SOCIAL COGNITION

‘Cognition’ refers to all those mental processes that deal with obtaining and processing of

information. Extending this idea to the social world, the term ‘social cognition’ refers to all those

psychological processes that deal with the gathering and processing of information related to social

objects. These include all the processes that help in understanding, explaining and interpreting social

behaviour.

The processing of information related to social objects (particularly individuals, groups, people,

relationships, social issues, and the like) differs from the processing of information related to

physical objects. People as social objects may themselves change as the cognitive process takes

place. For instance, a teacher who observes a student in school may draw conclusions about her/him

that are quite different from the conclusions drawn by the student’s mother, who observes her/him

at home. The student may show a difference in her/his behaviour, depending on who is watching

her/him — the teacher or the mother. Social cognition is guided by mental units called schemas.

SCHEMAS AND STEREOTYPES

A schema is defined as a mental structure that provides a framework, set of rules or guidelines for

processing information about any object. Schemas (or ‘schemata’) are the basic units stored in our

memory, and function as shorthand ways of processing information, thus reducing the time and

mental effort required in cognition. In the case of social cognition, the basic units are social schemas.

Some attitudes may also function like social schemas. We use many different schemas, and come to

know about them through analysis and examples.

Most of the schemas are in the form of categories or classes. Schemas that function in the form of

categories are called prototypes, which are the entire set of features or qualities that help us to

define an object completely. In social cognition, category-based schemas that are related to groups

of people are called stereotypes. These are category-based schemas that are overgeneralised, are

not directly verified, and do not allow for exceptions. For example, suppose you have to define a

group G. If you have never directly known or interacted with a member of this group, you will most

likely use your ‘general knowledge’ about the typical member of group G. To that information you

will add your likes and dislikes.

If you have heard more positive things about group G, then your social schema about the whole

group will be more positive than negative. On the other hand, if you have heard more negative
things about group G, your social schema will be in the form of a negative stereotype. The inferences

you have drawn are not the result of your logical thinking or direct experience, but are based on pre-

conceived ideas about a particular group. The next time you actually meet a member of group G,

your impression of this person, and your behaviour towards her/him will be influenced by your

stereotype. It was mentioned earlier that stereotypes provide fertile ground for the growth of

prejudices and biases against specific groups. But prejudices can also develop without stereotypes.

IMPRESSION FORMATION AND EXPLAINING BEHAVIOUR OF OTHERS THROUGH

ATTRIBUTIONS

Every social interaction begins with the formation of an impression about the person(s) we meet.

Public figures and applicants appearing for job interviews are good examples that show it is very

important to ‘make a good impression’ on others. The process of coming to know a person can be

broadly divided into two parts :

(a) Impression formation, and (b) Attribution.

The person who forms the impression is called the perceiver. The individual about whom the

impression is formed is called the target. The perceiver gathers information, or responds to a given

information, about the qualities of the target, organises this information, and draws inferences about

the target. In attribution, the perceiver goes further, and explains why the target behaved in a

particular way. Attaching or assigning a cause for the target’s behaviour is the main idea in

attribution. Often perceivers may form only an impression about the target, but if the situation

requires it, they may also make attributions to the target. Impression formation and attribution are

influenced by :

• the nature of information available to the perceiver,

• social schemas in the perceiver (including stereotypes),

• personality characteristics of the perceiver, and

• situational factors.

Impression Formation

The following aspects have been found in impression formation :

• The process of impression formation consists of the following three subprocesses :

(a) Selection : we take into account only some bits of information about the target person,

(b) Organisation : the selected information is combined in a systematic way.

(c) Inference : we draw a conclusion about what kind of person the target is.
• Some specific qualities influence impression formation more than other traits do.

• The order or sequence in which information is presented affects the kind of impression formed.

Mostly, the information presented first has a stronger effect than the information presented at

the end. This is called the primacy effect (first impressions are the lasting impressions).

However, if the perceiver may be asked to pay attention to all the information, and not merely to

the first information, whatever information comes at the end may have a stronger influence. This

is known as the recency effect.

• We have a tendency to think that a target person who has one set of positive qualities must

also be having other specific positive qualities that are associated with the first set. This is known

as the halo effect. For example, if we are told that a person is ‘tidy’ and ‘punctual’, we are likely

to think that this person must also be ‘hard-working’.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR & COGNITION

EXPLAINING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Social behaviour is a necessary part of human life, and being social means much

more than merely being in the company of others. Social psychology deals with

all behaviour that takes place in the actual, imagined, or implied presence of

others. Take this simple example: if you have to memorize a poem and recite it,

you may have no problem in doing this when you are by yourself. But if you have

to recite this poem to an audience, your performance might get influenced,

because you are now in a social situation. Even imagining that people are

listening to your recitation (although they may not be physically present) may

change your performance. This is just one example that demonstrates how our

social environment influences our thoughts, emotions and behaviour in complex

ways. Social psychologists examine various forms of social behaviour, and try to

explain their basis. Because of social influences, people form views, or

attitudes about people, and about different issues in life, that exist in the

form of behavioural tendencies. When we meet people, we make inferences about

their personal qualities. This is called impression formation. We are also

interested in why people behave in the ways they do — that is, we assign causes

to the behaviour shown in specific social situations. This process is called

attribution.
Very often, impression formation and attributions are influenced by attitudes.

These three processes are examples of mental activities related to the gathering

and interpretation of information about the social world, collectively called

social cognition. Moreover, social cognition is activated by cognitive units

called schemas. Cognitive processes cannot be directly seen; they have to be

inferred on the basis of externally shown behaviour.

There are other examples of social influence that are in the form of observable

behaviour. Two such examples are social facilitation/ inhibition, i.e. the

improvement/decline in performance in the presence of others, and helping, or

pro-social behaviour, i.e. responding to others who are in need or distress. In

order to understand completely how the social context influences the individual,

it is necessary to study both social-cognitive processes and social behaviour.

Social psychologists have shown that one must go beyond common sense and folk

wisdom in order to explain how people observe and make sense of their own and

others’ diverse behaviours. Through systematic and objective observations, and

by adopting scientific methods, it is possible to establish logical

cause-and-effect relationships that explain social behaviour. This chapter will

give an account of the fundamental aspects of the topics mentioned above. We

will begin with a description of attitudes.

NATURE AND COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES

For a few minutes quietly do the following mental exercise. Today, how many

times did you tell yourself : “In my opinion…” or “Others may say so and so, but

I feel…”? What you fill in the blanks are called opinions. Now continue the

exercise : how important are these opinions to you? The topics of some of these

opinions may be only moderately important to you; they are simply ways of

thinking, and it does not matter much to you that others agree or disagree with

your views.

On the other hand, you may find that some other topics are extremely important

to you. If someone opposes or challenges your views about these topics, you get

emotional. You may have made some of these views part of your behaviour. In

other words, if your views are not merely thoughts, but also have emotional and
action components, then these views are more than ‘opinions’; they are examples

of attitudes.

All definitions of attitudes agree that an attitude is a state of the mind, a

set of views, or thoughts, regarding some topic (called the ‘attitude object’),

which have an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral quality). It is

accompanied by an emotional component, and a tendency to act in a particular way

with regard to the attitude object. The thought component is referred to as the

cognitive aspect, the emotional component is known as the affective aspect, and

the tendency to act is called the behavioural (or conative) aspect.

Taken together, these three aspects have been referred to as the A-B-C

components (Affective-Behavioural- Cognitive components) of attitude. Note that

attitudes are themselves not behaviour, but they represent a tendency to behave

or act in certain ways. They are part of cognition, along with an emotional

component, and cannot be observed from outside.

Attitudes have to be distinguished from two other closely related concepts,

namely, beliefs and values. Beliefs refer to the cognitive component of

attitudes, and form the ground on which attitudes stand, such as belief in God,

or belief in democracy as a political ideology. Values are attitudes or beliefs

that contain a ‘should’ or ‘ought’ aspect, such as moral or ethical values. One

example of a value is the idea that one should work hard, or that one should

always be honest, because honesty is the best policy. Values are formed when a

particular belief or attitude becomes an inseparable part of the person’s

outlook on life. Consequently, values are difficult to change.

What is the purpose served by an attitude? We find that attitudes provide a

background that makes it easier for a person to decide how to act in new

situations. For example, our attitude towards foreigners may indirectly provide

a mental ‘layout’ or ‘blueprint’ for the way in which we should behave whenever

we meet one. In addition to the affective, cognitive and behavioural components,

attitudes also have other properties. Four significant features of attitudes are

: Valence (positivity or negativity), Extremeness, Simplicity or Complexity

(multiplexity), and Centrality. Valence (positivity or negativity) : The valence

of an attitude tells us whether an attitude is positive or negative towards the

attitude object. Suppose an attitude (say, towards nuclear research) has to be

expressed on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (Very bad), 2 (Bad), 3 (Neutral —

neither good nor bad), and 4 (Good), to 5 (Very good).

If an individual rates her/his view towards nuclear research as 4 or 5, this is

clearly a positive attitude. This means that the person likes the idea of

nuclear research and thinks it is something good. On the other hand, if the

rating is 1 or 2, the attitude is negative. This means that the person dislikes

the idea of nuclear research, and thinks it is something bad. We also allow for

neutral attitudes. In this example, a neutral attitude towards nuclear research

would be shown by a rating of 3 on the same scale. A neutral attitude would have

neither positive nor negative valence.

Extremeness :

The extremeness of an attitude indicates how positive or negative an attitude

is. Taking the nuclear research example given above, a rating of 1 is as extreme

as a rating of 5 : they are only in the opposite directions (valence). Ratings

of 2 and 4 are less extreme. A neutral attitude, of course, is lowest on

extremeness.

Simplicity or Complexity (multiplexity) :

This feature refers to how many attitudes there are within a broader attitude.

Think of an attitude as a family containing several ‘member’ attitudes. In case

of various topics, such as health and world peace, people hold many attitudes

instead of single attitude. An attitude system is said to be ‘simple’ if it

contains only one or a few attitudes, and ‘complex’ if it is made up of many

attitudes. Consider the example of attitude towards health and well-being. This

attitude system is likely to consist of several ‘member’ attitudes, such as

one’s concept of physical and mental health, views about happiness and

well-being, and beliefs about how one should achieve health and happiness. By

contrast, the attitude towards a particular person is likely to consist of

mainly one attitude. The multiple member-attitudes within an attitude system

should not be confused with the three components described earlier. Each member

attitude that belongs to an attitude system also has A-B-C components.

Centrality :
This refers to the role of a particular attitude in the attitude system. An

attitude with greater centrality would influence the other attitudes in the

system much more than non-central (or peripheral) attitudes would. For example,

in the attitude towards world peace, a negative attitude towards high military

expenditure may be present as a core or central attitude that influences all

other attitudes in the multiple attitude system.

APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY

Psychodynamic Approach

This is a highly popular approach to studying personality. This view owes

largely to the contributions of Sigmund Freud. He was a physician, and developed

this theory in the course of his clinical practice. Early in his career he used

hypnosis to treat people with physical and emotional problems. He noted that

many of his patients needed to talk about their problems, and having talked

about them, they often felt better. Freud used free association (a method in

which a person is asked to openly share all the thoughts, feelings and ideas

that come to her/his mind), dream analysis, and analysis of errors to understand

the internal functioning of the mind.

