The Armenian kingship was given
to Artaxias III. If Tigranes was successful in regaining his
throne and succeeding Archelaus, he would have presided
directly or indirectly over a virtual empire.[24]
After the year 18, little is known about the life of
Tigranes. His wife was the unnamed daughter of
Pheroras,[25] by whom he had no children.[26] Pheroras
was his paternal great-uncle and a brother to Herod.
Tacitus records that Tigranes as a victim of the reign of
terror that marked the latter years of Tiberius.[27] The
charges brought against him by Tiberius in year 36 are
not stated but it is clear that he did not survive them. His
death followed the Roman installation in year 35 of a new
client king in Armenia, the Iberian Prince Mithridates,
as a part of a broader campaign against Artabanus III of
Parthia.[28]
337
161.4 References
[1] Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Mod-
ern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiq-
uity to the Fourteenth Century, p.61
[2] Kasher, King Herod: a persecuted persecutor: a case study
in psychohistory and psychobiography, p.p.353-4
[3] Kasher, King Herod: a persecuted persecutor: a case study
in psychohistory and psychobiography, p.p.353-4
[4] Eisenman’s “New Testament Code”, Chapter 4
[5] Redgate, The Armenians, p.79
[6] Dueck, Strabo’s cultural geography: the making of a kolos-
sourgia, p.208
[7] Syme, Anatolica: studies in Strabo, p.150
[8] Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Mod-
ern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiq-
uity to the Fourteenth Century, p.48
[9] Kasher, King Herod: a persecuted persecutor: a case study
in psychohistory and psychobiography, p.349
[10] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.315
[11] Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus
Christ (175 B.C. - A.D. 135), p.327
[12] Kasher, King Herod: a persecuted persecutor: a case study
in psychohistory and psychobiography, p.298
[13] Moen, Marriage and Divorce in the Herodian Family: A
Case Study of Diversity in Late Second Temple Judaism,
p.233
[14] acsearch.info - ancient coin search engine: coinage infor-
mation on Tigranes V & Tigranes VI
[15] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.1164
[16] Syme, Anatolica: studies in Strabo, p.323
[17] Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Mod-
ern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiq-
uity to the Fourteenth Century, p.62
[18] acsearch.info ancient coin search engine: Kings of Arme-
nia
[19] Josephus, Ant. 18:140
338 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

[20] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.1160
[21] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.1159
[22] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.1159
[23] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.1160
[24] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.1159
• R.G. Hovannisian, The Armenian People from An-
cient to Modern Times, Volume 1: The Dynastic
Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century,
Palgrave Macmillan, 2004
• D. Dueck, H. Lindsay & S. Pothecary, Strabo’s
cultural geography: the making of a kolossourgia,
Cambridge University Press, 2005
• A. Kasher & E. Witztum, King Herod: a persecuted
persecutor: a case study in psychohistory and psy-
chobiography, Walter de Gruyter, 2007
• Marriage and Divorce in the Herodian Family: A
Case Study of Diversity in Late Second Temple Ju-
daism by Ingrid Johanne Moen Department of Re-
ligion in the Graduate School of Duke University

[25] Kasher, King Herod: a persecuted persecutor: a case study • acsearch.info ancient coin search engine: Kings of
in psychohistory and psychobiography, p.349 Armenia

[26] Temporini, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: • Eisenman’s “New Testament Code”, Chapter 4
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im spiegel der neueren
Forschung, p.1164

[27] Tacitus, para. 40. 161.6 External links

[28] Tacitus, para. 32. • Coinage of Tigranes V

• Coinage of Tigranes V
161.5 Sources
• Tacitus, Annals Book VI
• Millar, Fergus, Schürer, Emil, Vermes & Geza, The
History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus
Christ (175 B.C. - A.D. 135), Continuum Interna-
tional Publishing Group, 1973
• H. Temporini & W. Haase, Aufstieg und Nieder-
gang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur
Roms im spiegel der neueren Forschung, Walter de
Gruyter, 1977
• H. Temporini & W. Haase, Aufstieg und Nieder-
gang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur
Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, Walter de
Gruyter, 1980
• R. Syme & A.R. Birley, Anatolica: studies in
Strabo, Oxford University Press, 1995
• A.E. Redgate, The Armenians, Wiley-Blackwell,
2000
161.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 339

161.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

161.7.1 Text
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Vegaswikian, Margosbot, Kyriakos, Douglasfrankfort, Fram, GrinBot, SmackBot, G.dallorto, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg,
William Allen Simpson, Babur, Cplakidas, Atropos, Greenshed, Anriz, Mallaccaos, Neddyseagoon, Gveret Tered, Hemlock Martinis,
Cydebot, Hebrides, Heff01, Thijs!bot, JAnDbot, Deflective, VolkovBot, Maxipuchi, Phe-bot, Velvetron, Budelberger, Addbot, Minister-
ForBadTimes, LaaknorBot, Numbo3-bot, Luckas-bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Atlantia, TobeBot, WikitanvirBot,
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Flauto Dolce, Per Honor et Gloria, Sam Hocevar, Paul August, QuartierLatin1968, Varana, Binabik80, Grenavitar, WojciechSwiderski,
FeanorStar7, Sburke, Rjwilmsi, Kyriakos, Zotel, YurikBot, RussBot, Seb35, Zwobot, Ajdebre, Edward Waverley, SmackBot, Tsca.bot,
Cplakidas, Regnator, Andrew Dalby, The Man in Question, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Deflective, Albmont, Mfoch, VolkovBot,
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shot14, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, Waacstats, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, Lucasbfrbot, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user
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FeanorStar7, TheoClarke, Chochopk, Magister Mathematicae, FreplySpang, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Brighterorange, Sango123, RobertG, Kyr-
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Cplakidas, OrphanBot, Dr pda, Nakon, APRCooper, Ibrahim92, Pilotguy, Ceoil, Yannismarou, Rory096, Mercuryboard, Anriz, Iliev,
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FlareOfFire, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Ginosal, NERIUM, Qp10qp, AntiVandalBot, Panarjedde, Grey Wanderer, Glen, R'n'B, Noyder, DrKier-
nan, GrahamHardy, TXiKiBoT, Andres rojas22, Anonymous Dissident, Peer, Stevemcginn, Lightmouse, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user
ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Dabomb87, Ricardo Frantz, ClueBot, Bob1960evens, The Thing That Should Not Be, Cirt, Cata-
lographer, Merrieman, Mm40, Lemmey, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Lt.Specht, LinkFA-Bot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Dorieo, Againme,
JackieBot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Wolfymoza, FrescoBot, Atlantia, Lars Washington, TobeBot, Bundeghh, Rjwilm-
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et Gloria, Jastrow, Paul August, Robotje, Grutness, TheParanoidOne, Miranche, PoptartKing, Binabik80, Grenavitar, SRP, Yug, Kyriakos,
Valentinian, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, RobotE, KnightRider, SmackBot, Paxse, Ben Applegate, Cplakidas, Chlewbot, Valenciano, Anriz, Ned-
dyseagoon, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, Waacstats, Thismightbezach, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, LIS632-07S-SEB, G.-M.
Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Ricardo Frantz, Kafka Liz, Liquid Silencer, BOTarate, RogDel, Silvo-
nenBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, AkhtaBot, GK1973, AndersBot, Omnipedian, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, Againme, Omnipaedista,
Djhuty, D'ohBot, Atlantia, TobeBot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Jbribeiro1, Dexbot, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 13
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A, Rlandmann, Charles Matthews, The Phoenix, Paul August, Camitommy, Arthena, Grenavitar, Ghirlandajo, Pufacz, Kyriakos, Jaraalbe,
YurikBot, Aldux, Astavrou, G.dallorto, Cplakidas, OrphanBot, Anriz, Metb82, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Sting, Dr. Blofeld,
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Ghirlandajo, Dejvid, Pufacz, Kyriakos, Jaraalbe, ARrohetMeZemer, YurikBot, Tiffanicita, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Fordma-
doxfraud, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Sting, NERIUM, .anacondabot, Waacstats, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, Ori, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Kbdankbot, Addbot, AkhtaBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, Againme, Mehmetbagci, Xqbot,
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Kuralyov, Sam Hocevar, BeavisSanchez, Rich Farmbrough, MeltBanana, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, CanisRufus, Zscout370, Shanes, Cmdr-
jameson, Jguk 2, Pharos, Rogerwilco, Ghirlandajo, Kazvorpal, Woohookitty, PoccilScript, Chochopk, Bluemoose, John Hill, BD2412,
Kbdank71, Dpv, Rjwilmsi, NatusRoma, Ligulem, Talessman, Sponsianus, Sean WI, Lemuel Gulliver, Osomec, RussBot, Ksyrie, Siddiqui,
Aldux, Igiffin, Deville, Pietdesomere, JLaTondre, Tajik, Thamis, SmackBot, Imz, Prodego, Kintetsubuffalo, Hmains, TimBentley, Wiki-
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Neddyseagoon, Dr.K., DabMachine, Geoffg, CapitalR, CBM, Reahad, Antioco79, Cydebot, PamD, Headbomb, Astynax, Philippe, Hajji
Piruz, Fennessy, Siamax, Mejda, Nyttend, Gomm, Vssun, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Artacoana, Alsandair, Soczyczi, Biglov-
inb, Rumpelstiltskin223, Squids and Chips, VolkovBot, Thomas.W, Tzetzes, TXiKiBoT, Andres rojas22, Steven J. Anderson, Ferengi,
Abdullais4u, Mwilso24, Mallerd, AlleborgoBot, PericlesofAthens, Bellatores, SieBot, Mazdakabedi, Escape Orbit, ImageRemovalBot,
ClueBot, Podzemnik, XPTO, Auntof6, SchreiberBike, Catalographer, Chovin, Mary*wu, Sunquanliangxiuhao, SilvonenBot, Good Olfac-
tory, Periptero, Addbot, Jogezai, SpBot, Sheredot, Ketabtoon, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Amirobot, Againme, DarklyCute, Ferox
Seneca, Visitante22, LilHelpa, Xqbot, J04n, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Djhuty, Strider11, Shwudnhchs, 13alexander, Abductive, Jandalhan-
dler, Tim1357, Inuit18, FoxBot, TobeBot, MacArthur1945, EmausBot, Cricobr, , WikitanvirBot, Alagos, Look2See1, Supersume,
Italia2006, ZéroBot, Psubrat2000, Rani nurmai, Toolen, Seair21, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, BG19bot, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, YFdyh-
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Poccil, Jguk, GregorB, John Hill, Eras-mus, Angusmclellan, Sponsianus, Chobot, Aldux, Nikkimaria, Udimu, SmackBot, Downwards,
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Vacio, Catalographer, Interlinking, RogDel, Addbot, AndersBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Glatisant, Ptbotgourou, KamikazeBot,
Againme, TakenakaN, Omnipaedista, Djhuty, 13alexander, Pvtrick123, Dgarq, EmausBot, Italia2006, ZéroBot, Rani nurmai and Anony-
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RogDel, Albambot, Addbot, Lightbot, 23th, Luckas-bot, TakenakaN, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Djhuty, Ælfgar, Dgarq, RjwilmsiBot,
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MastiBot, 777sms, EmausBot, Drdarkman, ZéroBot, Rani nurmai, Numbermaniac, Nimetapoeg, Statler81, Filedelinkerbot and Anony-
mous: 7
• Demetrius II of India Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_II_of_India?oldid=627172126 Contributors: William Avery,
Panairjdde, Per Honor et Gloria, Quadell, Sam Hocevar, Rich Farmbrough, Sponsianus, RussBot, FocalPoint, Hmains, CBM, Lugnuts,
MoogleDan, DrKiernan, Thomas.W, Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Oskar71, Bilsonius, Addbot,
LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, DefaultsortBot, RedBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Nimetapoeg, Statler81 and Anony-
mous: 2
• Eucratides I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucratides_I?oldid=627168697 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Delirium, Maximus Rex,
Everyking, Per Honor et Gloria, Edcolins, AmarChandra, DMG413, Pmetzger, Polylerus, Jguk, Gene Nygaard, John Hill, BD2412,
Rjwilmsi, Talessman, Sponsianus, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, RussBot, JLaTondre, Udimu, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Elonka, Hmains, Vvarkey, Big-
turtle, The Man in Question, Tmangray, Lugnuts, Q43, BetacommandBot, Thijs!bot, Storkk, Waacstats, Bdefore, Kostisl, DrKiernan, Ar-
iobarzan, VolkovBot, FinnWiki, Thanatos666, Hertz1888, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alexbot, Nownownow,
Grisunge, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Favonian, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Againme, GrouchoBot, Djhuty, Moonraker, RedBot,
Aamsse, TobeBot, Italia2006, ZéroBot, Δ, Rani nurmai, Brunswick Dude, Helpful Pixie Bot, CitationCleanerBot, Winterbliss, Nimetapoeg,
TheGuyWhoIsOnTheStreet and Anonymous: 14
• Plato of Bactria Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato_of_Bactria?oldid=596690808 Contributors: Per Honor et Gloria, Tabletop,
MZMcBride, Sponsianus, TexasAndroid, SmackBot, FocalPoint, The Man in Question, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, Reedy Bot, LordAnubis-
BOT, VolkovBot, Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Lightbot,
Luckas-bot, Againme, DefaultsortBot, WikitanvirBot, ZéroBot and Nimetapoeg
• Eucratides II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucratides_II?oldid=626342780 Contributors: Zundark, Delirium, Per Honor et Glo-
ria, Talessman, Sponsianus, YurikBot, Aldux, Dbratton, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Epbr123, VolkovBot, Thanatos666,
Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Nownownow, Interlinking, Addbot, Ptbotgourou, Againme, Djhuty, BenzolBot,
TobeBot, PhnomPencil, Nimetapoeg, Epimachos and Anonymous: 1
• Indo-Greek Kingdom Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom?oldid=627190913 Contributors: Enchanter, Lean-
drod, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, DopefishJustin, Menchi, Ahoerstemeier, John K, SatyrTN, Itai, Raul654, Wetman, Donarreiskoffer,
R3m0t, Modulatum, Centrx, Marcika, Theon, Tom Radulovich, Everyking, Michael Devore, Henry Flower, Varlaam, Gilgamesh, Per
Honor et Gloria, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Gugganij, Utcursch, Geni, Gdr, Quadell, Beland, Doops, Domino theory, PDH, Lesouris, Kura-
lyov, Pmanderson, Icairns, Sam Hocevar, Hillel, DMG413, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, Dbachmann, Android79,
Kaisershatner, CanisRufus, Zscout370, Kwamikagami, Sietse Snel, Smalljim, Cmdrjameson, Jguk 2, Chirag, Pharos, Mdd, Thebegin-
ning, Arthena, Wiki-uk, Omerlives, Monk127, Riana, Rogerwilco, Mysdaao, Knowledge Seeker, Iustinus, Stemonitis, Woohookitty, Mr
Tan, Scriberius, PoccilScript, Ganeshk, Tabletop, Tomlillis, Bluemoose, John Hill, SeventyThree, LeoO3, BD2412, Dwaipayanc, Gram-
marbot, Dpv, Electionworld, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Tombseye, Ligulem, Brighterorange, Dar-Ape, Sango123, Nicolas1981, FlaBot,
Talessman, Anurag Garg, Sponsianus, Sean WI, Odysseas, Pevernagie, Valentinian, Chobot, DaGizza, Gdrbot, Deeptrivia, RussBot, John
Smith’s, Gaius Cornelius, Siddiqui, Chooserr, Benne, Aldux, Vastu, Deucalionite, Tanyanika, Igiffin, Emijrp, Deville, Closedmouth,
Chris Brennan, BorgQueen, Npeters22, JLaTondre, Garion96, Thamis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Yellow-
Monkey, Elonka, Kedar Borhade, Jagged 85, AtilimGunesBaydin, Paxse, Devanampriya, Kintetsubuffalo, Hmains, Darthanakin, Chris the
speller, Freedom skies, Nbarth, Colonies Chris, Hongooi, Cplakidas, Khoikhoi, Giani g, Wizardman, GourangaUK, Nishkid64, Mukad-
derat, Naerhu, Sreekanthv, Shyamsunder, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, RandomCritic, Neddyseagoon, Ryulong, Dr.K., Hectorian,
Smommss, DabMachine, Norm mit, Iridescent, JoeBot, Zeusnoos, ChrisCork, CmdrObot, CBM, Alfredo Molina, Reahad, Equester,
Antialcidas, Cydebot, JamesAM, Epbr123, Paragon12321, Astynax, Seth Nimbosa, Nick Number, HussainAbbas, AntiVandalBot, Dav-
ewho2, Ahrarara, MegX, Magioladitis, El Greco, Parsecboy, Mejda, Rich257, Midgrid, Hekerui, JaGa, Pavanapuram, Makalp, R'n'B,
CommonsDelinker, Effindiot, McSly, Soczyczi, Biglovinb, Sanscrit1234, Rashti, Rumpelstiltskin223, Intothefire, DH85868993, Squids and
Chips, Redtigerxyz, Speciate, Thomas.W, Macedonian, Palaiobudist, Nik markoulakis, Tzetzes, GimmeBot, F.chiodo, Kww, Windy City
Dude, Steven J. Anderson, FinnWiki, Thanatos666, Brianga, Bellatores, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, ToePeu.bot, Keilana, QuantumVibe,
342 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

Kumioko (renamed), ImageRemovalBot, Athenean, YellowAssessmentMonkey, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Black Horseman, Podzemnik, Cat-
alographer, Mkr bu50, Wangsta5, Lemmey, MatthewVanitas, Asrghasrhiojadrhr, Addbot, Leszek Jańczuk, Ka Faraq Gatri, MinisterFor-
BadTimes, CarsracBot, AndersBot, Johnygadar, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Ettrig, Ben Ben, Waytolive, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11,
Boolyme, Againme, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Xqbot, NoVomit, Djhuty, Zaccarias, Strider11,
Shwudnhchs, MGA73bot, Kwiki, OgreBot, MondalorBot, FoxBot, TobeBot, Vinay84, Itinerant.orthodox, Orieton, EmausBot, Cricobr,
John of Reading, Look2See1, Rarevogel, Wikipelli, Italia2006, Blablablablaetc, Apollonian smile, ClueBot NG, Rani nurmai, Snotbot,
Fasi100, Rurik the Varangian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Vagobot, Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας, Davidiad, Sardanpavlov, DPL bot, Vin09, Minsbot,
Aayush18, TheCascadian, Tech77, Dadamkhan, Khazar2, All Worlds, Delljvc, Numbermaniac, Febetsh23, Krakkos, Sushilmishra, Ugog
Nizdast, Nikhilmn2002, Spalagdama, Lommes, Monkbot, AwwwsomeDog, Sparta3 and Anonymous: 145
• Apollodotus I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollodotus_I?oldid=627168441 Contributors: Enchanter, AnonMoos, Per Honor et
Gloria, Quadell, Sam Hocevar, Hillel, Rich Farmbrough, Jguk, Gene Nygaard, Dejvid, Talessman, Sponsianus, Jaraalbe, Sortan, RussBot,
Bachrach44, Deucalionite, Closedmouth, Udimu, YellowMonkey, Devanampriya, The Man in Question, CBM, Lugnuts, Notjake13, Win-
Bot, MegX, JaGa, Kostisl, DrKiernan, STBotD, Thanatos666, Wikifex, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageR-
emovalBot, RogDel, PL290, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, GrouchoBot, Djhuty, 13alexander, OgreBot, DrilBot,
DefaultsortBot, TobeBot, Orieton, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Khazar2, Nimetapoeg, Paul2520 and Anonymous: 4
• Antimachus II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimachus_II?oldid=627272925 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Enchanter, Delir-
ium, EALacey, Curps, Per Honor et Gloria, Quadell, BD2412, Sponsianus, RussBot, Udimu, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Cplakidas,
IMaRocketMan, The Man in Question, CBM, Cydebot, Notjake13, T@nn, DrKiernan, Station1, Thanatos666, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, Citation bot, Omnipaedista, Djhuty, RedBot,
EmausBot, ZéroBot, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 2
• Menander I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menander_I?oldid=627347754 Contributors: Panairjdde, Michael Hardy, Sannse, Delir-
ium, Pratyeka, Zoicon5, Imc, AnonMoos, Babbage, Per Honor et Gloria, Sohailstyle, Zeimusu, Quadell, ClockworkTroll, Reinthal,
AmeriDesi, Japanese Searobin, PoccilScript, Bluemoose, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ligulem, Sponsianus, Aldux, Evrik, Jkelly, Pbwelch,
Closedmouth, Esprit15d, T. Anthony, Gaudio, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Jagged 85, Eskimbot, Devanampriya, Linguiste, TimBentley,
Hongooi, ApolloCreed, Cplakidas, Tonifer, The Man in Question, RandomCritic, Neddyseagoon, DabMachine, JoeBot, Nydas, CBM,
Zurkhardo, Cydebot, Eu.stefan, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Chaleyer61, Magioladitis, JaGa, Trabuck, Kostisl, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker,
DrKiernan, Sanscrit1234, VolkovBot, Margacst, TXiKiBoT, Sankalpdravid, Maungmaw, Thanatos666, StAnselm, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot, Alexbot, Ouedbirdwatcher, Rossen4, Addbot, Nero42, Yobot, Ptbotgourou,
Againme, ConorMcD1, ArthurBot, Panmarko, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Djhuty, Iskyhawk, MondalorBot, FoxBot, Moonander, ZéroBot, Mdm-
day, Rani nurmai, NKul, Khazar2, Hsizang, Napoleon 100, , Krakkos, Nimetapoeg, Wikiuser13, Rekowo, Powerplant786 and Anony-
mous: 44
• Zoilos I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoilos_I?oldid=627272127 Contributors: Enchanter, Delirium, Per Honor et Gloria,
Quadell, Kenyon, BD2412, Sponsianus, Alexios Chouchoulas, Bluebot, Dahn, The Man in Question, CBM, Cydebot, JimCubb, DrKier-
nan, Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot, Addbot, NjardarBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Againme, RedBot, Italia2006, ZéroBot, Rani nurmai, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 1
• Agathokleia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathokleia?oldid=627188858 Contributors: Llywrch, Delirium, Ihcoyc, Dimadick,
Wereon, Per Honor et Gloria, Bobblewik, Quadell, Neutrality, *Kat*, Kenyon, Carcharoth, Sponsianus, RussBot, Asarelah, Udimu, Fo-
calPoint, Hmains, Bluebot, Cplakidas, Miss Saff, Anriz, CBM, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot, Magioladitis, R'n'B, DrKiernan, Leonidaa,
Thanatos666, StAnselm, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot, 718 Bot, Addbot, GK1973, Yobot,
Againme, Xqbot, FrescoBot, DefaultsortBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, OccultZone, Johnsoniensis and Anonymous: 4
• Lysias Anicetus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysias_Anicetus?oldid=627272375 Contributors: Delirium, Per Honor et Gloria,
Golbez, Quadell, Sponsianus, Srnec, TimBentley, The Man in Question, CmdrObot, CBM, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Rettetast, DrKiernan,
Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, Emaus-
Bot, ZéroBot, Rani nurmai, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 4
• Strato I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strato_I?oldid=627188805 Contributors: Delirium, Per Honor et Gloria, Quadell, Mystique,
Mikythos, BD2412, Sponsianus, Ospalh, Udimu, SmackBot, Jim62sch, TimBentley, ApolloCreed, Cplakidas, The Man in Question, Ned-
dyseagoon, FairuseBot, CmdrObot, CBM, Cydebot, JamesAM, AntiVandalBot, Chaleyer61, Kostisl, DrKiernan, Thanatos666, Vanished
user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, 13alexander, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 5
• Antialcidas Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antialcidas?oldid=627271717 Contributors: Enchanter, Nataraja, Goethean, Per Honor
et Gloria, Mboverload, Gyrofrog, Quadell, SeventyThree, Talessman, Sponsianus, Aldux, Closedmouth, Udimu, SmackBot, Apol-
loCreed, The Man in Question, CBM, Antialcidas, Kostisl, DrKiernan, VolkovBot, Thanatos666, StAnselm, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Addbot, Ka Faraq Gatri, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, FrescoBot, DefaultsortBot,
EmausBot, ZéroBot, Chewings72, Rani nurmai, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 5
• Heliokles II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliokles_II?oldid=627272753 Contributors: SatyrTN, Per Honor et Gloria, Quadell,
Shanedidona, P3Pp3r, Sponsianus, SmackBot, Schmiteye, TimBentley, Cplakidas, OrphanBot, CBM, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, DrKiernan,
Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, Citation bot,
ZéroBot and Anonymous: 2
• Polyxenos Epiphanes Soter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenos_Epiphanes_Soter?oldid=627272912 Contributors: Delir-
ium, Per Honor et Gloria, Quadell, Esnible, Sponsianus, Udimu, Srnec, Bluebot, TimBentley, Cplakidas, The Man in Question, CBM,
161.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 343