Levels of Consciousness

Freud’s theory considers the sources and consequences of emotional conflicts and

the way people deal with these. In doing so, it visualises the human mind in

terms of three levels of consciousness. The first level is conscious, which

includes the thoughts, feelings and actions of which people are aware. The

second level is preconscious, which includes mental activity of which people may

become aware only if they attend to it closely. The third level is unconscious,

which includes mental activity that people are unaware of. According to Freud,

the unconscious is a reservoir of instinctive or animal drives. It also stores

all ideas and wishes that are concealed from conscious awareness, perhaps,

because they lead to psychological conflicts. Most of these arise from sexual

desires which cannot be expressed openly and therefore are repressed. People

constantly struggle to find either some socially acceptable ways to express

unconscious impulses, or to keep those impulses away from being expressed.

Unsuccessful resolution of conflicts results in abnormal behaviour. Analysis of

forgetting, mispronunciations, jokes and dreams provide us with a means to

approach the unconscious. Freud developed a therapeutic procedure, called

psychoanalysis. The basic goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to bring the

repressed unconscious materials to consciousness, thereby helping people to live

in a more self-aware and integrated manner.

Structure of Personality

According to Freud’s theory, the primary structural elements of personality are

three, i.e. id, ego, and superego. They reside in the unconscious as forces, and

they can be inferred from the ways people behave (see Fig. 2.2). Let us remember

that id, ego and superego are concepts, not real physical structures. We will

discuss these terms in some detail.

Id : It is the source of a person’s instinctual energy. It deals with immediate

gratification of primitive needs, sexual desires and aggressive impulses. It

works on the pleasure principle, which assumes that people seek pleasure and try

to avoid pain. Freud considered much of a person’s instinctual energy to be

sexual, and the rest as aggressive. Id does not care for moral values, society,

or other individuals.

Ego : It grows out of id, and seeks to satisfy an individual’s instinctual needs

in accordance with reality. It works by the reality principle, and often directs

the id towards more appropriate ways of behaving. For example, the id of a boy,

who wants an ice-cream cone, tells him to grab the cone and eat it. His ego

tells him that if he grabs the cone without asking, he may be punished. Working

on the reality principle, the boy knows that the best way to achieve

gratification is to ask for permission to eat the cone. Thus, while the id is

demanding, unrealistic and works according to pleasure principle, the ego is

patient, reasonable, and works by the reality principle.

Superego : The best way to characterise the superego is to think of it as the

moral branch of mental functioning. The superego tells the id and the ego

whether gratification in a particular instance is ethical. It helps control the

id by internalising the parental authority through the process of socialisation.

For example, if a boy sees and wants an icecream cone and asks his mother for

it, his superego will indicate that his behaviour is morally correct. This

approach towards obtaining the ice-cream will not create guilt, fear or anxiety
in the boy. Thus, in terms of individual functioning Freud thought of the

unconscious as being composed of three competing forces. In some people, the id

is stronger than the superego; in others, it is the superego. The relative

strength of the id, ego and superego determines each person’s stability. Freud

also assumed that id is energised by two instinctual forces, called life

instinct and death instinct. He paid less attention to the death instinct and

focused more on the life (or sexual) instinct. The instinctual life force that

energises the id is called libido. It works on the pleasure principle, and seeks

immediate gratification.

Ego Defence Mechanisms

According to Freud, much of human behaviour reflects an attempt to deal with or

escape from anxiety. Thus, how the ego deals with anxiety largely determines how

people behave. Freud believed that people avoid anxiety mainly by developing

defence mechanisms that try to defend the ego against the awareness of the

instinctual needs. Thus, defence mechanism is a way of reducing anxiety by

distorting reality. Although some defence against anxiety is normal and

adaptive, people who use these mechanisms to such an extent that reality is

truly distorted develop various forms of maladjustment.

Freud has described many different kinds of defence mechanisms. The most

important is repression, in which anxietyprovoking behaviours or thoughts are

totally dismissed by the unconscious. When people repress a feeling or desire,

they become totally unaware of that wish or desire. Thus, when a person says, “I

do not know why I did that”, some repressed feeling or desire is expressing

itself. Other major defence mechanisms are projection, denial, reaction

formation and rationalisation. In projection, people attribute their own traits

to others. Thus, a person who has strong aggressive tendencies may see other

people as acting in an excessively aggressive way towards her/him. In denial, a

person totally refuses to accept reality. Thus, someone suffering from HIV/AIDS

may altogether deny her/ his illness. In reaction formation, a person defends

against anxiety by adopting behaviours opposite to her/his true feelings. A

person with strong sexual urges, who channels her/his energy into religious

fervour, presents a classical example of reaction formation. In rationalisation,

a person tries to make unreasonable feelings or behaviour seem reasonable and

acceptable. For example, when a student buys a set of new pens after doing

poorly in an examination, s/he may try to rationalise her/his behaviour by

asserting, “I will do much better with these pens”. People who use defence

mechanisms are often unaware of doing so. Each defence mechanism is a way for

the ego to deal with the uncomfortable feelings produced by anxiety. However,

Freud’s ideas about the role of defence mechanisms have been questioned. For

example, his claim that projection reduces anxiety and stress has not found

support in several studies.

Stages of Personality Development Freud claims that the core aspects of

personality are established early, remain stable throughout life, and can be

changed only with great difficulty. He proposed a five-stage theory of

personality (also called psychosexual) development. Problems encountered at any

stage may arrest development, and have long-term effect on a person’s life. A

brief description of these stages is given here.

Oral Stage : A newborn’s instincts are focused on the mouth. This is the

infant’s primary pleasure seeking centre. It is through the mouth that the baby

obtains food that reduces hunger. The infant achieves oral gratification through

feeding, thumb sucking, biting and babbling. It is during these early months

that people’s basic feelings about the world are established. Thus, for Freud,

an adult who considers the world a bitter place probably had difficulty during

the oral stage of development.

Anal Stage : It is found that around ages two and three the child learns to

respond to some of the demands of the society. One of the principal demands made

by parents is that the child learns to control the bodily functions of urination

and defecation. Most children at this age experience pleasure in moving their

bowels. The anal area of the body becomes the focus of certain pleasurable

feelings. This stage establishes the basis for conflict between the id and the

ego, and between the desire for babyish pleasure and demand for adult,

controlled behaviour.

Phallic Stage : This stage focuses on the genitals. At around ages four and five

children begin to realise the differences between males and females. They become

aware of sexuality and the sexual relationship between their parents. During

this stage, the male child experiences the Oedipus Complex, which involves love
for the mother, hostility towards the father, and the consequent fear of

punishment or castration by the father (Oedipus was a Greek king who unknowingly

killed his father and then married his mother). A major developmental

achievement of this stage is the resolution of the Oedipus complex. This takes

place by accepting his father’s relationship with his mother, and modelling his

own behaviour after his father.

For girls, the Oedipus complex (called the Electra Complex after Electra, a

Greek character, who induced her brother to kill their mother) follows a

slightly different course. By attaching her love to the father a girl tries to

symbolically marry him and raise a family. When she realises that this is

unlikely, she begins to identify with her mother and copy her behaviour as a

means of getting (or, sharing in) her father’s affection. The critical component

in resolving the Oedipus complex is the development of identification with the

same sex parents. In other words, boys give up sexual feelings for their mothers

and begin to see their fathers as role models rather than as rivals; girls give

up their sexual desires for their father and identify with their mother.

Latency Stage : This stage lasts from about seven years until puberty. During

this period, the child continues to grow physically, but sexual urges are

relatively inactive. Much of a child’s energy is channelled into social or

achievementrelated activities.

Genital Stage : During this stage, the person attains maturity in psychosexual

development. The sexuality, fears and repressed feelings of earlier stages are

once again exhibited. People learn to deal with members of the opposite sex in a

socially and sexually mature way. However, if the journey towards this stage is

marked by excessive stress or over-indulgence, it may cause fixation to an

earlier stage of development.

Freud’s theory also postulates that as children proceed from one stage to

another stage of development, they seem to adjust their view of the world.

Failure of a child to pass successfully through a stage leads to fixation to

that stage. In this situation, the child’s development gets arrested at an

earlier stage. For example, a child who does not pass successfully through the

phallic stage fails to resolve the Oedipal complex and may still feel hostile
toward the parent of the same sex. This failure may have serious consequences

for the child’s life. Such a boy may come to consider that men are generally

hostile, and may wish to relate to females in a dependable relationship.

Regression is also a likely outcome in such situations. It takes a person back

to an earlier stage. Regression occurs when a person’s resolution of problems at

any stage of development is less than adequate. In this situation, people

display behaviours typical of a less mature stage of development.

ATTRIBUTES AND ASSESSMENT

Some Domains of Psychological Attributes

Psychological attributes are not linear or unidimensional. They are complex and

expressed in terms of dimensions. A line is a mere aggregate of many points. A

point occupies no space. But think of a box. It occupies space. It can be

described only in terms of its three dimensions, i.e. length, width, and height.

Similar is the case with psychological attributes. They are usually

multi-dimensional. If you want to have a complete assessment of a person, you

will need to assess how s/he functions in various domains or areas, such as

cognitive, emotional, social, etc. We will discuss in this chapter some

important attributes that are of interest to psychologists. These attributes are

categorised on the basis of varieties of tests used in psychological literature.

1. Intelligence is the global capacity to understand the world, think

rationally, and use available resources effectively when faced with challenges.

Intelligence tests provide a global measure of a person’s general cognitive

competence including the ability to profit from schooling. Generally, students

having low intelligence are not likely to do so well in school-related

examinations, but their success in life is not associated only with their

intelligence test scores.

2. Aptitude refers to an individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills.

Aptitude tests are used to predict what an individual will be able to do if

given proper environment and training. A person with high mechanical aptitude

can profit from appropriate training and can do well as an engineer. Similarly,

a person having high language aptitude can be trained to be a good writer.

3. Interest is an individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specific

activities relative to others. Assessment of interests of students may help to

decide what subjects or courses they can pursue comfortably and with pleasure.

Knowledge of interests helps us in making choices that promote life satisfaction

and performance on jobs.

4. Personality refers to relatively enduring characteristics of a person that

make her or him distinct from others. Personality tests try to assess an

individual’s unique characteristics, e.g. whether one is dominant or submissive,

outgoing or withdrawn, moody or emotionally stable, etc. Personality assessment

helps us to explain an individual’s behaviour and predict how she/he will behave

in future.

5. Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour. A person having

a value sets a standard for guiding her/his actions in life and also for judging

others. In value assessment, we try to determine the dominant values of a person

(e.g., political, religious, social or economic).

Assessment Methods

Several methods are used for psychological assessment. You have learnt about

some of these methods in Class XI. Let us recall their key features.

• Psychological Test is an objective and standardised measure of an individual’s

mental and/or behavioural characteristics. Objective tests have been developed

to measure all the dimensions of psychological attributes (e.g., intelligence,

aptitude, etc.) described above. These tests are widely used for the purposes of

clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection, placement, and training.

Besides objective tests, psychologists have also developed certain projective

tests, especially for the assessment of personality.

• Interview involves seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis.

You may see it being used when a counsellor interacts with a client, a

salesperson makes a door-to-door survey regarding the usefulness of a particular

product, an employer selects employees for her/his organisation, or a journalist

interviews important people on issues of national and international importance.

• Case Study is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his

psychological attributes, psychological history in the context of her/his

psychosocial and physical environment. Case studies are widely used by clinical

psychologists. Case analyses of the lives of great people can also be highly

illuminating for those willing to learn from their life experiences. Case

studies are based on data generated by different methods, e.g. interview,

observation, questionnaire, psychological tests, etc.

• Observation involves employing systematic, organised, and objective procedures

to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time. Certain

phenomena such as mother-child interactions can be easily studied through

observation. The major problems with observational methods are that the observer

has little control over the situation and the reports may suffer from subjective

interpretations of the observer.