Escarbot, Waacstats, DrKiernan, Aagtbdfoua, Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, BOTarate, Chronicler,
Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, EmausBot and ZéroBot
• Demetrios III Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrios_III?oldid=627272532 Contributors: Per Honor et Gloria, Quadell, Freyr,
Sponsianus, RussBot, SmackBot, CBM, DrKiernan, TXiKiBoT, Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Chronicler, Addbot, Yobot, Againme, GrouchoBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 3
• Philoxenus Anicetus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philoxenus_Anicetus?oldid=627168812 Contributors: Technopilgrim, Per
Honor et Gloria, Golbez, Quadell, Slambo, AmeriDesi, Anthony Appleyard, PoptartKing, Dpv, Sponsianus, Valentinian, Bgwhite,
RussBot, BrainyBroad, Siddiqui, Aelfthrytha, Srnec, Bluebot, TimBentley, The Man in Question, CBM, Cydebot, Notjake13, DrKier-
nan, Thanatos666, AlleborgoBot, StAnselm, Archaeogenetics, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot,
Fadesga, Niceguyedc, Chronicler, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, SpBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Againme, Strider11, EmausBot and
Anonymous: 2
• Diomedes Soter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diomedes_Soter?oldid=627189468 Contributors: Technopilgrim, SatyrTN, Per
Honor et Gloria, Golbez, Quadell, Garzo, Sponsianus, Bgwhite, RL0919, Udimu, SmackBot, Srnec, Cplakidas, The Man in Question,
CBM, DrKiernan, Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme,
Citation bot, LASirus, Bertcotte, EmausBot, ZéroBot and SporkBot
• Amyntas Nikator Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyntas_Nikator?oldid=627173262 Contributors: Delirium, SatyrTN, Per Honor
et Gloria, Woohookitty, Talessman, Sponsianus, RussBot, Aldux, Udimu, SmackBot, Jfurr1981, Thijs!bot, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker,
DrKiernan, Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot, Marcusaurelius161, Catalographer,
Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, Citation bot, DefaultsortBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 2
• Epander Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epander?oldid=627272324 Contributors: Delirium, Per Honor et Gloria, Quadell,
Trjumpet, Sponsianus, RussBot, Udimu, SmackBot, Bluebot, Cplakidas, CBM, DrKiernan, Thanatos666, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, RedBot, Bertcotte, ZéroBot, Spork-
Bot and Anonymous: 3
• Theophilos (king) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilos_(king)?oldid=627190869 Contributors: Enchanter, Delirium, Per
Honor et Gloria, Quadell, Sam Hocevar, LeeHunter, Sponsianus, UkPaolo, RussBot, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Big Brother 1984, Al-
dux, Udimu, Cplakidas, The Man in Question, CBM, BlaiseMuhaddib, DrKiernan, Thanatos666, AlleborgoBot, Archaeogenetics, Vanished
user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, Default-
sortBot, EmausBot, AsceticRose, ZéroBot, Ebrambot, SporkBot, Statler81 and Anonymous: 1
• Peukolaos Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peukolaos?oldid=596732138 Contributors: Delirium, Per Honor et Gloria, Quadell,
Ttwaring, Talessman, Sponsianus, UkPaolo, Siddiqui, Bluebot, CBM, Johnpacklambert, TXiKiBoT, Thanatos666, AlleborgoBot, Van-
ished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, PixelBot, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, ZéroBot and Anonymous:
1
• Thraso Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thraso?oldid=596732370 Contributors: Per Honor et Gloria, Edcolins, Sgkay, Sponsianus,
Jaraalbe, Aldux, Caerwine, TimBentley, Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, Againme, Exceat, ZéroBot, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 5
• Nicias (Indo-Greek king) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicias_(Indo-Greek_king)?oldid=627191067 Contributors: Delirium,
Per Honor et Gloria, Golbez, Sponsianus, SmackBot, Cplakidas, The Man in Question, Thijs!bot, DrKiernan, Thanatos666, StAnselm,
Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, FoxBot, Emaus-
Bot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 1
• Menander II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menander_II?oldid=627189788 Contributors: Enchanter, Delirium, Per Honor et Glo-
ria, Gdr, Sponsianus, Gaius Cornelius, SmackBot, Bluebot, GoodDay, Cplakidas, RandomCritic, DrKiernan, Thanatos666, Vanished
user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot, SchreiberBike, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Yobot, Againme, Xqbot,
Omnipaedista, DrilBot, Dlyongemallo, Bertcotte and ZéroBot
• Artemidoros Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemidoros?oldid=627272112 Contributors: Delirium, Maver1ck, Per Honor et Glo-
ria, Gdr, Quadell, Spangineer, FeanorStar7, Ev, Sponsianus, RussBot, Siddiqui, Udimu, SmackBot, Jagged 85, Bluebot, CBM, Cydebot,
DrKiernan, STBotD, Kyle the bot, Thanatos666, Kbdankbot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Chzz, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Againme,
DefaultsortBot, Rani nurmai and Anonymous: 2
• Hermaeus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaeus?oldid=627271302 Contributors: Delirium, Per Honor et Gloria, Golbez, J3ff,
Rich Farmbrough, Iustinus, John Hill, Talessman, Sponsianus, Deucalionite, Srnec, Clinkophonist, Germanicus19, The Man in Question,
Hu12, Thijs!bot, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker, DrKiernan, Thanatos666, SieBot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf,
ImageRemovalBot, Alexbot, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Yobot, Againme, TobeBot, EmausBot and ZéroBot
• Archebius Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archebius?oldid=627272551 Contributors: Delirium, Per Honor et Gloria, Quadell, Spon-
sianus, RussBot, Siddiqui, Deskana, Aldux, SmackBot, Cplakidas, CBM, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Notjake13, DrKiernan, Thanatos666, Alle-
borgoBot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Ngomano, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, Againme, DefaultsortBot, ZéroBot, Rani nurmai and Anonymous: 1
• Apollodotus II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollodotus_II?oldid=627171833 Contributors: Delirium, Kaal, Per Honor
et Gloria, Woohookitty, Sponsianus, RussBot, Udimu, SmackBot, DrKiernan, STBotD, Thanatos666, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, 13alexander,
EmausBot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 1
344 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

• Hippostratos Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippostratos?oldid=627171535 Contributors: Delirium, Everyking, Per Honor et Glo-

ria, Sponsianus, Principalityofgalore, Smith120bh, Udimu, Bluebot, TimBentley, Dr.K., Kostisl, DrKiernan, Thanatos666, Vanished
user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Monster Mail, ImageRemovalBot, Dromadar, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Againme, Omnipaedista, EmausBot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 2
• Dionysios Soter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysios_Soter?oldid=627171905 Contributors: Delirium, RickK, Per Honor et
Gloria, Golbez, Quadell, Sponsianus, Bgwhite, Srnec, TimBentley, Cplakidas, CBM, Antialcidas, Thijs!bot, Islescape, DrKiernan, TXiK-
iBoT, Thanatos666, AlleborgoBot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Againme, EmausBot, TYelliot and Anonymous: 4
• Zoilos II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoilos_II?oldid=627272148 Contributors: Delirium, Per Honor et Gloria, Yamla, Kenyon,
Mindmatrix, Barnstar, Dpv, Rjwilmsi, Sponsianus, Bluebot, TimBentley, Thijs!bot, JimCubb, DrKiernan, Squids and Chips, Thanatos666,
Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, FormerlyPanairjdde, Kattigara, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Againme, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 3
• Apollophanes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollophanes?oldid=627171920 Contributors: Delirium, Per Honor et Gloria,
Woohookitty, Mr Tan, Sponsianus, RussBot, Sarefo, Hmains, JoeBot, Antialcidas, Thijs!bot, Islescape, Nick Number, Theranos, Kevinsam,
DrKiernan, Thanatos666, AlleborgoBot, Asinsaratoga, Alexandr92, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Tradereddy,
DumZiBoT, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, FrescoBot, DefaultsortBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot and Anony-
mous: 2
• Strato II and III Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strato_II_and_III?oldid=596714538 Contributors: Per Honor et Gloria, Mystique,
BD2412, Bhadani, Ian Pitchford, Talessman, Sponsianus, Gaius Cornelius, Ospalh, Udimu, TimBentley, Neddyseagoon, Dougweller,
Thanatos666, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Addbot, Yobot, Againme, Bertcotte, EmausBot, ZéroBot,
Demiurge1000, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Thhist and Anonymous: 4
• List of rulers of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Bithynia?oldid=584956952 Contributors: Mahjongg,
John K, Carlossuarez46, Pmanderson, Mikythos, Alex '05, Hamilkar, CJLL Wright, YurikBot, TexasAndroid, Aldux, Asarelah, SmackBot,
Cplakidas, Mitrius, Anriz, Ludde23, DorganBot, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, G.-M. Cupertino, Catalographer, Mkr bu50, Budelberger, Addbot,
Luckas-bot, Syennesis, Nedim Ardoğa, MastiBot, The Mysterious El Willstro, Italia2006, Kasirbot and Anonymous: 4
• Bas of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bas_of_Bithynia?oldid=600381435 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Dimadick,
Roland2, FeanorStar7, Ian Pitchford, Aldux, BOT-Superzerocool, LeonardoRob0t, Babur, Anriz, Lugnuts, Mack2, Txomin, .anacondabot,
Aciram, TXiKiBoT, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, BOTarate, MystBot, Addbot, AndersBot,
Lightbot, Luckas-bot, LucienBOT, DefaultsortBot, WikitanvirBot, Italia2006, MALLUS and Anonymous: 4
• Zipoetes I of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zipoetes_I_of_Bithynia?oldid=600381331 Contributors: Dimadick,
Merovingian, Per Honor et Gloria, Pmanderson, Klemen Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, Chochopk, M A Mason, Aldux, Gadget850,
Babur, Proofreader, Andrew Dalby, Anriz, Cydebot, Txomin, Waacstats, Aciram, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Sabri76, Alexbot, Budelberger, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, Rubinbot, Xqbot, Default-
sortBot, Ælfgar, MastiBot, EmausBot, Mychele Trempetich, Italia2006, MALLUS and Anonymous: 8
• Nicomedes I of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomedes_I_of_Bithynia?oldid=621969706 Contributors: Llywrch, Di-
madick, Per Honor et Gloria, Rich Farmbrough, Roo72, Linmhall, Alex '05, RJFJR, Tabletop, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Jaraalbe, The Rambling
Man, YurikBot, Aldux, Trainra, Jerry7171, Anriz, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Txomin, Waacstats, Aciram, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, Paradoctor, Ori,
G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Sabri76, Alexbot, RogDel, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot,
Lightbot, Luckyz, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Xqbot, Jayarathina, RibotBOT, DefaultsortBot, TobeBot, Ripchip Bot, Italia2006, ZéroBot, Clue-
Bot NG and Anonymous: 8
• Zipoetes II of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zipoetes_II_of_Bithynia?oldid=600381479 Contributors: Per Honor et Glo-
ria, Pmanderson, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Anriz, Aciram, TXiKiBoT, Wikijens, Addbot, Luckas-bot, DSisyphBot, Italia2006, MALLUS,
Hyphantes and Anonymous: 1
• Etazeta of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etazeta_of_Bithynia?oldid=623733244 Contributors: Dcoetzee, Dimadick, Per
Honor et Gloria, Martpol, FeanorStar7, Jaraalbe, Yamara, Aldux, Asarelah, Racklever, Hemlock Martinis, Cydebot, Waacstats, VolkovBot,
Aciram, TXiKiBoT, Leonidaa, Goustien, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot,
Carlog3, The Mysterious El Willstro, Italia2006, Ebrambot, OccultZone and Anonymous: 5
• Ziaelas of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziaelas_of_Bithynia?oldid=600381536 Contributors: Adam Bishop, Dimadick,
Falcon Kirtaran, Klemen Kocjancic, Paul August, Remuel, Chochopk, Linuxbeak, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, Eupator, Aldux, Gadget850,
Iacobus, Babur, Anriz, Iridescent, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Txomin, Waacstats, LordAnubisBOT, Aciram, TXiKiBoT, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, RogDel, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Lightbot, Eresus, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, Poko, Avidus, Default-
sortBot, MastiBot, Italia2006, MALLUS, TheJJJunk and Anonymous: 5
• Prusias I of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prusias_I_of_Bithynia?oldid=626919559 Contributors: Llywrch, Delirium,
Ahoerstemeier, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Carlossuarez46, Dimadick, GreatWhiteNortherner, TOO, Per Honor et Gloria, Rich
Farmbrough, Paul August, Grutness, FeanorStar7, Sburke, Valentinian, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, BrainyBroad, Aldux, SmackBot,
Babur, Anriz, Lugnuts, Sting, Txomin, Thismightbezach, VolkovBot, Aciram, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, FairFare, Koumz, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Omnipedian, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Poko, Xqbot, Erik9bot,
DefaultsortBot, TobeBot, EmausBot, Italia2006, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 9
161.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 345