• Self-Report is a method in which a person provides factual information about

herself/himself and/or opinions, beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Such information

may be obtained by using an interview schedule or a questionnaire, a

psychological test, or a personal diary.

TECHNIQUES FOR STUDY OF PERSONALITY

Projective Techniques

The techniques of personality assessment described so far are known as direct

techniques, because they tend to rely on information directly obtained from the

person who clearly knows that her/his personality is being assessed. In these

situations, people generally become selfconscious and hesitate to share their

private feelings, thoughts, and motivations. When they do so, they often do it

in a socially desirable manner.

The psychoanalytic theory tells us that a large part of human behaviour is

governed by unconscious motives. Direct methods of personality assessment cannot

uncover the unconscious part of our behaviour. Hence, they fail to provide us

with a real picture of an individual’s personality. These problems can be

overcome by using indirect methods of assessment. Projective techniques fall in

this category.
Projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives and feelings.

These techniques are based on the assumption that a less structured or

unstructured stimulus or situation will allow the individual to project her/his

feelings, desires and needs on to that situation. These projections are

interpreted by experts. A variety of projective techniques have been developed;

they use various kinds of stimulus materials and situations for assessing

personality. Some of them require reporting associations with stimuli (e.g.,

words, inkblots), some involve story writing around pictures, some require

sentence completions, some require expression through drawings, and some require

choice of stimuli from a large set of stimuli.

While the nature of stimuli and responses in these techniques vary enormously,

all of them do share the following features:

(1) The stimuli are relatively or fully unstructured and poorly defined.

(2) The person being assessed is usually not told about the purpose of

assessment and the method of scoring and interpretation.

(3) The person is informed that there are no correct or incorrect responses.

(4) Each response is considered to reveal a significant aspect of personality.

(5) Scoring and interpretation are lengthy and sometimes subjective.

Projective techniques are different from the psychometric tests in many ways.

They cannot be scored in any objective manner. They generally require

qualitative analyses for which a rigorous training is needed. In the following

pages, some of the wellknown projective techniques are briefly discussed.

Sentence Completion Test

This test makes use of a number of incomplete sentences. The starting part of

the sentence is first presented and the subject has to provide an ending to the

sentence. It is held that the type of endings used by the subjects reflect their

attitudes, motivation and conflicts. The test provides subjects with several

opportunities to reveal their underlying unconscious motivations. A few sample

items of a sentence completion test are given below.

1. My father——————————————.
2. My greatest fear is —————————.

3. The best thing about my mother is — —————————.

4. I am proud of ———————————— ————————.

Draw-a-Person Test

It is a simple test in which the subject is asked to draw a person on a sheet of

paper. A pencil and eraser is provided to facilitate drawing. After the

completion of the drawing, the subject is generally asked to draw the figure of

an opposite sex person. Finally, the subject is asked to make a story about the

person as if s/he was a character in a novel or play. Some examples of

interpretations are as follows:

(1) Omission of facial features suggests that the person tries to evade a highly

conflict-ridden interpersonal relationship.

(2) Graphic emphasis on the neck suggests lack of control over impulses.

(3) Disproportionately large head suggests organic brain disease and

preoccupation with headaches.

The analysis of personality with the help of projective techniques appears

fairly interesting. It helps us to understand unconscious motives, deep-rooted

conflicts, and emotional complexes of an individual. However, the interpretation

of the responses requires sophisticated skills and specialised training. There

are problems associated with the reliability of scoring and validity of

interpretations. But, the practitioners have found these techniques quite

useful.

BEHAVIOURIAL AND CULTURAL APPROACHES

Personality : Behavioural Approach

This approach does not give importance to the internal dynamics of behaviour.

The behaviourists believe in data, which they feel are definable, observable,

and measurable. Thus, they focus on learning of stimulus-response connections

and their reinforcement. According to them, personality can be best understood

as the response of an individual to the environment. They see the development

simply as a change in response characteristics, i.e. a person learns new

behaviours in response to new environments and stimuli.

For most behaviourists, the structural unit of personality is the response. Each
response is a behaviour, which is emitted to satisfy a specific need. As you

know, all of us eat because of hunger, but we are also very choosy about foods.

For example, children do not like eating many of the vegetables (e.g., spinach,

pumpkin, gourds, etc.), but gradually they learn to eat them. Why do they do so?

According to the behavioural approach, children may initially learn to eat such

vegetables in anticipation of appreciation (reinforcement) from their parents.

Later on they may eventually learn to eat vegetables not only because their

parents are pleased with this behaviour, but also because they acquire the taste

of those vegetables, and find them good. Thus, the core tendency that organises

behaviour is the reduction of biological or social needs that energise

behaviour. This is accomplished through responses (behaviours) that are

reinforced.

The theories of classical conditioning (Pavlov), instrumental conditioning

(Skinner), and observational learning (Bandura) are well-known to you. These

theories view learning and maintenance of behaviour from different angles. The

principles of these theories have been widely used in developing personality

theories. For example, observational learning theory considers thought processes

extremely important in learning, but these find almost no place in classical or

instrumental conditioning theories. Observational learning theory also

emphasises social learning (based on observation and imitation of others) and

self-regulation, which again is missed out in other theories.

Cultural Approach

This approach attempts to understand personality in relation to the features of

ecological and cultural environment. It proposes that a group’s ‘economic

maintenance system’ plays a vital role in the origin of cultural and behavioural

variations. The climatic conditions, the nature of terrain of the habitat and

the availability of food (flora and fauna) in it determine not only people’s

economic activities, but also their settlement patterns, social structures,

division of labour, and other features such as childrearing practices. Taken

together these elements constitute a child’s overall learning environment.

People’s skills, abilities, behavioural styles, and value priorities are viewed

as strongly linked to these features. Rituals, ceremonies, religious practices,

arts, recreational activities, games and play are the means through which
people’s personality gets projected in a culture. People develop various

personality (behavioural) qualities in an attempt to adapt to the ecological and

cultural features of a group’s life. Thus, the cultural approach considers

personality as an adaptation of individuals or groups to the demands of their

ecology and culture.

For example, The Birhor (a tribal group) of Jharkhand represent such a

population. Most of them live a nomadic life, which requires constant movement

in small bands from one forest to another in search of games and other forest

products (e.g., fruits, roots, mushrooms, honey, etc.). In the Birhor society,

children from an early age are allowed enormous freedom to move into forests and

learn hunting and gathering skills. Their child socialisation practices are also

aimed at making children independent (do many things without help from elders),

autonomous (take several decisions for themselves), and achievement-oriented

(accept risks and challenges such as those involved in hunting) from an early

age of life.

In agricultural societies, children are socialised to be obedient to elders,

nurturant to youngsters, and responsible to their duties. Since these

behavioural qualities make people more functional in agricultural societies,

they become dominant features of people’s personality in contrast to

independence, autonomy and achievement, which are more functional (and thus

highly valued) in hunting-gathering societies. Because of different economic

pursuits and cultural demands, children in hunting, gathering and agricultural

societies develop and display different personality patterns.

CONCEPT AND APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY

PERSONALITY:

CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

The term ‘personality’ often appears in our day-to-day discussion. The literal

meaning of personality is derived from the Latin word persona, the mask used by

actors in the Roman theatre for changing their facial make-up. After putting on

the mask, audience expected the person to perform a role in a particular manner.

It did not, however, mean that the person enacting the given role necessarily

possessed those qualities.

For a layperson, personality generally refers to the physical or external

appearance of an individual. For example, when we find someone ‘good-looking’,

we often assume that the person also has a charming personality. This notion of

personality is based on superficial impressions, which may not be correct. In

psychological terms, personality refers to our characteristic ways of responding

to individuals and situations. People can easily describe the way in which they

respond to various situations. Certain catchwords (e.g., shy, sensitive, quiet,

concerned, warm, etc.) are often used to describe personalities. These words

refer to different components of personality. In this sense, personality refers

to unique and relatively stable qualities that characterise an individual’s

behaviour across different situations over a period of time.

If you watch closely, you will find that people do show variations in their

behaviour. One is not always cautious or impulsive, shy or friendly. Personality

characterises individuals as they appear in most circumstances. Consistency in

behaviour, thought and emotion of an individual across situations and across

time periods characterises her/his personality. For example, an honest person is

more likely to remain honest irrespective of time or situation. However,

situational variations in behaviour do occur as they help individuals in

adapting to their environmental circumstances.

In brief, personality is characterised by the following features:

It has both physical and psychological components.

Its expression in terms of behaviour is fairly unique in a given individual.

Its main features do not easily change with time.

It is dynamic in the sense that some of its features may change due to

internal or external situational demands. Thus, personality is adaptive to

situations.

Once we are able to characterise someone’s personality, we can predict how that

person will probably behave in a variety of circumstances. An understanding of

personality allows us to deal with people in realistic and acceptable ways. For

example, if you find a child who does not like orders, the most effective way to

deal with that child will be not to give orders, but to present a set of

acceptable alternatives from which the child may choose. Similarly, a child who

has feelings of inferiority needs to be treated differently from a child who is

self-confident. Several other terms are used to refer to behavioural

characteristics of individuals. Quite often they are used as synonyms of

personality.

MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY

Psychologists interested in the study of personality, try to answer certain

questions about the nature and origin of individual differences in personality.

You may have observed that two children in the same family develop dramatically

different personalities. Not only they look physically different, but they also

behave differently in different situations. These observations often generate

curiosity and force us to ask: “Why is it that some people react differently in

a given situation than others do? Why is it that some people enjoy adventurous

activities, while others like reading, watching television or playing cards? Are

these differences stable all through one’s life, or are they just shortlived and

situation-specific?”

A number of approaches and theories have been developed to understand and

explain behavioural differences among individuals, and behavioural consistencies

within an individual. These theories are based on different models of human

behaviour. Each throws light on some, but not all, aspects of personality.

Psychologists distinguish between type and trait approaches to personality. The

type approaches attempts to comprehend human personality by examining certain

broad patterns in the observed behavioural characteristics of individuals. Each

behavioural pattern refers to one type in which individuals are placed in terms

of the similarity of their behavioural characteristics with that pattern. In

contrast, the trait approach focuses on the specific psychological attributes

along which individuals tend to differ in consistent and stable ways. For

example, one person may be less shy, whereas another may be more; or one person

may be less friendly, whereas another may be more. Here “shyness” and

“friendliness” represent traits along which individuals can be rated in terms of

the degree of presence or absence of the concerned behavioural quality or a

trait. The interactional approach holds that situational characteristics play an

important role in determining our behaviour. People may behave as dependent or

independent not because of their internal personality trait, but because of

external rewards or threats available in a particular situation. The

crosssituational consistency of traits is found to be quite low. The compelling

influence of situations can be noted by observing people’s behaviour in places

like a market, a courtroom, or a place of worship.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE

Why are some people more intelligent than others? Is it due to their heredity,

or is it due to the influence of environmental factors?

Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and Nurture

The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from studies

on twins and adopted children. The intelligence of identical twins reared

together correlate almost 0.90. Twins separated early in childhood also show

considerable similarity in their intellectual, personality and behavioral

characteristics. The intelligence of identical twins reared in different

environments correlate 0.72, those of fraternal twins reared together correlate

almost 0.60, and those of brothers and sisters reared together correlate about

0.50, while siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25. Another line of evidence

comes from the studies of adopted children, which show that children’s

intelligence is more similar to their biological rather than adoptive parents.

With respect to the role of environment, studies have reported that as children

grow in age, their intelligence level tends to move closer to that of their

adoptive parents. Children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with

higher socioeconomic status exhibit a large increase in their intelligence

scores. There is evidence that environmental deprivation lowers intelligence

while rich nutrition, good family background, and quality schooling increases

intelligence. There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence

is a product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment

(nurture). Heredity can best be viewed as something that sets a range within

which an individual’s development is actually shaped by the support and

opportunities of the environment.

Assessment of Intelligence

In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful attempt to

formally measure intelligence. In 1908, when the scale was revised, they gave
the concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a measure of a person’s intellectual

development relative to people of her/his age group. A mental age of 5 means

that a child’s performance on an intelligence test equals the average

performance level of a group of 5-year olds. Chronological Age (CA) is the

biological age from birth. A bright child’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a

dull child, MA is below the CA. Retardation was defined by Binet and Simon as

being two mental age years below the chronological age.

In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of

Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to mental age divided by chronological

age, and multiplied by 100.

IQ = (MA/CA) * 100

The number 100 is used as a multiplier to avoid the decimal point. When the MA

equals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA is more than the CA, IQ is more than

100. IQ becomes less than 100 when the MA is less than the CA. For example, a

10-year-old child with a mental age of 12 would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 100),

Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 11 whereas the same child

with an MA of 7 would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 100). The average IQ in the

population is 100, irrespective of age.

IQ scores are distributed in the population in such a way that the scores of

most people tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution. Only a few

people have either very high or very low scores. The frequency distribution for

the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell shaped curve, called the normal curve.

This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the

mean. The distribution of IQ scores in the form of a normal distribution is

shown below:

The mean IQ score in a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of

90–110 have normal intelligence. Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have

‘mental retardation’, while persons with IQ above 130 are considered to have

exceptional talents All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity; some

are exceptionally bright and some are below average. One practical use of

intelligence test is to identify persons at the extremes of intellectual

functioning. If you refer to Table 1.1, you will notice that about 2 per cent of

the population have IQ above 130, and a similar percentage have IQ below 70. The

persons in the first group are called intellectually gifted; those in the second

group are termed mentally challenged or mentally retarded. These two groups

deviate considerably from the normal population in respect of their cognitive,

emotional, and motivational characteristics.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN FUNCTIONING

Individual variations are common within and across all species. Variations add

colour and beauty to nature. For a moment, think of a world around you where

each and every object is of the same colour, say red or blue or green. How would

the world appear to you? Certainly not a beautiful one! Would you prefer to live

in such a world? In all likelihood, your answer will be ‘no’. Like objects,

people too possess different combinations of traits. Variability is a fact of

nature, and individuals are no exception to this. They vary in terms of physical

characteristics, such as height, weight, strength, hair colour, and so on. They

also vary along psychological dimensions. They may be intelligent or dull,

dominant or submissive, creative or not so creative, outgoing or withdrawn, etc.

The list of variations can be endless. Different traits can exist in varying

degrees in an individual. In this sense, each one of us is unique as s/he

exemplifies a typical combination of various traits. The question which you may

like to pose is how and why people differ. This, in fact, is the subject matter

of the study of individual differences. For psychologists, individual

differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s

characteristics and behaviour patterns.

While many psychologists believe that our behaviours are influenced by our

personal traits, some others hold the view that our behaviours are influenced

more by situational factors. This latter view is known as situationism, which

states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed influence one’s

behaviour. A person, who is generally aggressive, may behave in a submissive

manner in the presence of her/his top boss. Sometimes, the situational

influences are so powerful that individuals with differing personality traits

respond to them in almost the same ways. The situationist perspective views

human behaviour as resulting from interaction of external and internal factors.

ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

Psychological attributes are involved in very simple phenomena like in time

taken to react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time, and also in highly global

concepts like happiness. It is difficult to count and specify the number of

psychological attributes that can be assessed. Assessment is the first step in

understanding a psychological attribute. Assessment refers to the measurement of

psychological attributes of individuals and their evaluation, often using

multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison. Any attribute will

be said to exist in a person only if it can be measured by using scientific

procedures. For example, when we say, “Harish is dominant”, we are referring to

the degree of ‘dominance’ in Harish. This statement is based on our own

assessment of ‘dominance’ in him. Our assessment may be informal or formal.

Formal assessment is objective, standardised, and organised.

On the other hand, informal assessment varies from case to case and from one

assessor to another and, therefore, is open to subjective interpretations.

Psychologists are trained in making formal assessment of psychological

attributes. Once assessment is done, we can use this information to predict how

Harish will probably behave in future. We may predict that Harish, if given a

chance to lead a team, will most likely be an authoritarian leader. If the

predicted consequence is not what we want, we may want to intervene to effect a

change in Harish’s behaviour. The attribute chosen for assessment depends upon

our purpose. In order to help a weak student perform well in examinations, we

may assess her/his intellectual strengths and weaknesses. If a person fails to

adjust with members of her/ his family and neighbourhood, we may consider

assessing her/his personality characteristics. For a poorly motivated person, we

may assess her/his interests and preferences. Psychological assessment uses

systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours, and personal

qualities of individuals.

INTELLIGENCE

INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals differ from one
another. It also provides an understanding of how people adapt their behaviour

according to the environment they live in. In this section, you will read about

intelligence in its various forms. Psychological notion of intelligence is quite

different from the common sensical notion of intelligence. If you watch an

intelligent person, you are likely to see in her/him attributes like mental

alertness, ready wit, quickness in learning, and ability to understand

relationships. The Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the power of

perceiving, learning, understanding, and knowing. Early intelligence theorists

also used these attributes in defining intelligence. Alfred Binet was one of the

first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He defined intelligence as the

ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well. Wechsler, whose

intelligence tests are most widely used, understood intelligence in terms of its

functionality, i.e. its value for adaptation to environment. He defined it as

the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act

purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his environment. Other

psychologists, such as Gardner and Sternberg have suggested that an intelligent

individual not only adapts to the environment, but also actively modifies or

shapes it. You will be able to understand the concept of intelligence and how it

has evolved, when we discuss some important theories of intelligence.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Psychologists have proposed several theories of intelligence. Theories can be

broadly classified as either representing a psychometric/structural approach or

an information-processing approach. The psychometric approach considers

intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It expresses the individual’s

performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities. On the other

hand, the informationprocessing approach describes the processes people use in

intellectual reasoning and problem solving. The major focus of this approach is

on how an intelligent person acts. Rather than focusing on structure of

intelligence or its underlying dimensions, information- processing approaches

emphasise studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour. We will

discuss some representative theories of these approaches.

We mentioned above that Alfred Binet was the first psychologist who tried to
formalise the concept of intelligence in terms of mental operations. Prior to

him, we find the notion of intelligence described in general ways in various

philosophical treatises available in different cultural traditions. Binet’s

theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from his interest in

differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals. He,

therefore, conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of

abilities which can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s

environment. His theory of intelligence is called Uni or one factor theory of

intelligence. This theory came to be disputed when psychologists started

analysing data of individuals, which was collected using Binet’s test.

In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence employing

a statistical method called factor analysis. He showed that intelligence

consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and some specific factors (s-factors).

The g-factor includes mental operations which are primary and common to all

performances. In addition to the g-factor, he said that there are also many

specific abilities. These are contained in what he called the s-factor.

Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may be high on g-factor,

but in addition to this, they have specific abilities which allow them to excel

in their respective domains. Spearman’s theory was followed by Louis Thurstone’s

theory. He proposed the theory of primary mental abilities. It states that

intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of which is relatively

independent of the others. These primary abilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension

(grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities

(speed and accuracy in numerical and computational skills), (iii) Spatial

Relations (visualising patterns and forms), (iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in

perceiving details), (v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly), (vi)

Memory (accuracy in recalling information), and (vii) Inductive Reasoning

(deriving general rules from presented facts).

Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical model of intelligence consisting of

abilities operating at two levels, called Level I and Level II. Level I is the

associative learning in which output is more or less similar to the input (e.g.,

rote learning and memory). Level II, called cognitive competence, involves

higher-order skills as they transform the input to produce an effective output.

J.P. Guilford proposed the structureof- intellect model which classifies

intellectual traits among three dimensions: operations, contents, and products.

Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory

recording, memory retention, divergent production, convergent production, and

evaluation. Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which

intellectual operations are performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic

(e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g., words) and behavioural (e.g.,

information about people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs, etc.). Products refer to

the form in which information is processed by the respondent. Products are

classified into units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and

implications. Since this classification (Guilford, 1988) includes 6 5 6

categories, therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell is expected to have at

least one factor or ability; some cells may have more than one factor. Each

factor is described in terms of all three dimensions. The above mentioned

theories are representations of psychometric approach to understand intelligent

behaviour.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple

intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather

distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of these intelligences are

independent of each other. This means that, if a person exhibits one type of

intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other types

of intelligences. Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences

interact and work together to find a solution to a problem. Gardner studied

extremely talented persons, who had shown exceptional abilities in their

respective areas, and described eight types of intelligence. These are as

follows:

Linguistic (skills involved in the production and use of language) : It is the

capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and

understand others. Persons high on this intelligence are ‘word-smart’, i.e. they

are sensitive to different shades of word meanings, are articulate, and can

create linguistic images in their mind. Poets and writers are very strong in

this component of intelligence.

Logical-Mathematical (skills in scientific thinking and problem solving) :

Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and critically.

They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate symbols to solve

mathematical problems. Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be

strong in this component.

Spatial (skills in forming visual images and patterns) : It refers to the

abilities involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images. The person

high on this intelligence can easily represent the spatial world in the mind.

Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators, and

surgeons are likely to have highly developed spatial intelligence.

Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns) : It is the capacity to

produce, create and manipulate musical patterns. Persons high on this

intelligence are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations, and in creating new

patterns of sounds. Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole or portions of the body

flexibly and creatively) : This consists of the use of the whole body or

portions of it for display or construction of products and problem solving.

Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons are likely to

have such kind of intelligence.

Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours) : This is

the skill of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviours of other people

so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others. Psychologists,

counsellors, politicians, social workers, and religious leaders are likely to

possess high interpersonal intelligence.

Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires): This

refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using

that knowledge to effectively relate to others. Persons high on this ability

have finer sensibilities regarding their identity, human existence, and meaning

of life. Philosophers and spiritual leaders present examples of this type of

intelligence. Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features of the natural world) :

This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world. It

is useful in recognising the beauty of different species of flora and fauna, and

making subtle discriminations in the natural world. Hunters, farmers, tourists,

botanists, zoologists, and bird watchers possess more of naturalistic

intelligence.
 POST-FREUDIAN APPROACHES

Post-Freudian Approaches

A number of theorists further developed their ideas following Freud. Some had

worked with him and then moved on to develop their own versions of the

psychoanalytic theory. These theorists have been called neo-analytic, or post-

Freudian in order to differentiate their work from Freud’s. These theories are

characterised by less prominent roles to sexual and aggressive tendencies of the

id and expansion of the concept of ego. The human qualities of creativity,

competence, and problem solving abilities are emphasised. Some of these theories

are briefly described here.

Carl Jung : Aims and Aspirations Jung worked with Freud in his early stages of

career, but later on he broke away from Freud. Jung saw human beings guided as

much by aims and aspirations as by sex and aggression. He developed his own

theory of personality, called analytical psychology. The basic assumption of his

theory is that personality consists of competing forces and structures within

the individual (that must be balanced) rather than between the individual and

the demands of society, or between the individual and reality.

Jung claimed that there was a collective unconscious consisting of archetypes or

primordial images. These are not individually acquired, but are inherited. The

God or the Mother Earth is a good example of archetypes. They are found in

myths, dreams and arts of all mankind. Jung held that the self strives for unity

and oneness. It is an archetype that is expressed in many ways. He devoted much

of his efforts to the study of such expressions in various traditions. According

to him, for achieving unity and wholeness, a person must become increasingly

aware of the wisdom available in one’s personal and collective unconscious, and

must learn to live in harmony with it.