• Prusias II of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prusias_II_of_Bithynia?oldid=619956208 Contributors: William Avery, Lly-

wrch, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, GreatWhiteNortherner, Rich Farmbrough, Grutness, Valentinian, Jaraalbe, BrainyBroad, Aldux, Smack-
Bot, Anriz, JHunterJ, Lugnuts, Sting, Chaleyer61, Dandan1, Txomin, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Ttonyb1, Shakko, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alexbot, BOTarate, Barosaurus Lentus, RogDel, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, GrouchoBot,
Erik9bot, BenzolBot, DefaultsortBot, RedBot, TobeBot, Italia2006, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 11
• Nicomedes II of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomedes_II_of_Bithynia?oldid=620485828 Contributors: Llywrch,
Delirium, Rlandmann, GreatWhiteNortherner, Esnible, Klemen Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Kbdank71, Hamilkar, Yurik-
Bot, Aldux, Zwobot, Bluebot, Buttered Bread, Anriz, Neddyseagoon, Woodshed, Lugnuts, Txomin, Aciram, Oiophron, G.-M. Cu-
pertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alexbot, Addbot, Omnipedian, Lightbot, Luckyz, Legobot, Luckas-bot,
AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Jayarathina, RibotBOT, Italia2006, ZéroBot, Makecat-bot and Anonymous: 8
• Nicomedes III of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomedes_III_of_Bithynia?oldid=621969665 Contributors: Delirium,
Klemen Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Canadian Paul, Kbdank71, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, Aldux, Zwobot, SmackBot, Jeff5102,
Babur, Andrew Dalby, Anriz, Neddyseagoon, Ouishoebean, Cydebot, Txomin, Waacstats, ArthurWeasley, Aciram, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Budelberger, Chronicler, Bilsonius, Mikibc, Addbot, EjsBot, Lightbot, Luckyz, Luckas-bot, Lil-
Helpa, Xqbot, RibotBOT, Yeshua77, RedBot, ZéroBot, ChuispastonBot, Makecat-bot and Anonymous: 4
• Nicomedes IV of Bithynia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomedes_IV_of_Bithynia?oldid=600381836 Contributors: Tem-
plar, RodC, Robbot, RedWolf, Tamur, GreatWhiteNortherner, Kuralyov, Haiduc, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Dejvid, Richard
Arthur Norton (1958- ), Mississippienne, RomeW, Kbdank71, Hamilkar, Ian Pitchford, YurikBot, Aldux, Caponer, Cicero3558,
Bluebot, Babur, Andrew Dalby, Anriz, J Parker, Neddyseagoon, It4chi, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, Txomin, Californian Treehugger, Pas-
sionoftheDamon, Ironphoenix, Aciram, Broadbot, EunseokLee, SieBot, Paradoctor, Ori, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Mikibc, Harlock81, Addbot, EjsBot, Laurinavicius, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Legobot,
Luckas-bot, Againme, LucienBOT, DefaultsortBot, RedBot, English Bobby, The Mysterious El Willstro, Joefromrandb, Makecat-bot and
Anonymous: 21
• Socrates Chrestus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_Chrestus?oldid=608988908 Contributors: Bgwhite, Hmains, Anriz, Bil-
sonius, MystBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Againme, AnomieBOT, Alph Bot, EmausBot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 2
• List of kings of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Pontus?oldid=595298729 Contributors: SimonP,
Mahjongg, Paul A, John K, Nuno Tavares, Isnow, OpenToppedBus, Chobot, YurikBot, TexasAndroid, Aldux, MalafayaBot, Babur, Cplaki-
das, Anriz, Can't break my stride, JAnDbot, Mgoodyear, Alpercan, VolkovBot, Jojalozzo, BenoniBot, BOTarate, Mkr bu50, Addbot,
Againme, Rubinbot, Nederlandse Leeuw, EmausBot, Italia2006, Notesenses, Yswj700, Soheyl75 and Anonymous: 10
• Mithridates I of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Pontus?oldid=600383536 Contributors: SimonP, Paul
A, LiDaobing, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Furius, Taragui, Jaraalbe, Skoosh, Aldux, Deucalionite, Gadget850, Babur, Cplakidas,
Proofreader, Anriz, Adam Keller, Cydebot, Lugnuts, JimCubb, JaGa, Yonidebot, Aciram, Margacst, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, Vanished user
ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Willy, your mate, RogDel, Bilsonius, MystBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, AndersBot, Lightbot, Luckas-
bot, Againme, AnomieBOT, Sz-iwbot, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Atlantia, HRoestBot, Nederlandse Leeuw, Kasradaneshvar, EmausBot,
RA0808, Moswento, Italia2006, ZéroBot, ClueBot NG, Swaggoldie and Anonymous: 7
• Ariobarzanes of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariobarzanes_of_Pontus?oldid=600383574 Contributors: SimonP, Mani1,
Paul August, Scimitar, Jaraalbe, Aldux, Gadget850, Babur, Proofreader, Anriz, Hectorian, Cydebot, Lugnuts, VolkovBot, Aciram, TXiK-
iBoT, Broadbot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Miles Lee, Jordi Roqué, RogDel, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Raayen,
Lightbot, Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem, Againme, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, Carlog3, Atlantia, DefaultsortBot, TobeBot, Italia2006,
ZéroBot, Soheyl75, HistoryofIran and Anonymous: 2
• Mithridates II of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Pontus?oldid=600383657 Contributors: SimonP,
Delirium, Paul A, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Tommy Kronkvist, Lebha, Jaraalbe, Gaius Cornelius, Nicke L, Aldux, Deucalionite,
Gadget850, Iacobus, Hmains, Babur, Anriz, Hectorian, Cydebot, JaGa, VolkovBot, Aciram, Margacst, Gkay1500, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ClueBot, Muro Bot, MystBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Againme, Sz-iwbot, ArthurBot, GrouchoBot,
Atlantia, RedBot, TobeBot, EmausBot, Italia2006, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 5
• Mithridates III of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Pontus?oldid=600383982 Contributors: SimonP,
Paul A, Angela, Joy, Rich Farmbrough, Aldux, Deucalionite, Gadget850, SmackBot, Babur, Cplakidas, Anriz, Hectorian, VolkovBot,
Aciram, Margacst, TXiKiBoT, Broadbot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, PipepBot, PixelBot, Addbot, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, Againme, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Djhuty, Carlog3, FrescoBot, Atlantia, RedBot, TobeBot, EmausBot, Italia2006, KLBot2,
Soheyl75, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 4
• Pharnaces I of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharnaces_I_of_Pontus?oldid=600384078 Contributors: SimonP, Delirium,
Paul A, Rich Farmbrough, Ghirlandajo, BD2412, Kbdank71, Lebha, Jaraalbe, Aldux, Gadget850, Hmains, Babur, Cplakidas, Anriz,
Tartessos75, Mallaccaos, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, Cydebot, VolkovBot, Aciram, A Macedonian, Broadbot, SieBot, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, PixelBot, Muro Bot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Againme, ArthurBot, GrouchoBot, 13alexander, Carlog3,
FrescoBot, Atlantia, RedBot, TobeBot, Noahvox2, ZéroBot, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 3
• Mithridates IV of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_IV_of_Pontus?oldid=625069522 Contributors: SimonP,
Paul A, Rich Farmbrough, FeanorStar7, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Jaraalbe, Aldux, Deucalionite, Gadget850, Janmad, Chris the
speller, Babur, Anriz, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, Waacstats, Margacst, TXiKiBoT, Broadbot, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alexbot, PixelBot, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Omni-
paedista, RibotBOT, 13alexander, Atlantia, DefaultsortBot, RedBot, EmausBot, AvocatoBot, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 5
346 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

• Mithridates V of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_V_of_Pontus?oldid=625069510 Contributors: SimonP, Paul