Karen Horney : Optimism Horney was another disciple of Freud who developed a

theory that deviated from basic Freudian principles. She adopted a more

optimistic view of human life with emphasis on human growth and

selfactualisation. Horney’s major contribution lies in her challenge to Freud’s

treatment of women as inferior. According to her, each sex has attributes to be

admired by the other, and neither sex can be viewed as superior or inferior. She
countered that women were more likely to be affected by social and cultural

factors than by biological factors. She argued that psychological disorders were

caused by disturbed interpersonal relationship during childhood. When parents’

behaviour toward a child is indifferent, discouraging, and erratic, the child

feels insecure and a feeling called basic anxiety results. Deep resentment

toward parents or basic hostility occurs due to this anxiety. By showing

excessive dominance or indifference, or by providing too much or too little

approval, parents can generate among children feelings of isolation and

helplessness which interfere with their healthy development.

Alfred Adler : Lifestyle and Social Interest

Adler’s theory is known as individual psychology. His basic assumption is that

human behaviour is purposeful and goaldirected. Each one of us has the capacity

to choose and create. Our personal goals are the sources of our motivation. The

goals that provide us with security and help us in overcoming the feelings of

inadequacy are important in our personality development. In Adler’s view, every

individual suffers from the feelings of inadequacy and guilt, i.e. inferiority

complex, which arise from childhood. Overcoming this complex is essential for

optimal personality development.

Erich Fromm : The Human Concerns

In contrast to Freud’s biological orientation, Fromm developed his theory from a

social orientation. He viewed human beings as basically social beings who could

be understood in terms of their relationship with others. He argued that

psychological qualities such as growth and realisation of potentials resulted

from a desire for freedom, and striving for justice and truth.

Fromm holds that character traits (personality) develop from our experiences

with other individuals. While culture is shaped by the mode of existence of a

given society, people’s dominant character traits in a given society work as

forces in shaping the social processes and the culture itself. His work

recognises the value of positive qualities, such as tenderness and love in

personality development.

Erik Erikson : Search for Identity Erikson’s theory lays stress on rational,

conscious ego processes in personality development. In his theory, development

is viewed as a lifelong process, and ego identity is granted a central place in

this process. His concept of identity crisis of adolescent age has drawn

considerable attention. Erikson argues that young people must generate for

themselves a central perspective and a direction that can give them a meaningful

sense of unity and purpose.

Psychodynamic theories face strong criticisms from many quarters. The major

criticisms are as follows:

(1) The theories are largely based on case studies; they lack a rigorous

scientific basis.

(2) They use small and atypical individuals as samples for advancing

generalisations.

(3) The concepts are not properly defined, and it is difficult to submit them to

scientific testing.

(4) Freud has used males as the prototype of all human personality development.

He overlooked female experiences and perspective.

STRESS(PART1)

NATURE, TYPES AND SOURCES OF STRESS

While waiting to cross the road on a busy Monday morning, you may be temporarily

stressed. But, because you are alert, vigilant and aware of the danger, you are

able to cross the road safely. Faced with any challenge, we put in additional

efforts and mobilise all our resources and the support system to meet the

challenge. All the challenges, problems, and difficult circumstances put us to

stress. Thus, if handled properly, stress increases the probability of one’s

survival. Stress is like electricity. It gives energy, increases human arousal

and affects performance. However, if the electric current is too high, it can

fuse bulbs, damage appliances, etc.

High stress too can produce unpleasant effects and cause our performance to

deteriorate. Conversely, too little stress may cause one to feel somewhat

listless and low on motivation which may lead us to perform slowly and less

efficiently. It is important to remember that not all stress is inherently bad

or destructive. ‘Eustress’ is the term used to describe the level of stress that

is good for you and is one of a person’s best assets for achieving peak

performance and managing minor crisis. Eustress, however, has the potential of
turning into ‘distress’. It is this latter manifestation of stress that causes

our body’s wear and tear. Thus, stress can be described as the pattern of

responses an organism makes to stimulus event that disturbs the equilibrium and

exceeds a person’s ability to cope.

Nature of Stress

The word stress has its origin in the Latin words ‘strictus’, meaning tight or

narrow and ‘stringere’, the verb meaning to tighten. These root words reflect

the internal feelings of tightness and constriction of the muscles and breathing

reported by many people under stress. Stress is often explained in terms of

characteristics of the environment that are disruptive to the individual.

Stressors are events that cause our body to give the stress response. Such

events include noise, crowding, a bad relationship, or the daily commuting to

school or office. The reaction to external stressors is called ‘strain’ Stress

has come to be associated with both the causes as well as effects. However, this

view of stress can cause confusion. Hans Selye, the father of modern stress

research, defined stress as “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand”

that is, regardless of the cause of the threat, the individual will respond with

the same physiological pattern of reactions. Many researchers do not agree with

this definition as they feel that the stress response is not nearly as general

and nonspecific as Selye suggests. Different stressors may produce somewhat

different patterns of stress reaction, and different individuals may have

different characteristic modes of response. You may recall the case of an

opening batsman mentioned earlier. Each one of us will see the situation through

our own eyes and it is our perception of the demands, and our ability to meet

them, which will determine whether we are feeling ‘stressed’ or not. Stress is

not a factor that resides in the individual or the environment, instead it is

embedded in an ongoing process that involves individuals transacting with their

social and cultural environments, making appraisals of those encounters and

attempting to cope with the issues that arise. Stress is a dynamic

mental/cognitive state. It is a disruption in homeostasis or an imbalance that

gives rise to a requirement for resolution of that imbalance or restoration of

homeostasis. The perception of stress is dependent upon the individual’s

cognitive appraisal of events and the resources available to deal with them. The

stress process, based on the cognitive theory of stress propounded by Lazarus

and his colleagues, is described in Figure given below.

An individual’s response to a stressful situation largely depends upon the

perceived events and how they are interpreted or appraised. Lazarus has

distinguished between two types of appraisal, i.e. primary and secondary.

Primary appraisal refers to the perception of a new or changing environment as

positive, neutral or negative in its consequences. Negative events are appraised

for their possible harm, threat or challenge. Harm is the assessment of the

damage that has already been done by an event. Threat is the assessment of

possible future damage that may be brought about by the event. Challenge

appraisals are associated with more confident expectations of the ability to

cope with the stressful event, the potential to overcome and even profit from

the event. When we perceive an event as stressful, we are likely to make a

secondary appraisal, which is the assessment of one’s coping abilities and

resources and whether they will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat or

challenge of the event. These resources may be mental, physical, personal or

social. If one thinks one has a positive attitude, health, skills and social

support to deal with the crises s/he will feel less stressed. This two-level

appraisal process determines not only our cognitive and behavioural responses

but also our emotional and physiological responses to external events.

These appraisals are very subjective and will depend on many factors. One factor

is the past experience of dealing with such a stressful condition. If one has

handled similar situations very successfully in the past, they would be less

threatening for her/him. Another factor is whether the stressful event is

perceived as controllable, i.e. whether one has mastery or control over a

situation. A person who believes that s/he can control the onset of a negative

situation, or its adverse consequences, will experience less amount of stress

than those who have no such sense of personal control. For example, a sense of

self-confidence or efficacy can determine whether the person is likely to

appraise the situation as a threat or a challenge. Thus, the experience and

outcome of a stressor may vary from individual to individual. Stress, includes

all those environmental and personal events, which challenge or threaten the

well-being of a person. These stressors can be external, such as environmental

(noise, air pollution), social (break-up with a friend, loneliness) or

psychological (conflict, frustration) within the individual. Very often, these

stressors result in a variety of stress reactions, which may be physiological,

behavioural, emotional, and cognitive (see Fig in the previous page).

At the physiological level, arousal plays a key role in stressrelated

behaviours. The hypothalamus initiates action along two pathways. The first

pathway involves the autonomic nervous system. The adrenal gland releases large

amount of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the blood stream.

This leads to physiological changes seen in fight-or-flight response. The second

pathway involves the pituitary gland, which secretes the corticosteroid

(cortisol) which provides energy. The emotional reactions to experience of

stress include negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, anger,

depression or even denial. The behavioural responses are virtually limitless,

depending on the nature of the stressful event. Confrontative action against the

stressor (fight) or withdrawal from the threatening event (flight) are two

general categories of behavioural responses. Cognitive responses include beliefs

about the harm or threat an event poses and beliefs about its causes or

controllability. These include responses such as inability to concentrate, and

intrusive, repetitive or morbid thoughts.

As indicated in Figure in the previous page, the stresses which people

experience also vary in terms of intensity (low intensity vs. high intensity),

duration (short-term vs. longterm), complexity ( less complex vs. more complex)

and predictability (unexpected vs. predictable). The outcome of stress depends

on the position of a particular stressful experience along these dimensions.

Usually more intense, prolonged or chronic, complex and unanticipated stresses

have more negative consequences than have less intense, short-term, less complex

and expected stresses. An individual’s experiences of stress depend on the

physiological strength of that person. Thus, individuals with poor physical

health and weak constitution would be more vulnerable than would be those who

enjoy good health and strong constitution.

Psychological characteristics like mental health, temperament, and selfconcept

are relevant to the experience of stress. The cultural context in which we live

determines the meaning of any event and defines the nature of response that is

expected under various conditions. Finally, the stress experience will be

determined by the resources of the person, such as money, social skills, coping
style, support networks, etc. All these factors determine the appraisal of a

given stressful situation.

Signs and Symptoms of Stress

The way we respond to stress varies depending upon our personality, early

upbringing and life experiences. Everyone has their own pattern of stress

response. So the warning signs may vary, as may their intensity. Some of us know

our pattern of stress response and can gauge the depth of the problem by the

nature and severity of our own symptoms or changes in behaviour. These symptoms

of stress can be physical, emotional and behavioural. Any of the symptoms can

indicate a degree of stress which, if left unresolved, might have serious

implications.

STRESS(PART 2)

Types of Stress

The three major types of stress, viz. physical and environmental, psychological,

and social. It is important to understand that all these types of stress are

interrelated.

Physical and Environmental Stress

Physical stresses are demands that change the state of our body. We feel

strained when we overexert ourselves physically, lack a nutritious diet, suffer

an injury, or fail to get enough sleep. Environmental stresses are aspects of

our surroundings that are often unavoidable such as air pollution, crowding,

noise, heat of the summer, winter cold, etc. Another group of environmental

stresses are catastrophic events or disasters such as fire, earthquake, floods,

etc.

Psychological Stress

These are stresses that we generate ourselves in our minds. These are personal

and unique to the person experiencing them and are internal sources of stress.

We worry about problems, feel anxiety, or become depressed. These are not only

symptoms of stress, but they cause further stress for us. Some of the important
sources of psychological stress are frustration, conflicts, internal and social

pressures, etc.

Frustration results from the blocking of needs and motives by something or

someone that hinders us from achieving a desired goal. There could be a number

of causes of frustration such as social discrimination, interpersonal hurt, low

grades in school, etc. Conflicts may occur between two or more incompatible

needs or motives, e.g. whether to study dance or psychology. You may want to

continue studies or take up a job. There may be a conflict of values when you

are pressurised to take any action that may be against the values held by you.

Internal pressures stem from beliefs based upon expectations from inside us to

ourselves such as, ‘I must do everything perfectly’. Such expectations can only

lead to disappointment. Many of us drive ourselves ruthlessly towards achieving

unrealistically high standards in achieving our goals. Social pressures may be

brought about from people who make excessive demands on us. This can cause even

greater pressure when we have to work with them. Also, there are people with

whom we face interpersonal difficulties, ‘a personality clash’ of sorts.

Social Stress

These are induced externally and result from our interaction with other people.

Social events like death or illness in the family, strained relationships,

trouble with neighbours are some examples of social stresses. These social

stresses vary widely from person to person. Attending parties may be stressful

for a person who likes to spend quiet evenings at home while an outgoing person

may find staying at home in the evenings stressful.

Sources of Stress

A wide range of events and conditions can generate stress. Among the most

important of these are major stressful life events, such as death of a loved one

or personal injury, the annoying frequent hassles of everyday life and traumatic

events that affect our lives.

Life Events
Changes, both big and small, sudden and gradual affect our life from the moment

we are born. We learn to cope with small, everyday changes but major life events

can be stressful, because they disturb our routine and cause upheaval. If

several of these life events that are planned (e.g. moving into a new house) or

unpredicted (e.g. break-up of a long-term relationship) occur within a short

period of time, we find it difficult to cope with them and will be more prone to

the symptoms of stress.

Hassles

These are the personal stresses we endure as individuals, due to the happenings

in our daily life, such as noisy surroundings, commuting, quarrelsome

neighbours, electricity and water shortage, traffic snarls, and so on. Attending

to various emergencies are daily hassles experienced by a housewife. There are

some jobs in which daily hassles are very frequent. These daily hassles may

sometimes have devastating consequences for the individual who is often the one

coping alone with them as others may not even be aware of them as outsiders. The

more stress people report as a result of daily hassles, the poorer is their

psychological well-being.

Traumatic Events

These include being involved in a variety of extreme events such as a fire,

train or road accident, robbery, earthquake, tsunami, etc. The effects of these

events may occur after some lapse of time and sometimes persist as symptoms of

anxiety, flashbacks, dreams and intrusive thoughts, etc. Severe trauma can also

strain relationships. Professional help will be needed to cope with them

especially if they persist for many months after the event is over.

EFFECTS OF STRESS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING AND HEALTH

What are the effects of stress? Many of the effects are physiological in nature,

however, other changes also occur inside stressed individuals. There are four

major effects of stress associated with the stressed state, viz. emotional,

physiological, cognitive, and behavioural.

Emotional Effects : Those who suffer from stress are far more likely to

experience mood swings, and show erratic behaviour that may alienate them from

family and friends. In some cases this can start a vicious circle of decreasing

confidence, leading to more serious emotional problems. Some examples are

feelings of anxiety and depression, increased physical tension, increased

psychological tension and mood swings. Box 3.2 presents the phenomenon of

‘Examination Anxiety’. Physiological Effects : When the human body is placed

under physical or psychological stress, it increases the production of certain

hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones produce marked changes

in heart rate, blood pressure levels, metabolism and physical activity.

Although, this physical reaction will help us to function more effectively when

we are under pressure for short periods of time, it can be extremely damaging to

the body in the long-term effects. Examples of physiological effects are release

of epinephrine and nor - epinephrine, slowing down of the digestive system,

expansion of air passages in the lungs, increased heart rate, and constriction

of blood vessels.

Cognitive Effects : If pressures due to stress continue, one may suffer from

mental overload. This suffering from high level of stress can rapidly cause

individuals to lose their ability to make sound decisions. Faulty decisions made

at home, in career, or at workplace may lead to arguments, failure, financial

loss or even loss of job. Cognitive effects of stress are poor concentration,

and reduced shortterm memory capacity.

Behavioural Effects : Stress affects our behaviour in the form of eating less

nutritional food, increasing intake of stimulants such as caffeine, excessive

consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs such as tranquillisers etc.

Tranquillisers can be addictive and have side effects such as loss of

concentration, poor coordination, and dizziness. Some of the typical behavioural

effects of stress seen are disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism, and

reduced work performance.

Stress and Health

You must have often observed that many of your friends (may be including

yourself as well!) fall sick during the examination time. They suffer from
stomach upsets, body aches, nausea, diarrhoea and fever etc. You must have also

noticed that people who are unhappy in their personal lives fall sick more often

than those who are happy and enjoy life. Chronic daily stress can divert an

individual’s attention from caring for herself or himself. When stress is

prolonged, it affects physical health and impairs psychological functioning.

People experience exhaustion and attitudinal problems when the stress due to

demands from the environment and constraints are too high and little support is

available from family and friends. The physical exhaustion is seen in the signs

of chronic fatigue, weakness and low energy. The mental exhaustion appears in

the form of irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness.

This state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion is known as

burnout.

There is also convincing evidence to show that stress can produce changes in the

immune system and increase the chances of someone becoming ill. Stress has been

implicated in the development of cardiovascular disorders, high blood pressure,

as well as psychosomatic disorders including ulcers, asthma, allergies and

headaches.

Researchers estimate that stress plays an important role in fifty to seventy per

cent of all physical illnesses. Studies also reveal that sixty per cent of

medical visits are primarily for stress-related symptoms.

STRESS(PART3)

General Adaptation Syndrome

What happens to the body when stress is prolonged? Selye studied this issue by

subjecting animals to a variety of stressors such as high temperature, X-rays

and insulin injections, in the laboratory over a long period of time. He also

observed patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals. Selye

noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of them. He called this

pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS involves

three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion

1. Alarm reaction stage : The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads

to activation of the adrenalpituitary- cortex system. This triggers the release

of hormones producing the stress response. Now the individual is ready for fight
or flight.

2. Resistance stage : If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The

parasympathetic nervous system calls for more cautious use of the body’s

resources. The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, as through

confrontation.

3. Exhaustion stage : Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional

stressors drains the body of its resources and leads to the third stage of

exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance

become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high

blood pressure becomes more likely.

Selye’s model has been criticised for assigning a very limited role to

psychological factors in stress. Researchers have reported that the

psychological appraisal of events is important for the determination of stress.

How people respond to stress is substantially influenced by their perceptions,

personalities and biological constitutions.

Stress and the Immune System

Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system. The

immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside.

Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the

immune system. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system. How does

the immune system work? The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune

system identify and destroy foreign bodies (antigens) such as viruses. It also

leads to the production of antibodies. There are several kinds of white blood

cells or leucocytes within the immune system, including T cells, B cells and

natural killer cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper cells increase

immunological activity. It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the

Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno

Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). B cells produce antibodies. Natural killer cells are

involved in the fight against both viruses and tumours.

Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance

in the defence against various infections and cancer. Reduced levels of natural
killer cell cytotoxicity have been found in people who are highly stressed,

including students facing important examinations, bereaved persons, and those

who are severely depressed. Studies reveal that immune functioning is better in

individuals receiving social support. Also, changes in the immune system will

have more effect on health among those whose immune systems are already

weakened. Figure 3.4 depicts this sequence comprising negative emotions, release

of stress hormones which lead to weakening of the immune system, thereby

affecting mental and physical health.

Psychological stress is accompanied by negative emotions and associated

behaviours, including depression, hostility, anger and aggression. Negative

emotion states are of particular concern to the study of effects of stress on

health. The incidence of psychological disorders, such as panic attacks and

obsessive behaviour increases with the build up of long-term stress. Worries can

reach such a level that they surface as a frightening, painful physical

sensation, which can be mistaken for a heart attack. People under prolonged

stress are more prone to irrational fears, mood swings and phobias, and may

experience fits of depression, anger and irritability. These negative emotions

appear to be related to the function of the immune system. Our ability to

interpret our world and to invest that interpretation with personal meaning and

emotion have a powerful and direct effect on the body. Negative moods have been

associated with poorer health outcomes. Feelings of hopelessness are related to

worsening of disease, increased risk of injury and death due to various causes.

Lifestyle

Stress can lead to unhealthy lifestyle or health damaging behaviour. Lifestyle

is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s

health and quality of life. Stressed individuals may be more likely to expose

themselves to pathogens, which are agents causing physical illness. People who

are stressed have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and are likely to engage

in other health risking behaviours like smoking and alcohol abuse. Such health

impairing behaviours develop gradually and are accompanied by pleasant

experiences temporarily. However, we tend to ignore their long-term damaging

effects and underestimate the risk they pose to our lives.

Studies have revealed that health promoting behaviour like balanced diet,

regular exercise, family support, etc. play an important role in good health.

Adhering to a lifestyle that includes balanced low fat diet, regular exercise

and continued activity along with positive thinking enhances health and

longevity. The modern lifestyle of excesses in eating, drinking and the so

called fast-paced good life has led to violation of basic principles of health

in some of us, as to what we eat, think or do with our lives.

COPING WITH STRESS

In recent years the conviction has grown that it is how we cope with stress and

not the stress one experiences that influences our psychological well-being,

social functioning and health. Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction

to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to stressful situations or events

that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress. The way we cope with

stress often depends on rigid deep-seated beliefs, based on experience, e.g.

when caught in a traffic jam we feel angry, because we believe that the traffic

‘should’ move faster. To manage stress we often need to reassess the way we

think and learn coping strategies. People who cope poorly with stress have an

impaired immune response and diminished activity of natural killer cells.

Individuals show consistent individual differences in the coping strategies they

use to handle stressful situations. These can include both overt and covert

activities.

The three coping strategies given by Endler and Parker are:

Task-oriented Strategy : This involves obtaining information about the stressful

situation and about alternative courses of action and their probable outcome; it

also involves deciding priorities and acting so as to deal directly with the

stressful situation. For example, schedule my time better, or think about how I

have solved similar problems.

Emotion-oriented Strategy : This can involve efforts to maintain hope and to

control one’s emotions; it can also involve venting feelings of anger and

frustration, or deciding that nothing can be done to change things. For example,

tell myself that it is not really happening to me, or worry about what I am

going to do.
Avoidance-oriented Strategy : This involves denying or minimising the

seriousness of the situation; it also involves conscious suppression of

stressful thoughts and their replacement by self- protective thoughts. Examples

of this are watching TV, phone up a friend, or try to be with other people.

Lazarus and Folkman has conceptualised coping as a dynamic process rather than

an individual trait. Coping refers to constantly changing cognitive and

behavioural efforts to master, reduce or tolerate the internal or external

demands that are created by the stressful transaction. Coping serves to allow

the individual to manage or alter a problem and regulate the emotional response

to that problem. According to them coping responses can be divided into two

types of responses, problem-focused and emotionfocused. Problem-focused

strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviours designed to gain

information, to alter the event, and to alter belief and commitments. They

increase the person’s awareness, level of knowledge, and range of behavioural

and cognitive coping options. They can act to reduce the threat value of the

event. For example “I made a plan of action and followed it”. Emotion-focused

strategies call for psychological changes designed primarily to limit the degree

of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the

event itself. For example “I did some things to let it out of my system”. While

both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping are necessary when facing

stressful situations, research suggests that people generally tend to use the

former more often than the latter.

STRESS(PART4)

Stress Management Techniques

Stress is a silent killer. It is estimated to play a significant role in

physical illness and disease. Hypertension, heart disease, ulcers, diabetes and

even cancer are linked to stress. Due to lifestyle changes stress is on the

increase. Therefore, schools, other institutions, offices and communities are

concerned about knowing techniques to manage stress. Some of these techniques

are:

Exercise : Exercise can provide an active outlet for the physiological arousal

experienced in response to stress. Regular exercise improves the efficiency of

the heart, enhances the function of the lungs, maintains good circulation,

lowers blood pressure, reduces fat in the blood and improves the body’s immune

system. Swimming, walking, running, cycling, skipping, etc. help to reduce

stress. One must practice these exercises at least four times a week for 30

minutes at a time. Each session must have a warm-up, exercise and cool down

phases.