A, Varlaam, Rich Farmbrough, FeanorStar7, Chochopk, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Jaraalbe, Aldux, Deucalionite, Gadget850, SmackBot,
Babur, Anriz, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, Cydebot, Lugnuts, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Ludde23, Nick Number, Waacstats, JaGa, Nono64,
Aciram, Margacst, TXiKiBoT, Broadbot, AlleborgoBot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, PipepBot, PixelBot,
SchreiberBike, RogDel, Addbot, EjsBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, 13alexander, Louperi-
bot, DefaultsortBot, EmausBot, ChrisGualtieri, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 6
• Mithridates VI of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontus?oldid=627932380 Contributors: SimonP,
Panairjdde, Paul Barlow, Paul A, Ihcoyc, Error, Ringomassa, Ccady, HarryHenryGebel, Wetman, Hadal, Mandel, GreatWhiteNortherner,
Dina, Decumanus, Varlaam, Chinasaur, Per Honor et Gloria, Neilc, Esnible, Bumm13, Rindis, Rich Farmbrough, Mani1, Paul August,
Gilgamesh he, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, MrSmart, Lokifer, Riana, Malo, Drat, Kober, Ghirlandajo, Falcorian, Japanese Searobin, Zntrip, De-
jvid, Firsfron, Huphos, FeanorStar7, Sburke, Briangotts, Stefanomione, BD2412, Qwertyus, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Yug, Miskin, FlaBot,
Pufacz, Margosbot, Sponsianus, Egthegreat, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RussBot, Hydrargyrum, Vmart, Aldux, Jeffpower, Deucalionite,
Brat32, Bota47, SMcCandlish, Barbatus, Geoffrey.landis, SmackBot, Iacobus, Eskimbot, Flamarande, Lamjus, Chris the speller, Dahn,
MalafayaBot, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Cplakidas, Roman Babylon, Rory096, Marscha, Anriz, Treyt021, AB, DIEGO
RICARDO PEREIRA, Mallaccaos, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, AndarielHalo, Ossipewsk, Mikehelms, JoeBot, Davo88, ShelfSkewed,
Bobnorwal, Cydebot, Jessypie, Idiotoff, 1337n00blar, JayW, Thijs!bot, Wandalstouring, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Amphipolis, Mrcool-
man, Folantin, Kosmonot, Shechem4, Stinkygr, DagosNavy, JAnDbot, Arch dude, GurchBot, Xact, Doug Coldwell, Waacstats, Nyttend,
ArthurWeasley, Gun Powder Ma, Ugajin, NAHID, Aeternium, Northutsire, Yonidebot, It Is Me Here, Notreallydavid, Biglovinb, Hugo999,
Margacst, TXiKiBoT, Leonidaa, Abtinb, A4bot, Una Smith, EunseokLee, SieBot, Cwkmail, Hxhbot, Mimihitam, Javierfv1212, Svick,
G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, EoGuy, MikeVitale, Parkjunwung, Sjdunn9, Jusdafax, Catalog-
rapher, Giftemi, Chronicler, RogDel, Bilsonius, WikHead, MystBot, Addbot, Ashanda, LinkFA-Bot, Sardur, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Amirobot, Nallimbot, KamikazeBot, Againme, Rubinbot, JackieBot, Ivan2007, Sz-iwbot, Bindiji, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot,
Xqbot, DSisyphBot, Kontendoo, Haploidavey, FrescoBot, Hirpex, Adlerbot, Laboris Dulcedo, RedBot, MastiBot, Aziraphael, Vrena-
tor, Miracle Pen, KatelynJohann, Pozytyv, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Bahramm 2, ChuispastonBot,
PohranicniStraze, Sufiji, ClueBot NG, Solundir, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gordon P Stephenson, Fidimayor, Dexbot, Dechrwr, MagistraMundi,
HistoryofIran, Exasperation115 and Anonymous: 117
• Pharnaces II of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharnaces_II_of_Pontus?oldid=614169044 Contributors: SimonP, Docu,
Adam Bishop, Merovingian, GreatWhiteNortherner, Per Honor et Gloria, Ezod, Comatose51, Rich Farmbrough, Cmdrjameson, Stephen
Bain, Grutness, Wereldburger758, Fdewaele, Briangotts, Maximinus, Qwertyus, Kbdank71, Valentinian, YurikBot, Eupator, Aldux,
Acostein, Ratagonia, Babur, Cplakidas, Anriz, AB, Don Alessandro, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, AndarielHalo, Thracean, Lugnuts, Escar-
bot, Thucydides411, VolkovBot, EunseokLee, SieBot, The Evil Spartan, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Sindala,
El bot de la dieta, DanielPharos, Chronicler, MystBot, Addbot, Sardur, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, Pkravchenko,
Xqbot, Vlastimil Svoboda, DefaultsortBot, MastiBot, TobeBot, EmausBot, Demiurge1000, Spicemix, ClueBot NG, Dionysodorus, Barayev
and Anonymous: 23
• Darius of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darius_of_Pontus?oldid=542638393 Contributors: Per Honor et Gloria, Ser
Amantio di Nicolao, Anriz, Mgoodyear, Hugo999, MystBot, Addbot, Pineapple fez, Againme, JackieBot, Ssola and BG19bot
• Arsaces of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsaces_of_Pontus?oldid=439079989 Contributors: Anriz, JMK, Hugo999 and
Avidus
• Polemon I of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polemon_I_of_Pontus?oldid=626467108 Contributors: Delirium, Paul A,
Mdebets, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Semperf, JLaTondre, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Herr Anonymus, Hmains, Babur,
Cplakidas, Krashlandon, Anriz, Hectorian, AndrewHowse, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, Albmont, Mgoodyear, SieBot, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Mild Bill Hiccup, Oskar71, Chronicler, MystBot, Addbot, Sardur, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme,
Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, EmausBot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 7
• Pythodorida of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythodorida_of_Pontus?oldid=540680190 Contributors: Mdebets, Di-
madick, Everyking, Icairns, PatGallacher, Јованвб, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Cydebot, Xeno, Waacstats, Johnpacklambert, TXiK-
iBoT, Allmightyduck, BenoniBot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Singinglemon, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Againme, AnomieBOT, RibotBOT, Carlog3, DrilBot, Weijiya, Updatehelper, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 12
• Polemon II of Pontus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polemon_II_of_Pontus?oldid=587523903 Contributors: Delirium, Mdebets,
D6, Briangotts, Valentinian, SmackBot, TimBentley, Cplakidas, Anriz, Lugnuts, FlaviaR, Albmont, JaGa, VolkovBot, Java7837, Van-
ished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Niceguyedc, Auntof6, Chronicler, Addbot, Sardur, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, The
Emperor’s New Spy, Againme, AnomieBOT, Omnipaedista, Carlog3, FrescoBot, DefaultsortBot, RedBot, EmausBot, Faizanalivarya and
Anonymous: 5
• List of rulers of Commagene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Commagene?oldid=589546198 Contributors:
Mahjongg, Docu, John K, Robbot, Pmanderson, D6, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, TexasAndroid, Eupator, Appleseed, SmackBot, Babur,
Cplakidas, Anriz, Bianchi-Bihan, VolkovBot, CompteJetable, Ustranimii Uyet, SieBot, Hetoum I, G.-M. Cupertino, Vonones, Budelberger,
Addbot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, Againme, Xqbot, Nedim Ardoğa, Laszlovszky András, Notesenses, Hmainsbot1, Makecat-bot, Laddo and
Anonymous: 17
• Ptolemaeus of Commagene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaeus_of_Commagene?oldid=618142371 Contributors:
Rjwilmsi, Sponsianus, RussBot, Eupator, NawlinWiki, SmackBot, MalafayaBot, Cplakidas, Stevenmitchell, Anriz, Lugnuts, Alaibot,
161.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 347

PamD, Waacstats, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, Hetoum I, Phil Bridger, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Catalographer, Interlinking, Sumerophile, MystBot, Addbot, SpBot, Lightbot, Thebiggnome, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, Xqbot,
MastiBot, RjwilmsiBot, Pandukht, ZanLJackson, MALLUS, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad and Anonymous: 6
• Sames II Theosebes Dikaios Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sames_II_Theosebes_Dikaios?oldid=562226335 Contributors:
Jclemens, Bgwhite, Eupator, NawlinWiki, MalafayaBot, Cplakidas, Vina-iwbot, Anriz, Iridescent, Lugnuts, Alaibot, VolkovBot, Het-
oum I, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Fadesga, Auntof6, MystBot, Addbot, SpBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Againme, Avidus, Dorkins, RibotBOT, LucienBOT, EmausBot, Aryamahasattva, ZanLJackson, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 4
• Mithridates I Callinicus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_I_Callinicus?oldid=561411257 Contributors: N-true, Eu-
pator, NawlinWiki, SmackBot, MalafayaBot, Cplakidas, Vina-iwbot, Anriz, Woodshed, Lugnuts, Alaibot, Ebyabe, ‫הסרפד‬, Instinct,
R'n'B, VolkovBot, Hetoum I, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Monster Mail, Mild Bill Hiccup, Chronicler, Ad-
dbot, CarsracBot, SpBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, DrilBot, TobeBot, EmausBot, ZanLJackson, Werieth, MALLUS,
Troypix, ChuispastonBot, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 5
• Antiochus I Theos of Commagene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_I_Theos_of_Commagene?oldid=616657897 Con-
tributors: Llywrch, GreatWhiteNortherner, Per Honor et Gloria, Pmanderson, Jimaginator, Ertly, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Billions, Kb-
dank71, Jclemens, Rjwilmsi, NatusRoma, China Crisis, Eubot, Sponsianus, Adoniscik, RussBot, Eupator, NawlinWiki, That Guy, From
That Show!, CHITRANI, SmackBot, Prodego, BPK2, MalafayaBot, KureCewlik81, Cplakidas, Fuhghettaboutit, Vriullop, Anriz, Ned-
dyseagoon, Lugnuts, DBaba, Barticus88, Magioladitis, STBot, R'n'B, Ottershrew, VolkovBot, Satani, CompteJetable, Bbltype, JhsBot,
AlleborgoBot, Menafee, SieBot, Hetoum I, Mr. Neutron, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Nachtkrieger, Vonones,
Jimmyjohnny, Zaharous, ChrisHodgesUK, Chronicler, RogDel, Addbot, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Againme, Citation bot, Xqbot,
Knobbishly, LucienBOT, Citation bot 1, MondalorBot, Weijiya, TjBot, Aryamahasattva, Pandukht, ZéroBot, EdoBot, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Vieque and Anonymous: 35
• Mithridates II of Commagene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Commagene?oldid=586791709 Contributors:
Delirium, Pmanderson, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Tony Sidaway, Tabletop, Kbdank71, RussBot, Eupator, NawlinWiki, SmackBot, Hmains,
Cplakidas, Vina-iwbot, Anriz, Woodshed, Lugnuts, Alaibot, Ebyabe, ‫הסרפד‬, CommonsDelinker, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, France3470,
Hetoum I, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Addbot, SpBot, Luckas-bot, Againme, LucienBOT, Wei-
jiya, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, MALLUS, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 8
• Antiochus II of Commagene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_II_of_Commagene?oldid=560385938 Contributors:
Rich Farmbrough, FeanorStar7, Tabletop, Hmains, Cplakidas, Anriz, Lugnuts, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Fadesga, RogDel, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Drilnoth, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, LucienBOT, Clarkcj12,
Weijiya, MALLUS, ChuispastonBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 1
• Mithridates III of Commagene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Commagene?oldid=624931303 Contributors:
Ktsquare, Delirium, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Agamemnon2, RussBot, Eupator, NawlinWiki, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Vina-iwbot, Anriz,
Woodshed, AndrewHowse, Lugnuts, Alaibot, VolkovBot, Hetoum I, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler,
Addbot, SpBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, LilHelpa, GrouchoBot, Weijiya, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ZéroBot, MAL-
LUS, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad, Hmainsbot1, Laddo and Anonymous: 6
• Antiochus III of Commagene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_III_of_Commagene?oldid=624931226 Contributors:
Delirium, Rich Farmbrough, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, RussBot, Eupator, NawlinWiki, SmackBot, Hmains, Cplakidas, Anriz, CBM, Lugnuts,
Alaibot, Fisherjs, Addere, Hetoum I, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Chronicler, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Againme, GrouchoBot, Flaviusvulso, BenzolBot, Weijiya, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, MALLUS,
Chewings72, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad, Laddo and Anonymous: 3
• Antiochus IV of Commagene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_IV_of_Commagene?oldid=567581616 Contributors:
Jeronimo, Josh Grosse, Delirium, Charles Matthews, Andrevan, Wetman, Dimadick, GreatWhiteNortherner, Everyking, Pmanderson,
Rich Farmbrough, Mairi, Grutness, Maqs, Nicknack009, Woohookitty, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Yuber, Valentinian, RussBot, Eupator,
Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, PhilipC, SmackBot, BPK2, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Cplakidas, Vriullop, Anriz, Neddyseagoon, Nick Num-
ber, Goldenrowley, Pichote, JaGa, Hans Dunkelberg, Hetoum I, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Alexbot, MystBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, Avidus, Citation bot, Drilnoth, BenzolBot, Weijiya, John
of Reading, ChuispastonBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad, Laddo and Anonymous: 10
• List of rulers of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Cappadocia?oldid=604675997 Contributors: Si-
monP, Mahjongg, John K, Dejvid, Isnow, Aldux, Arthur Rubin, Hmains, Mitrius, Thijs!bot, WinBot, Mgoodyear, DorganBot, Monsieurdl,
G.-M. Cupertino, Catalographer, Budelberger, Addbot, KamikazeBot, Againme, Rubinbot, ArthurBot, RibotBOT, Carlog3, MastiBot,
WikitanvirBot, Italia2006, Hmainsbot1, Ithinkicahn and Anonymous: 4
• Ariarathes I of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_I_of_Cappadocia?oldid=616823316 Contributors: SimonP,
Delirium, Rich Farmbrough, Ardric47, Roboto de Ajvol, Aldux, Gadget850, Babur, Cplakidas, Proofreader, Anriz, Rjgibb, Hectorian,
Lugnuts, WVhybrid, MiPe, Margacst, TXiKiBoT, Broadbot, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Budelberger, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Againme, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Carlog3, Atlantia, TobeBot, Nebeviye, Ithinkic-
ahn and Anonymous: 2
• Ariarathes II of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_II_of_Cappadocia?oldid=614086608 Contributors: Si-
monP, Delirium, Rich Farmbrough, Eupator, Aldux, Gadget850, Babur, Cplakidas, Proofreader, Anriz, Hectorian, Cydebot, Albmont,
TXiKiBoT, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Budelberger, Addbot, Againme, Awersowy, Grou-
choBot, RibotBOT, Carlog3, EmausBot, John of Reading, ZéroBot, Ithinkicahn and Anonymous: 3
348 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

• Ariamnes of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariamnes_of_Cappadocia?oldid=604687608 Contributors: SimonP,

Delirium, Aldux, Gadget850, Babur, Cplakidas, Proofreader, Anriz, Hectorian, Cydebot, TXiKiBoT, Broadbot, VVVBot, G.-M. Cuper-
tino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, PipepBot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Againme, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista,
Solarium2, Carlog3, BenzolBot, Atlantia, HRoestBot, DefaultsortBot, TobeBot, MALLUS and Ithinkicahn
• Ariarathes III of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_III_of_Cappadocia?oldid=604686672 Contributors: Si-
monP, Delirium, Wetman, Per Honor et Gloria, Rich Farmbrough, FlaBot, Aldux, Gadget850, Cplakidas, Proofreader, Anriz, Hectorian,
Cydebot, TXiKiBoT, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, PixelBot, Budelberger, Addbot, Anders-
Bot, Luckas-bot, Againme, Awersowy, GrouchoBot, Atlantia, TobeBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, ZéroBot, Ithinkicahn and
Anonymous: 3
• Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_IV_of_Cappadocia?oldid=609218799 Contribu-
tors: SimonP, Delirium, Charles Matthews, Rich Farmbrough, Kbdank71, Aldux, Gadget850, Hmains, Cplakidas, Ohconfu-
cius, Anriz, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, Cydebot, Pingku, Oiophron, WereSpielChequers, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alfons Åberg, Muro Bot, El bot de la dieta, Budelberger, Oskar71, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Againme, GrouchoBot, Carlog3, TobeBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Johny SYSEL, YFdyh-bot, Hmainsbot1, Zorlusert, Nimetapoeg,
Ithinkicahn and Anonymous: 5
• Ariarathes V of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_V_of_Cappadocia?oldid=609218644 Contributors: Si-
monP, Delirium, Charles Matthews, Rich Farmbrough, Evil Monkey, Woohookitty, Kbdank71, Douglasfrankfort, Aldux, Gadget850,
Chris the speller, Cplakidas, Anriz, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, Cydebot, Pingku, Thijs!bot, Mgoodyear, Balloonguy, Leonidaa, G.-M.
Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Bob1960evens, Estirabot, Muro Bot, Catalographer, Budelberger, Os-
kar71, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Awersowy, JackieBot, GrouchoBot, Carlog3, Atlantia, TobeBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Johny
SYSEL, YFdyh-bot, Hmainsbot1, Zorlusert, Nimetapoeg, Ithinkicahn and Anonymous: 6
• Orophernes of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orophernes_of_Cappadocia?oldid=578456710 Contributors: Delirium,
Per Honor et Gloria, Kbdank71, FlaBot, Aldux, Gadget850, Cplakidas, Anriz, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, Cydebot, TXiKiBoT, Van-
ished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Oskar71, Addbot, EjsBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Carlog3, EmausBot, Hmainsbot1,
Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 3
• Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_VI_of_Cappadocia?oldid=621971213 Contributors: Si-
monP, Delirium, Rich Farmbrough, Kbdank71, FlaBot, Aldux, Gadget850, KnightRider, Colonies Chris, Cplakidas, Anriz, Neddysea-
goon, Hectorian, Lugnuts, Pingku, Walter Breitzke, Leonidaa, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Sebleouf, Budelberger, Oskar71, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Xqbot, Carlog3, Atlantia, TobeBot, Lotje, Felis
domestica, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Fylbecatulous, Hmainsbot1, Makecat-bot, Zorlusert, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 1
• Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_VII_of_Cappadocia?oldid=609219365 Contributors:
Delirium, Rich Farmbrough, FlaBot, Aldux, Cplakidas, Anriz, Hectorian, Cydebot, Pingku, Thijs!bot, Txomin, TXiKiBoT, G.-M. Cu-
pertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Budelberger, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, RibotBOT, Carlog3,
Atlantia, TobeBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, ChuispastonBot, Johny SYSEL, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 1
• Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_VIII_of_Cappadocia?oldid=578456950 Contributors:
Delirium, Klemen Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, Fdewaele, FlaBot, Aldux, Gadget850, Cplakidas, Anriz, Hectorian, Cydebot, Txomin,
TXiKiBoT, WereSpielChequers, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Budelberger, Chronicler, Ad-
dbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Againme, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Carlog3, FrescoBot, Ælfgar, TobeBot and ZéroBot
• Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_IX_of_Cappadocia?oldid=578457037 Contributors: Rich
Farmbrough, FlaBot, Aldux, Cplakidas, AntonBryl, Anriz, Hectorian, Dogaroon, Txomin, Waacstats, TXiKiBoT, Monsieurdl, G.-M.
Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alexbot, Budelberger, Chronicler, Addbot, Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem,
Againme, Awersowy, JackieBot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, TobeBot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 2
• Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariobarzanes_I_of_Cappadocia?oldid=598828369 Contributors:
Delirium, Rich Farmbrough, Mrzaius, FlaBot, SmackBot, Cplakidas, AntonBryl, Anriz, Thijs!bot, Waacstats, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT,
Monsieurdl, Shakko, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alexbot, DumZiBoT, Budelberger, Chronicler, SilvonenBot,
Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Raayen, Luckyz, Luckas-bot, Againme, Awersowy, ChuispastonBot, HistoryofIran, Xenxax and Anony-
mous: 5
• Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariobarzanes_II_of_Cappadocia?oldid=604202241 Contributors:
Delirium, Rich Farmbrough, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Lugnuts, Waacstats, R'n'B, TXiKiBoT, Monsieurdl, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, DumZiBoT, Budelberger, Chronicler, RogDel, WikHead, Addbot, Raayen, Lightbot, Luckas-bot,
Againme, Awersowy, J04n, GrouchoBot, Carlog3, HistoryofIran, Xenxax and Anonymous: 3
• Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariobarzanes_III_of_Cappadocia?oldid=601806618 Contributors:
Delirium, Rich Farmbrough, RussBot, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, Waacstats, Pajfarmor, VolkovBot,
TXiKiBoT, Broadbot, Monsieurdl, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, PixelBot, Estirabot, DumZiBoT, Budelberger,
Chronicler, RogDel, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Raayen, Lightbot, Luckyz, Luckas-bot, Againme, ZéroBot, HistoryofIran, Xenxax and
Anonymous: 4
• Ariarathes X of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_X_of_Cappadocia?oldid=594737204 Contributors: Delir-
ium, Rich Farmbrough, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Lugnuts, Albmont, Waacstats, VolkovBot, Broadbot, Monsieurdl, Vanished user
161.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 349

ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alexbot, El bot de la dieta, Budelberger, Oskar71, Chronicler, RogDel, Good Olfactory, Addbot,
Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Againme, Xqbot, IluvatarBot, Xenxax and Anonymous: 3
• Archelaus of Cappadocia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archelaus_of_Cappadocia?oldid=627178989 Contributors: Paul Barlow,
Delirium, Flauto Dolce, Rich Farmbrough, FeanorStar7, Kbdank71, YurikBot, Eupator, Chris the speller, Cplakidas, Khazar, Anriz,
Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, Mgoodyear, DrKiernan, Hans Dunkelberg, Pajfarmor, 2help, DorganBot,
VolkovBot, Margacst, TXiKiBoT, Trigaranus, Shakko, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Robert
Skyhawk, Oskar71, Chronicler, Addbot, Download, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo,
ArthurBot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Djhuty, Flaviusvulso, Carlog3, LucienBOT, DefaultsortBot, Updatehelper, ZéroBot, Puffin,
Davidiad, Khazar2, GoldenGloryrules774, Zorlusert, Ithinkicahn and Anonymous: 8
• Bosporan Kingdom Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom?oldid=625503884 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Thue,
Wetman, Ulflarsen, MBisanz, Vervin, Kober, Ghirlandajo, Qaphsiel, Dejvid, Woohookitty, Briangotts, Mana Excalibur, CalJW, Eamon-
nPKeane, YurikBot, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, .marc., Funkendub, SmackBot, Hmains, Ciriii, Hibernian, Modest Genius, Cplakidas,
Chlewbot, Valenciano, Anriz, A. Parrot, Don Alessandro, MTSbot, Smommss, Nonexistant User, Oden, Hemlock Martinis, Thijs!bot,
Escarbot, Darklilac, JAnDbot, WolfmanSF, The Anomebot2, Gun Powder Ma, Bogdan, Agamemnus, VolkovBot, Kurgus, TXiKiBoT,
Lradrama, SieBot, Gerakibot, Happysailor, Thisis0, Segregold, Hermione is a dude, DragonBot, EraNavigator, Stepheng3, Qypchak, Ad-
dbot, Tony Esopi, Lightbot, Greyhood, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, LlywelynII, Савелий В А, Ivan2007, Citation
bot, XZeroBot, TakenakaN, Ruy Pugliesi, FoxBot, TobeBot, TheMesquito, ‫روخو‬, Mzilikazi1939, WikitanvirBot, Aftesk, StasMalyga, 2of-
fadyke, Brigade Piron, Spicemix, WorldWarTwoEditor, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, Navops47, Delusion23, Solundir, Ymblanter, Ugncreative
Usergname, Jacob van Maerlant, BattyBot, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Nimetapoeg, Andrew J.Kurbiko, DavidBrooks-AWB, Charlesgeorge2
and Anonymous: 40
• Asander (Bosporan king) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asander_(Bosporan_king)?oldid=545271954 Contributors: Delirium,
Mdebets, Ary29, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Fdewaele, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Cplakidas, Anriz, Future Perfect at Sunrise, R'n'B,
Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, UnCatBot, Chronicler, Addbot, Lykos, Download, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
GrouchoBot, DefaultsortBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, ChuispastonBot, Makecat-bot and Anonymous: 1
• Dynamis (Bosporan queen) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamis_(Bosporan_queen)?oldid=540504863 Contributors: Di-
madick, SmackBot, Hmains, Chris the speller, Cplakidas, Anriz, Yufereff, Lugnuts, Cynwolfe, R'n'B, Addbot, Sardur, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
RibotBOT, EmausBot, Histbg, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 1
• Mithridates I of the Bosporus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_the_Bosporus?oldid=540611662 Contributors:
Delirium, Rich Farmbrough, FeanorStar7, RussBot, Semperf, Hmains, Anriz, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot, Nick Number, TXiKiBoT,
Andres rojas22, RHodnett, Sindala, Oskar71, MystBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Sardur, Luckas-bot, Xqbot, Erik9bot, English Bobby,
Tommy2010, Rezabot and Anonymous: 5
• Tiberius Julius Aspurgus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Aspurgus?oldid=567862215 Contributors: Delir-
ium, Mdebets, Dimadick, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Kbdank71, Ev, RussBot, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, TakenakaN, Updatehelper, TjBot, Rezabot and
Anonymous: 6
• Tiberius Julius Mithridates Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Mithridates?oldid=607910789 Contributors: Mde-
bets, Dimadick, Auric, D6, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Ev, RussBot, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Alaibot, Sluzzelin, Vanished user
ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alexbot, Addbot, Ironholds, Yobot, Rubinbot, ZéroBot, Louisonze and Anonymous: 2
• Gepaepyris Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gepaepyris?oldid=542919908 Contributors: Delirium, Mdebets, Ijon, D6, FeanorStar7,
RussBot, Asarelah, SmackBot, Anriz, Magioladitis, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Updatehelper and
Anonymous: 5
• Tiberius Julius Cotys I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Cotys_I?oldid=603541322 Contributors: Delirium, Mde-
bets, Dimadick, D6, Woohookitty, Ev, RussBot, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Smommss, Alaibot, Sluzzelin, Davecrosby uk, TXiKi-
BoT, Rephrase, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, MystBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Omnipaedista,
Louisonze and Anonymous: 4
• Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Rhescuporis_I?oldid=603541572 Contributors: Di-
madick, SmackBot, Hmains, Cplakidas, Anriz, Smommss, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Lugnuts, Magioladitis, TXiKiBoT, Vanished user
ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, RedBot, ZéroBot, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 2
• Eunice (Bosporan queen) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunice_(Bosporan_queen)?oldid=546077293 Contributors: SmackBot,
Anriz, Hugo999, Addbot and Omnipaedista
• Tiberius Julius Sauromates I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Sauromates_I?oldid=567862530 Contributors: Di-
madick, Koavf, SmackBot, Yopie, Hmains, Anriz, Clarityfiend, Magioladitis, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Ad-
dbot, Chzz, Sardur, Luckas-bot, Alvin Seville, Erik9bot, RedBot, ZéroBot, Histbg and Helpful Pixie Bot
• Tiberius Julius Cotys II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Cotys_II?oldid=603542062 Contributors: Dimadick,
SmackBot, Yopie, Hmains, Anriz, Smommss, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Excirial, Coreva-Bot, Addbot, Sar-
dur, Luckas-bot, Alvin Seville, Erik9bot, John of Reading, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 1
350 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