Biofeedback : It is a procedure to monitor and reduce the physiological aspects

of stress by providing feedback about current physiological activity and is

often accompanied by relaxation training. Biofeedback training involves three

stages : developing an awareness of the particular physiological response, e.g.

heart rate, learning ways of controlling that physiological response in quiet

conditions; and transferring that control into the conditions of everyday life.

Creative Visualisation : It is an effective technique for dealing with stress.

Creative visualisation is a subjective experience that uses imagery and

imagination. Before visualising one must set oneself a realistic goal, as it

helps build confidence. It is easier to visualise if one’s mind is quiet, body

relaxed and eyes are closed. This reduces the risk of interference from unbidden

thoughts and provides the creative energy needed for turning an imagined scene

into reality.

Cognitive Behavioural Techniques : These techniques aim to inoculate people

against stress. Stress inoculation training is one effective method developed by

Meichenbaum. The essence of this approach is to replace negative and irrational

thoughts with positive and rational ones. There are three main phases in this :

assessment, stress reduction techniques, and application and followthrough.

Assessment involves discussing the nature of the problem and seeing it from the

viewpoint of the person/client. Stress reduction involves learning the

techniques of reducing stress such as relaxation and self-instruction.

Relaxation Techniques : It is an active skill that reduces symptoms of stress

and decreases the incidence of illnesses such as high blood pressure and heart

disease. Usually relaxation starts from the lower part of the body and

progresses up to the facial muscles in such a way that the whole body is

relaxed. Deep breathing is used along with muscle relaxation to calm the mind
and relax the body.

Meditation Procedures : The yogic method of meditation consists of a sequence of

learned techniques for refocusing of attention that brings about an altered

state of consciousness. It involves such a thorough concentration that the

meditator becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a different

state of consciousness.

PROMOTING POSITIVE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

It is unlikely that we will go through life without some experience of personal

crises causing acute pressure for a while. Many people sail through and rebuild

their lives very positively. They are likely to have constructive attitudes and

also have lots of emotional and social support of various kinds available to

them. When we find ways of managing these pressures and can use the energy to

create something positive out of the situation, then we will have learned to

survive healthily and this will leave us more stress fit for future crises. It

is like being immunised against the dangers of unhealthy stress.

Stress Resistant Personality : Recent studies by Kobasa have shown that people

with high levels of stress but low levels of illness share three

characteristics, which are referred to as the personality traits of hardiness.

It consists of ‘the three Cs’, i.e. commitment, control, and challenge.

Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself, the world, and how they interact.

It takes shape as a sense of personal commitment to what you are doing, a sense

of control over your life, and a feeling of challenge. Stress resistant

personalities have control which is a sense of purpose and direction in life;

commitment to work, family, hobbies and social life; and challenge, that is,

they see changes in life as normal and positive rather than as a threat.

Everyone does not have these characteristics, many of us have to relearn

specific life skills in areas such as rational thinking, and assertiveness to

equip ourselves better to cope with the demands of everyday life, etc.

Life Skills

Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable
individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday

life. Our ability to cope depends on how well we are prepared to deal with and

counterbalance everyday demands, and keep equilibrium in our lives. These life

skills can be learned and even improved upon. Assertiveness, time management,

rational thinking, improving relationships, self-care, and overcoming unhelpful

habits such as perfectionism, procrastination, etc. are some life skills that

will help to meet the challenges of life.

Assertiveness : Assertiveness is a behaviour or skill that helps to communicate,

clearly and confidently, our feelings, needs, wants, and thoughts. It is the

ability to say no to a request, to state an opinion without being

self-conscious, or to express emotions such as love, anger, etc. openly. If you

are assertive, you feel confident, and have high self-esteem and a solid sense

of your own identity.

Time Management : The way you spend your time determines the quality of your

life. Learning how to plan time and delegate can help to relieve the pressure.

The major way to reduce time stress is to change one’s perception of time. The

central principle of time management is to spend your time doing the things that

you value, or that help you to achieve your goals. It depends on being realistic

about what you know and that you must do it within a certain time period,

knowing what you want to do, and organising your life to achieve a balance

between the two.

Rational Thinking : Many stress-related problems occur as a result of distorted

thinking. The way you think and the way you feel are closely connected. When we

are stressed, we have an inbuilt selective bias to attend to negative thoughts

and images from the past, which affect our perception of the present and the

future. Some of the principles of rational thinking are: challenging your

distorted thinking and irrational beliefs, driving out potentially intrusive

negative anxiety-provoking thoughts, and making positive statements.

Improving Relationships : The key to a sound lasting relationship is

communication. This consists of three essential skills: listening to what the

other person is saying, expressing how you feel and what you think, and

accepting the other person’s opinions and feelings, even if they are different
from your own. It also requires us to avoid misplaced jealousy and sulking

behaviour.

Self-care : If we keep ourselves healthy, fit and relaxed, we are better

prepared physically and emotionally to tackle the stresses of everyday life. Our

breathing patterns reflect our state of mind and emotions. When we are stressed

or anxious, we tend towards rapid and shallow breathing from high in the chest,

with frequent sighs. The most relaxed breathing is slow, stomach-centred

breathing from the diaphragm, i.e. a dome like muscle between the chest and the

abdominal cavity. Environmental stresses like noise, pollution, space, light,

colour, etc. can all exert an influence on our mood. These have a noticeable

effect on our ability to cope with stress, and well-being.

Overcoming Unhelpful Habits : Unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, avoidance,

procrastination, etc. are strategies that help to cope in the short-term but

which make one more vulnerable to stress. Perfectionists are persons who have to

get everything just right. They have difficulty in varying standards according

to factors such as time available, consequences of not being able to stop work,

and the effort needed. They are more likely to feel tense and find it difficult

to relax, are critical of self and others, and may become inclined to avoid

challenges. Avoidance is to put the issue under the carpet and refuse to accept

or face it. Procrastination means putting off what we know we need to do. We all

are guilty of saying “I will do it later”. People who procrastinate are

deliberately avoiding confronting their fears of failure or rejection. Various

factors have been identified which facilitate the development of positive

health. Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual

well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Positive health

comprises the following constructs: “a healthy body; high quality of personal

relationships; a sense of purpose in life; self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks;

and resilience to stress, trauma, and change”.

Diet : A balanced diet can lift one’s mood, give more energy, feed muscles,

improve circulation, prevent illness, strengthen the immune system and make one

feel better to cope with stresses of life. The key to healthy living is to eat

three main meals a day, and eat a varied well-balanced diet. How much nutrition

one needs depends on one’s activity level, genetic make-up, climate, and health

history. What people eat, and how much do they weigh involve behavioural
processes. Some people are able to maintain a healthy diet and weight while

others become obese. When we are stressed, we seek ‘comfort foods’ which are

high in fats, salt and sugar.

Exercise : A large number of studies confirm a consistently positive

relationship between physical fitness and health. Also, of all the measures an

individual can take to improve health, exercise is the lifestyle change with the

widest popular approval. Regular exercise plays an important role in managing

weight and stress, and is shown to have a positive effect on reducing tension,

anxiety and depression. Physical exercises that are essential for good health

are stretching exercises such as yogic asanas and aerobic exercises such as

jogging, swimming, cycling, etc. Whereas stretching exercises have a calming

effect, aerobic exercises increase the arousal level of the body. The health

benefits of exercise work as a stress buffer. Studies suggest that fitness

permits individuals to maintain general mental and physical wellbeing even in

the face of negative life events.

Positive Attitude : Positive health and well-being can be realised by having a

positive attitude. Some of the factors leading to a positive attitude are:

having a fairly accurate perception of reality; a sense of purpose in life and

responsibility; acceptance and tolerance for different viewpoints of others; and

taking credit for success and accepting blame for failure. Finally, being open

to new ideas and having a sense of humour with the ability to laugh at oneself

help us to remain centred, and see things in a proper perspective.

Positive Thinking : The power of positive thinking has been increasingly

recognised in reducing and coping with stress. Optimism, which is the

inclination to expect favourable life outcomes, has been linked to psychological

and physical wellbeing. People differ in the manner in which they cope. For

example, optimists tend to assume that adversity can be handled successfully

whereas pessimists anticipate disasters. Optimists use more problemfocused

coping strategies, and seek advice and help from others. Pessimists ignore the

problem or source of stress, and use strategies such as giving up the goal with

which stress is interfering or denying that stress exists.

Social Support : Social support is defined as the existence and availability of

people on whom we can rely upon, people who let us know that they care about,

value, and love us. Someone who believes that s/he belongs to a social network

of communication and mutual obligation experiences social support. Perceived

support, i.e. the quality of social support is positively related to health and

wellbeing, whereas social network, i.e. the quantity of social support is

unrelated to well-being, because it is very timeconsuming and demanding to

maintain a large social network. Studies have revealed that women exposed to

life event stresses, who had a close friend, were less likely to be depressed

and had lesser medical complications during pregnancy. Social support can help

to provide protection against stress. People with high levels of social support

from family and friends may experience less stress when they confront a

stressful experience, and they may cope with it more successfully.

Social support may be in the form of tangible support or assistance involving

material aid, such as money, goods, services, etc. For example, a child gives

notes to her/his friend, since s/he was absent from school due to sickness.

Family and friends also provide informational support about stressful events.

For example, a student facing a stressful event such as a difficult board

examination, if provided information by a friend who has faced a similar one,

would not only be able to identify the exact procedures involved, but also it

would facilitate in determining what resources and coping strategies could be

useful to successfully pass the examination. During times of stress, one may

experience sadness, anxiety, and loss of self-esteem. Supportive friends and

family provide emotional support by reassuring the individual that she/he is

loved, valued, and cared for. Research has demonstrated that social support

effectively reduces psychological distress such as depression or anxiety, during

times of stress. There is growing evidence that social support is positively

related to psychological well-being. Generally, social support leads to mental

health benefits for both the giver and the receiver.

ATTITUDE CHANGE

During the process of attitude formation, and also after this process, attitudes

may be changed and modified through various influences. Some attitudes change

more than others do. Attitudes that are still in the formative stage, and are

more like opinions, are much more likely to change compared to attitudes that

have become firmly established, and have become a part of the individual’s

values. From a practical point of view, bringing about a change in people’s

attitudes is of interest to community leaders, politicians, producers of

consumer goods, advertisers, and others. Unless we find out how attitudes

change, and what conditions account for such change, it would not be possible to

take steps to bring about attitude change.

Process of Attitude Change

Three major concepts that draw attention to some important processes in attitude

change are described below :

(a) The concept of balance, proposed by Fritz Heider is sometimes described in

the form of the ‘P-O-X’ triangle, which represents the relationships between

three aspects or components of the attitude. P is the person whose attitude is

being studied, O is another person, and X is the topic towards which the

attitude is being studied (attitude object). It is also possible that all three

are persons.

The basic idea is that an attitude changes if there is a state of imbalance

between the P-O attitude, O-X attitude, and P-X attitude. This is because

imbalance is logically uncomfortable. Therefore, the attitude changes in the

direction of balance. Imbalance is found when

(i) all three sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative, or

(ii) two sides are positive, and one side is negative.

Balance is found when

(i) all three sides are positive, or

(ii) two sides are negative, and one side is positive. Consider the example of

dowry as an attitude topic (X).

Suppose a person (P) has a positive attitude towards dowry (P-X positive). P is

planning to get his son married to the daughter of some person (O) who has a

negative attitude towards dowry (O-X negative). What would be the nature of the

P-O attitude, and how would it determine balance or imbalance in the situation?

If O initially has a positive attitude towards P, the situation would be

unbalanced. P-X is positive, O-P is positive, but O-X is negative. That is,

there are two positives and one negative in the triangle.