• Tiberius Julius Rhoemetalces Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Rhoemetalces?oldid=603542495 Contributors: Di-

madick, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Smommss, Lugnuts, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf,
MystBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Erik9bot, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot, Histbg, Helpful Pixie Bot, Louisonze and Anonymous: 1
• Tiberius Julius Eupator Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Eupator?oldid=603542598 Contributors: Dimadick,
SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Smommss, CmdrObot, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Ad-
dbot, Sardur, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Brigade Piron and Anonymous: 2
• Tiberius Julius Sauromates II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Sauromates_II?oldid=615713509 Contribu-
tors: Llywrch, Dimadick, Odysses, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Smommss, Waacstats, VolkovBot, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Download, Luckas-bot, RibotBOT, RjwilmsiBot, ZéroBot, Brigade Piron, Mogism and
Anonymous: 2
• Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Rhescuporis_II?oldid=603543034 Contribu-
tors: Dimadick, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Anriz, Smommss, Lugnuts, Waacstats, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, TubularWorld, MystBot, Addbot, Dawynn, Luckas-bot, Againme, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot, Khazar2
and Anonymous: 1
• Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis III Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Rhescuporis_III?oldid=603543176 Contrib-
utors: Dimadick, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Anriz, Smommss, Lugnuts, Waacstats, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Dawynn, Download, Againme and RjwilmsiBot
• Tiberius Julius Cotys III Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Cotys_III?oldid=603543333 Contributors: Dimadick,
SmackBot, Hmains, Cplakidas, Anriz, Smommss, Lugnuts, Magioladitis, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot,
Luckas-bot, Againme, RjwilmsiBot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 2
• Tiberius Julius Sauromates III Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Sauromates_III?oldid=567862924 Contributors:
Dimadick, Bgwhite, Hmains, Anriz, Lugnuts, TXiKiBoT, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Beeblebrox, Addbot,
Chzz, Sardur, Luckas-bot, TheWeakWilled, RibotBOT, Fortdj33, TCMemoire and Anonymous: 1
• Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis IV Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Rhescuporis_IV?oldid=603543604 Contributors:
Dimadick, Bgwhite, RussBot, Hmains, Anriz, Smommss, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Mephiston999,
Sardur, Luckas-bot, Againme, Fortdj33 and ZéroBot
• Tiberius Julius Ininthimeus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Ininthimeus?oldid=603544141 Contrib-
utors: Dimadick, SmackBot, Hmains, Anriz, Smommss, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Kateshortforbob, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Someone the Person, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, Againme, Erik9bot, RjwilmsiBot,
ZéroBot and Anonymous: 1
• Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis V Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Rhescuporis_V?oldid=603544327 Con-
tributors: Dimadick, Hmains, Anriz, Smommss, Hebrides, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Kateshortforbob, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Sardur, Luckas-bot, Againme, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot and EmausBot
• Tiberius Julius Pharsanzes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Pharsanzes?oldid=619756755 Con-
tributors: Dimadick, SmackBot, Hmains, Anriz, Mack2, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Kateshortforbob, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Againme, AnomieBOT, Erik9bot, Kalashnov, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot,
ZéroBot, Histbg, Helpful Pixie Bot and Khazar2
• Tiberius Julius Synges Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Synges?oldid=603544525 Contributors: Di-
madick, SmackBot, Hmains, Anriz, Smommss, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Kateshortforbob, Thismightbezach, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Againme, Erik9bot, RjwilmsiBot and ZéroBot
• Tiberius Julius Teiranes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Teiranes?oldid=603544704 Contributors: Di-
madick, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Smommss, Lugnuts, Waacstats, Thismightbezach, TXiKiBoT, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, MystBot, Addbot, Againme, RedBot, Crusoe8181, RjwilmsiBot and Anonymous: 3
• Tiberius Julius Sauromates IV Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Sauromates_IV?oldid=603545028 Contributors:
Dimadick, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Smommss, Lugnuts, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Thismightbezach, VolkovBot, Vanished user
ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Againme, RibotBOT, LucienBOT, RjwilmsiBot, ZéroBot, Khazar2, TCMemoire and
Anonymous: 1
• Tiberius Julius Theothorses Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Theothorses?oldid=611814773 Contrib-
utors: SmackBot, Cplakidas, Anriz, Smommss, Lugnuts, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Thismightbezach, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Againme, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Helpful Pixie Bot and
Jaqeli
• Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis VI Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Rhescuporis_VI?oldid=603545742 Contributors:
Dimadick, SmackBot, Srnec, Hmains, Anriz, Smommss, Magioladitis, JamesBWatson, Waacstats, Kateshortforbob, Thismightbezach,
Cnilep, Trigaranus, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, MystBot, Addbot, Againme, Erik9bot, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot,
EmausBot, Khazar2, Paprikaofthepedia and Anonymous: 3
161.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 351

• Tiberius Julius Rhadamsades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Rhadamsades?oldid=603545890 Contributors: Di-

madick, SmackBot, Hmains, Anriz, Smommss, Hebrides, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Kateshortforbob, Thismightbezach, Trigaranus, Van-
ished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Againme, RibotBOT, Erik9bot, RedBot, Suffusion of Yellow,
RjwilmsiBot, CSJJ104 and Anonymous: 1
• List of Armenian kings Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_kings?oldid=617290425 Contributors: Llywrch, Iso-
morphic, Mdebets, Zannah, Warofdreams, Robbot, Flauto Dolce, Gdr, Antandrus, Vina, Gscshoyru, Dbachmann, Cmdrjameson,
Ardric47, Pedro Aguiar, Kober, Camw, Tabletop, Isnow, SeventyThree, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, 334a, Maziargh, RussBot, Eupator, Ode-
jea, Andrewbot, Fram, JLaTondre, SmackBot, KureCewlik81, Colonies Chris, Cplakidas, Jmlk17, Vina-iwbot, Vriullop, Anriz, Սահակ,
Denizz, Kaweah, Cydebot, Languagehat, DumbBOT, Thijs!bot, Crzycheetah, Ludde23, Escarbot, WinBot, Alexander VIII, Propaniac, Ar-
gishti, CommonsDelinker, Artaxiad, DorganBot, Tourarmenia, VartanM, StAnselm, Werldwayd, Vonones, ClueBot, Niceguyedc, Auntof6,
517design, SchreiberBike, Budelberger, Addbot, LaaknorBot, SpBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, The Emperor’s New Spy, Avidus, Sz-iwbot,
FrescoBot, Vanished user ioJWQik23jfkjsndf, Ripchip Bot, PauperHell, EmausBot, ARTAVAN, Sundostund, ClueBot NG, Vasilvlad,
Electriccatfish2, Aisteco, Mogism, Gorthead, HistoryofIran, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, Hoganvspiper2000 and Anonymous: 76
• Orontid Dynasty Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orontid_Dynasty?oldid=625808214 Contributors: Cybercavalier, Theresa knott,
Wereon, Alison, Dbachmann, Kwamikagami, Bobo192, Fornadan, BD2412, Moosh88, MZMcBride, Gurch, Eupator, Aldux, Gadget850,
Sassisch, Aelfthrytha, Aivazovsky, Hmains, Bluebot, Baa, MarshallBagramyan, Flyguy649, Paul S, TA-ME, Anriz, Hectorian, Cm-
drObot, Davo88, Denizz, Cydebot, Dougweller, DumbBOT, AdilBaguirov, Escarbot, Milton Stanley, ROOB323, Artaxiad, DrKiernan,
Kansas Bear, UnicornTapestry, VolkovBot, Alexandria, Statuens, VartanM, McM.bot, Alborz Fallah, BilabialBoxing, Kevorkmail, Alle-
borgoBot, Vahagn Petrosyan, RockRNC, Man It’s So Loud In Here, Drmab, G.-M. Cupertino, Mr. Granger, Vacio, Haverj88, Truthckr2,
Sumerophile, Addbot, AgadaUrbanit, ‫ماني‬, MuZemike, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Ellipi,
GrouchoBot, FrescoBot, Cannolis, TobeBot, Dinamik-bot, Jaba1977, Alph Bot, EmausBot, Aryamahasattva, Coptic-orthodox, Rapture-
Bot, Kentronhayastan, Khodabandeh14, Song623, ClaretAsh, Phoenicians8, Aram-van, ScottSteiner, Lowercase sigmabot, Arordi-hayordi,
M'encarta, Hmainsbot1, Հայկ Ափրիկյան, Laddo, Acetotyce, LouisAragon, Ginsuloft, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, Steverci and Anony-
mous: 65
• Orontes I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orontes_I?oldid=627196802 Contributors: BD2412, Lugnuts, Magioladitis, Albmont,
Waacstats, DrKiernan, Kansas Bear, Andres rojas22, Sun Creator, Addbot, Yobot, Avidus, Rubinbot, Phearson, DragonTiger23, Chuis-
pastonBot, Titodutta, Marcocapelle, Hmainsbot1, HistoryofIran and Anonymous: 7
• Orontes II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orontes_II?oldid=627288882 Contributors: Bearcat, SmackBot, CmdrObot, Lugnuts,
Waacstats, DrKiernan, Fadesga, 517design, Pichpich, MystBot, Addbot, Yobot, Avidus, BenzolBot, EmausBot, Aryamahasattva, Aram-
van, Marcocapelle, Sprutt and Anonymous: 4
• Mithrenes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithrenes?oldid=627178604 Contributors: Delirium, FeanorStar7, RussBot, Aldux, Gad-
get850, Hmains, A. Parrot, Hectorian, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Waacstats, DrKiernan, Fadesga, Catalographer, MystBot, Addbot, Blueberry-
buttermilkpancakes, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Avidus, FrescoBot, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, Moswento, Kentronhayastan, Hmainsbot1
and Anonymous: 8
• Orontes III Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orontes_III?oldid=627196662 Contributors: Moosh88, SmackBot, Kaweah, Lugnuts,
Albmont, KConWiki, DrKiernan, UnicornTapestry, Fadesga, Pichpich, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Avidus, Rubinbot,
Aram-van, Marcocapelle, Periglio, JirisysKlatoon and Anonymous: 2
• Sames of Commagene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sames_of_Commagene?oldid=627180631 Contributors: Olivier, Delirium,
Mandarax, Eubot, YurikBot, RussBot, Eupator, SmackBot, Eskimbot, MalafayaBot, Colonies Chris, Vina-iwbot, Cydebot, Thijs!bot,
Escarbot, Albmont, Waacstats, The Anomebot2, R'n'B, DrKiernan, VolkovBot, SieBot, Hetoum I, Judicatus, Rosiestep, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Fadesga, DumZiBoT, Budelberger, Sumerophile, Addbot, Sardur, WikiDreamer Bot, Yobot, Avidus,
FrescoBot, PigFlu Oink, A.K.Nole, Nostalgia of Iran, EmausBot, Aryamahasattva, ZéroBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, GorillaContributor and
Anonymous: 6
• Arsames I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsames_I?oldid=627180654 Contributors: Delirium, Eupator, SmackBot, MalafayaBot,
Vina-iwbot, Waggers, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Euratlas, Waacstats, DrKiernan, WereSpielChequers, Hetoum I, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Fadesga, Budelberger, Sumerophile, Addbot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Poko, Avidus, DSisyphBot, Om-
nipaedista, FrescoBot, Alph Bot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 4
• Charaspes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charaspes?oldid=618800490 Contributors: Jaraalbe, Eupator, Think Fast,
That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Hmains, Colonies Chris, Hetoum, Vanish2, Hetoum I, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Sumerophile, Addbot, Zachary Murray, RjwilmsiBot, Hmainsbot1 and HistoryofIran
• Arsames II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsames_II?oldid=627180664 Contributors: Kober, Eupator, Wknight94, Fram, Smack-
Bot, Aelfthrytha, Nima Baghaei, Amalas, Waacstats, DrKiernan, Sam Blacketer, WereSpielChequers, Hetoum I, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Fadesga, Budelberger, Sumerophile, Addbot, Yobot, Avidus, FrescoBot, EmausBot and Anonymous:
1
• Xerxes of Armenia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_of_Armenia?oldid=627180684 Contributors: Llywrch, Charles
Matthews, Mzajac, Geschichte, Valentinian, Eupator, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Aelfthrytha, MalafayaBot, Vina-iwbot,
NeilFraser, SMasters, Cydebot, Reywas92, Lugnuts, John254, AntiVandalBot, JimCubb, Mgoodyear, Waacstats, DrKiernan, VolkovBot,
McM.bot, Hetoum I, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Fadesga, Niceguyedc, Drag-
onBot, Budelberger, Oskar71, RogDel, Sumerophile, Addbot, CarsracBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Avidus, Materialscientist, Fres-
coBot, Trec'hlid mitonet, TRBP, Aryamahasattva, Rs4815 and Anonymous: 10
352 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

• Abdissares Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdissares?oldid=627180702 Contributors: Skysmith, Valentinian, Eupator, Moe

Epsilon, Fram, Aelfthrytha, Nima Baghaei, Hu12, Lugnuts, DrKiernan, Sam Blacketer, Hetoum I, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Fadesga, Budelberger, Oskar71, Sumerophile, MystBot, Addbot, Yobot, Avidus, FrescoBot, De-
faultsortBot, Alph Bot, Rs4815 and Anonymous: 2
• Orontes IV Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orontes_IV?oldid=627196845 Contributors: Kaweah, Lugnuts, Waacstats, DrKiernan,
Fadesga, Addbot, Yobot, Avidus, FrescoBot, HRoestBot, ZéroBot, KLBot2, Marcocapelle and Anonymous: 5
• Artaxiad dynasty Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artaxiad_dynasty?oldid=627633578 Contributors: Edward, Theresa knott, Rob-
bot, Ruakh, Dbachmann, Bobo192, Kober, Dominic, Angr, Mrs Trellis, Moosh88, Gurch, Roboto de Ajvol, RussBot, Eupator, Aldux,
Aelfthrytha, Kintetsubuffalo, Betacommand, KureCewlik81, Greenshed, Vriullop, Anriz, Ryulong, Davo88, Hemlock Martinis, Cydebot,
Steel, JamesAM, AdilBaguirov, Folantin, Alexander VIII, Narekm, JaGa, Argishti, CommonsDelinker, PrestonH, Artaxiad, DrKiernan,
Someguy1221, Alex mond, France3470, Tiptoety, Man It’s So Loud In Here, Doloco, Haiks, Sumerophile, Doc9871, Addbot, DougsTech,
Sardur, ‫ماني‬, Jim1138, Capasitor, Citation bot, Tigernose, FrescoBot, Cannolis, Shikhlinski, EmausBot, Italia2006, Kentronhayastan,
Gegart, Aram-van, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Justincheng12345-bot, M'encarta, Dexbot, LouisAragon, Steverci and Anonymous: 34
• Artaxias I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artaxias_I?oldid=627176462 Contributors: SimonP, Panairjdde, Delirium, Rlandmann,
Dbachmann, Valentinian, Jaraalbe, RussBot, Eupator, SmackBot, Landrjm, Nima Baghaei, Karsetsi, Vriullop, Gobonobo, Ryulong, Hu12,
Davo88, Denizz, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Escarbot, Liquid-aim-bot, Ericoides, SiobhanHansa, Waacstats, Urix, Taamu, JaGa, R'n'B, Ar-
taxiad, DrKiernan, Thismightbezach, Hugo999, Sam Blacketer, SieBot, VVVBot, Tiptoety, Karim Ali, Dravecky, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alefbe, Vonones, DragonBot, 517design, Haiks, BOTarate, Johnuniq, XLinkBot, Addbot, Doug-
sTech, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, Avidus, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Taron Saharyan, GrouchoBot, Амартүвшин, DefaultsortBot,
Poliocretes, TobeBot, Aryamahasattva, Kentronhayastan, Wikiyan, AhMedRMaaty, Yerevantsi, BohemianRhapsody, BattyBot, History-
ofIran and Anonymous: 11
• Tigranes I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigranes_I?oldid=625697279 Contributors: Delirium, Rjwilmsi, Moosh88, Valen-
tinian, Eupator, Fram, Landrjm, Karsetsi, Anriz, Travelbird, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, JimCubb, Waacstats, VolkovBot, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Fadesga, DumZiBoT, Chronicler, RogDel, Addbot, AttoRenato, Sardur, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Jack-
ieBot, ArthurBot, RedBot, FoxBot, TobeBot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Kentronhayastan, AhMedRMaaty, Nocturnal781, Hmainsbot1,
Soheyl75, Monkbot and Anonymous: 1
• Artavasdes I of Armenia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artavasdes_I_of_Armenia?oldid=627179283 Contributors: Delirium,
Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Kober, AJR, Valentinian, Eupator, DanMS, Landrjm, Nima Baghaei, Karsetsi, TA-ME, Vriullop, Ryulong,
Armatura, Denizz, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, Waacstats, DrKiernan, Hugo999, Sam Blacketer, TXiKiBoT, Greadogirl2, PericlesofAthens, Tip-
toety, Mimihitam, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Fadesga, Estirabot, 517design, RogDel, Addbot, DougsTech, At-
toRenato, Luckas-bot, Yobot, DSisyphBot, TobeBot, Dinamik-bot, Wayne Slam, RaptureBot, Kentronhayastan, AhMedRMaaty, Hmains-
bot1, Steverci and Anonymous: 6
• Tigranes the Great Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great?oldid=627079005 Contributors: Hephaestos, Isomorphic,
Cybercavalier, Stan Shebs, Lord Emsworth, Bearcat, RedWolf, GreatWhiteNortherner, Tom Radulovich, Berasategui, Varlaam, Per Honor
et Gloria, Gdr, Zarvok, Kuralyov, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, El C, Art LaPella, Viriditas, Vanished user 19794758563875,
Tony Sidaway, Dominic, Sleigh, Mikenassau, Ghirlandajo, Zntrip, Dejvid, Angr, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, John Hill, Isnow, Elvarg,
Rovoam, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Talessman, Sponsianus, Shauni, Bornhj, YurikBot, RussBot, Conscious, Eupator, Carbidfischer, Aldux, Moe
Epsilon, TigranTheGreat, Parap, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Grandmaster, BPK2, Aivazovsky, Alsan-
dro, Hmains, Landrjm, MalafayaBot, Konstable, OrphanBot, MarshallBagramyan, Khoikhoi, Karsetsi, Nasz, Nishkid64, TA-ME, Vri-
ullop, Anriz, Neddyseagoon, Scarlet Lioness, JForget, CmdrObot, Davo88, Denizz, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise,
DumbBOT, DBaba, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, AdilBaguirov, Staberinde, Crzycheetah, Folantin, Brett Dunbar, Fedayee, Ericoides, Alexander
VIII, JimCubb, Olli J., Mgoodyear, Waacstats, ROOB323, JaGa, CommonsDelinker, Artaxiad, DrKiernan, LACongress, Saguamundi,
STBotD, Rayis, TXiKiBoT, Zerolex, VartanM, Steven J. Anderson, JhsBot, Domitius, BilabialBoxing, Alex mond, Kevorkmail, Bern-
stein2291, Vahagn Petrosyan, PericlesofAthens, SieBot, ArmenianPatriot123, Carnun, Mimihitam, Goustien, Psalm Tours, Vanished
user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Vonones, ImageRemovalBot, Lordsako, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Parkjunwung, 517design,
SchreiberBike, BOTarate, Chronicler, XLinkBot, Sumerophile, Addbot, Pitt 32, CarsracBot, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Yobot, II Mus-
LiM HyBRiD II, Againme, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, GB fan, ArthurBot, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Alkhs1, Beko61, Montyofarabia,
Erik9, Амартүвшин, Lothar von Richthofen, Mart572, Cannolis, Hovhannesk, JV Smithy, RjwilmsiBot, Qasim Arif Sethi, Emaus-
Bot, Aryamahasattva, Matnanish, GoingBatty, Italia2006, ZéroBot, Baba321, Septimus Wilkinson, Oncenawhile, Wayne Slam, Kentron-
hayastan, Menikure, ChuispastonBot, ASALA7.08.1982, Aram-van, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tonydwyer, AhMedRMaaty, ‫درفش کاویانی‬,
Frost778, Yerevantsi, Rafaeleburg, Hablabar, Conifer, Nocturnal781, Sunduk15, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Zyma, Nimetapoeg, 96armenia,
Lewis.leonard, Maks.Reks.4505, Meteor sandwich yum, KhosrovGHP and Anonymous: 94
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low, Gdr, Rich Farmbrough, Pavel Vozenilek, Rjwilmsi, Valentinian, Jaraalbe, Eupator, SmackBot, Ingsoc, Nima Baghaei, Karsetsi, Vriul-
lop, Anriz, SMasters, Remedios44, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Folantin, WinBot, Alexander VIII, Waacstats, Artaxiad, DrKiernan, Sam Blacketer,
VolkovBot, AlleborgoBot, PericlesofAthens, SieBot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Vonones, Estirabot, Muro Bot,
El bot de la dieta, Oskar71, Chronicler, RogDel, Addbot, Sardur, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Flaviusvulso, Dinamik-
bot, Aryamahasattva, Kentronhayastan, Տոռէահ, AhMedRMaaty, Khazar2, Dark Silver Crow, Freeanthony, Steverci and Anonymous:
12
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tinian, Jaraalbe, Eupator, Fram, Nima Baghaei, Karsetsi, Vriullop, Anriz, Ryulong, Denizz, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot, Escarbot,
Alexander VIII, Waacstats, Johnpacklambert, Katharineamy, Sam Blacketer, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Tiptoety, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Fadesga, Estirabot, Chronicler, RogDel, Addbot, DougsTech, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Arthur-
Bot, GrouchoBot, Flaviusvulso, DefaultsortBot, TobeBot, Jesse V., EmausBot, John of Reading, Kentronhayastan, BG19bot, AhMedR-
Maaty, Steverci and Anonymous: 7
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Eupator, Fram, SmackBot, Hmains, Baronnet, Anriz, Alexander VIII, Waacstats, AlleborgoBot, Vanished user ew-
fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Fadesga, Muro Bot, Chronicler, MystBot, Addbot, Yobot, Peters01, ArthurBot, Flaviusvulso,
RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Kentronhayastan, AhMedRMaaty, Hmainsbot1, Freeanthony, Steverci and Anonymous: 5
• Tigranes IV Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigranes_IV?oldid=625568735 Contributors: Rich Farmbrough, John Hill, RussBot,
Eupator, Hmains, Baronnet, Anriz, Artaxiad, DrKiernan, McM.bot, Phe-bot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Muro
Bot, Chronicler, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Xqbot, Erik9bot, Kentronhayastan, Sprutt, Freeanthony, Steverci and Anonymous: 6
• Erato of Armenia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erato_of_Armenia?oldid=625569141 Contributors: Valentinian, RussBot, Eupa-
tor, Wimt, Asarelah, SmackBot, Hmains, Baronnet, Anriz, Veyklevar, Thijs!bot, Alexander VIII, DrKiernan, TXiKiBoT, Desafio, Vanished
user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Vonones, PipepBot, AlamoAaron, Tynetrekker, Chronicler, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot,
The Emperor’s New Spy, Againme, Erik9bot, Thehelpfulbot, BG19bot, Sprutt, Khazar2, Hmainsbot1, Steverci and Anonymous: 5
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Anriz, Raayen, EmausBot, Kentronhayastan, BG19bot, Marcocapelle, Khazar2, HistoryofIran and Anonymous: 1
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man327, Rich Farmbrough, Woohookitty, RussBot, SmackBot, Nima Baghaei, Anriz, SMasters, Cydebot, Artaxiad, Fadesga, RogDel,
Addbot, Yobot, Flaviusvulso, CrimsonBot, Kentronhayastan, BG19bot, Marcocapelle, Dark Silver Crow, HistoryofIran and Anonymous:
1
• Tigranes V of Armenia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigranes_V_of_Armenia?oldid=627652724 Contributors: Delirium, D6,
Rich Farmbrough, Mikenassau, Woohookitty, RussBot, Eupator, Hmains, Ingsoc, Baronnet, Anriz, Սահակ, Cydebot, WarddrBOT, Van-
ished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Mariya Oktyabrskaya, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Omnipaedista, MastiBot, Alph Bot,
Hconscious, Kentronhayastan, Khazar2, Pietro13 and Anonymous: 7

161.7.2 Images
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• File:Agathokleia&Strato.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/25/Agathokleia%26Strato.jpg License: ? Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Agathokleia.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Agathokleia.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
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• File:Agathokles.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Agathokles.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
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main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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nal artist: ?
• File:Amyntas.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Amyntas.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
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354 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

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Contributors:
Public Domain scans offered by ESnible from his site http://www.snible.org/coins/hn/bactria.html (July 10th agreement by e-mail).
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• File:Antimachusii.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Antimachusii.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
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161.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 355

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laborde
356 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

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358 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

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360 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

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362 CHAPTER 161. TIGRANES V OF ARMENIA

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