This is a situation of imbalance. One of the three attitudes will therefore have
to change. This change could take place in the P-X relationship (P starts

disliking dowry as a custom), or in the O-X relationship (O starts liking dowry

as a custom), or in the O-P relationship (O starts disliking P). In short, an

attitude change will have to take place so that there will be three positive

relationships, or two negative and one positive relationship, in the triangle.

(b) The concept of cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon Festinger. It

emphasises the cognitive component. Here the basic idea is that the cognitive

components of an attitude must be ‘consonant’ (opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e.,

they should be logically in line with each other. If an individual finds that

two cognitions in an attitude are dissonant, then one of them will be changed in

the direction of consonance. For example, think about the following ideas

(‘cognitions’) :

Cognition I : Pan masala causes mouth cancer which is fatal.

Cognition II : I eat pan masala.

Holding these two ideas or cognitions will make any individual feel that

something is ‘out of tune’, or dissonant, in the attitude towards pan masala.

Therefore, one of these ideas will have to be changed, so that consonance can be

attained. In the example given above, in order to remove or reduce the

dissonance, I will stop eating pan masala (change Cognition II). This would be

the healthy, logical and sensible way of reducing dissonance.

Festinger and Carlsmith, two social psychologists, conducted an experiment that

showed how cognitive dissonance works.

Both balance and cognitive dissonance are examples of cognitive consistency.

Cognitive consistency means that two components, aspects or elements of the

attitude, or attitude system, must be in the same direction.

Each element should logically fall in line with other elements. If this does not

happen, then the person experiences a kind of mental discomfort, i.e. the sense

that ‘something is not quite right’ in the attitude system. In such a state,

some aspect in the attitude system changes in the direction of consistency,

because our cognitive system requires logical consistency.

The two-step concept was proposed by S.M. Mohsin, an Indian psychologist.

According to him, attitude change takes place in the form of two steps. In the

first step, the target of change identifies with the source. The ‘target’ is the

person whose attitude is to be changed. The ‘source’ is the person through whose

influence the change is to take place. Identification means that the target has

liking and regard for the source.

She/he puts herself/himself in the place of the target, and tries to feel like

her/him. The source must also have a positive attitude towards the target, and

the regard and attraction becomes mutual. In the second step, the source

herself/himself shows an attitude change, by actually changing her/him behaviour

towards the attitude object. Observing the source’s changed attitude and

behaviour, the target also shows an attitude change through behaviour. This is a

kind of imitation or observational learning.

Consider the following example of twostep attitude change. Priya reads in the

newspapers that a particular soft drink that she enjoys is extremely harmful.

But Preeti sees that her favourite sportsperson has been advertising the same

soft drink. She has identified herself with the sportsperson, and would like to

imitate her/him.

Now, suppose the sportsperson wishes to change people’s attitude towards this

soft drink from positive to negative. The sportsperson must first show positive

feelings for her/ his fans, and then actually change her/his own habit of

consuming that soft drink (Step I) — perhaps by substituting it with a health

drink. If the sportsperson actually changes her/his behaviour, it is very likely

that now Preeti will also change her attitude and behaviour, and stop consuming

the harmful soft drink (Step II).

THEORIES OF INTELLEGENCE

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg

views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to

accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture”. According to
this theory, there are three basic types of intelligence: Componential,

Experiential, and Contextual. The elements of the triarchic theory of

intelligence are shown in Figure below.

Componential Intelligence : Componential or analytical intelligence is the

analysis of information to solve problems. Persons high on this ability think

analytically and critically and succeed in schools. This intelligence has three

components, each serving a different function. First is the knowledge

acquisition component, which is responsible for learning and acquisition of the

ways of doing things. The second is the meta or a higher order component, which

involves planning concerning what to do and how to do. The third is the

performance component, which involves actually doing things.

Experiential Intelligence: Experiential or creative intelligence is involved in

using past experiences creatively to solve novel problems. It is reflected in

creative performance. Persons high on this aspect integrate different

experiences in an original way to make new discoveries and inventions. They

quickly find out which information is crucial in a given situation.

Contextual Intelligence : Contextual or practical intelligence involves the

ability to deal with environmental demands encountered on a daily basis. It may

be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’. Persons high on this aspect

easily adapt to their present environment or select a more favourable

environment than the existing one, or modify the environment to fit their needs.

Therefore, they turn out to be successful in life. Sternberg’s triarchic theory

of intelligence represents the information processing approach to understand

intelligence.

Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model of

Intelligence

This model has been developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994).

According to this model, intellectual activity involves the interdependent

functioning of three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain.

These units are responsible for arousal/attention, coding or processing, and

planning respectively.
Arousal/Attention : State of arousal is basic to any behaviour as it helps us in

attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention enable a person to process

information. An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant

aspects of a problem. Too much or too little arousal would interfere with

attention. For instance, when you are told by your teacher about a test which

s/he plans to hold, it would arouse you to attend to the specific chapters.

Arousal forces you to focus your attention on reading, learning and revising the

contents of the chapters.

Simultaneous and Successive Processing : You can integrate the information into

your knowledge system either simultaneously or successively. Simultaneous

processing takes place when you perceive the relations among various concepts

and integrate them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension. For example, in

Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test, a design is presented from which a part

has been removed. You are required to choose one of the six options that best

completes the design. Simultaneous processing helps you in grasping the meaning

and relationship between the given abstract figures. Successive processing takes

place when you remember all the information serially so that the recall of one

leads to the recall of another. Learning of digits, alphabets, multiplication

tables, etc. are examples of successive processing.

Planning : This is an essential feature of intelligence. After the information

is attended to and processed, planning is activated. It allows us to think of

the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target, and evaluate

their effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the

requirements of the task or situation. For example, to take the test scheduled

by your teacher, you would have to set goals, plan a time schedule of study, get

clarifications in case of problems and if you are not able to tackle the

chapters assigned for the test, you may have to think of other ways (e.g., give

more time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your goals.

These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally (by

reading, writing, and experimenting) or informally from the environment. These

processes are interactive and dynamic in nature; yet each has its own

distinctive functions. Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests,
known as the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It consists of verbal as well as

non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions presumed to be

independent of schooling. The battery of tests is meant for individuals between

5 and 18 years of age. Psychology 10 The results of assessment can be used to

remedy cognitive deficits of children with learning problems. This model

represents the information processing approach to intelligence.

THERAPY

NATURE AND PROCESS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship between the one seeking treatment or

the client and the one who treats or the therapist. The purpose of the

relationship is to help the client to solve the psychological problems being

faced by her or him. The relationship is conducive for building the trust of the

client so that problems may be freely discussed. Psychotherapies aim at changing

the maladaptive behaviours, decreasing the sense of personal distress, and

helping the client to adapt better to her/his environment. Inadequate marital,

occupational and social adjustment also requires that major changes be made in

an individual’s personal environment. All psychotherapeutic approaches have the

following characteristics :

(i) there is systematic application of principles underlying the different

theories of therapy,

(ii) persons who have received practical training under expert supervision can

practice psychotherapy, and not everybody. An untrained person may

unintentionally cause more harm than any good,

(iii) the therapeutic situation involves a therapist and a client who seeks and

receives help for her/his emotional problems (this person is the focus of

attention in the therapeutic process), and

(iv) the interaction of these two persons — the therapist and the client —

results in the consolidation/formation of the therapeutic relationship. This is

a confidential, interpersonal, and dynamic relationship. This human relationship

is central to any sort of psychological therapy and is the vehicle for change.

All psychotherapies aim at a few or all of the following goals :

(i) Reinforcing client’s resolve for betterment.

(ii) Lessening emotional pressure.

(iii) Unfolding the potential for positive growth.

(iv) Modifying habits.

(v) Changing thinking patterns.

(vi) Increasing self-awareness.

(vii) Improving interpersonal relations and communication.

(viii) Facilitating decision-making.

(ix) Becoming aware of one’s choices in life.

(x) Relating to one’s social environment in a more creative and self-aware

manner.

Therapeutic Relationship

The special relationship between the client and the therapist is known as the

therapeutic relationship or alliance. It is neither a passing acquaintance, nor

a permanent and lasting relationship. There are two major components of a

therapeutic alliance. The first component is the contractual nature of the

relationship in which two willing individuals, the client and the therapist,

enter into a partnership which aims at helping the client overcome her/his

problems. The second component of therapeutic alliance is the limited duration

of the therapy. This alliance lasts until the client becomes able to deal with

her/his problems and take control of her/ his life. This relationship has

several unique properties. It is a trusting and confiding relationship.

The high level of trust enables the client to unburden herself/himself to the

therapist and confide her/his psychological and personal problems to the latter.

The therapist encourages this by being accepting, empathic, genuine and warm to

the client. The therapist conveys by her/his words and behaviours that s/he is

not judging the client and will continue to show the same positive feelings

towards the client even if the client is rude or confides all the ‘wrong’ things

that s/he may have done or thought about. This is the unconditional positive

regard which the therapist has for the client. The therapist has empathy for the

client.

Empathy is different from sympathy and intellectual understanding of another

person’s situation. In sympathy, one has compassion and pity towards the
suffering of another but is not able to feel like the other person. Intellectual

understanding is cold in the sense that the person is unable to feel like the

other person and does not feel sympathy either. On the other hand, empathy is

present when one is able to understand the plight of another person, and feel

like the other person. It means understanding things from the other person’s

perspective, i.e. putting oneself in the other person’s shoes. Empathy enriches

the therapeutic relationship and transforms it into a healing relationship.

The therapeutic alliance also requires that the therapist must keep strict

confidentiality of the experiences, events, feelings or thoughts disclosed by

the client. The therapist must not exploit the trust and the confidence of the

client in anyway. Finally, it is a professional relationship, and must remain

so.

TYPE OF THERAPIES

Though all psychotherapies aim at removing human distress and fostering

effective behaviour, they differ greatly in concepts, methods, and techniques.

Psychotherapies may be classified into three broad groups, viz. the

psychodynamic, behaviour, and existential psychotherapies. In terms of the

chronological order, psychodynamic therapy emerged first followed by behaviour

therapy while the existential therapies which are also called the third force,

emerged last. The classification of psychotherapies is based on the following

parameters:

1. What is the cause, which has led to the problem?

Psychodynamic therapy is of the view that intrapsychic conflicts, i.e. the

conflicts that are present within the psyche of the person, are the source of

psychological problems. According to behaviour therapies, psychological problems

arise due to faulty learning of behaviours and cognitions. The existential

therapies postulate that the questions about the meaning of one’s life and

existence are the cause of psychological problems.

2. How did the cause come into existence?

In the psychodynamic therapy, unfulfilled desires of childhood and unresolved

childhood fears lead to intrapsychic conflicts. The behaviour therapy postulates

that faulty conditioning patterns, faulty learning, and faulty thinking and

beliefs lead to maladaptive behaviours that, in turn, lead to psychological

problems. The existential therapy places importance on the present. It is the

current feelings of loneliness, alienation, sense of futility of one’s

existence, etc., which cause psychological problems.

3. What is the chief method of treatment?

Psychodynamic therapy uses the methods of free association and reporting of

dreams to elicit the thoughts and feelings of the client. This material is

interpreted to the client to help her/him to confront and resolve the conflicts

and thus overcome problems. Behaviour therapy identifies the faulty conditioning

patterns and sets up alternate behavioural contingencies to improve behaviour.

The cognitive methods employed in this type of therapy challenge the faulty

thinking patterns of the client to help her/him overcome psychological distress.

The existential therapy provides a therapeutic environment which is positive,

accepting, and nonjudgmental. The client is able to talk about the problems and

the therapist acts as a facilitator. The client arrives at the solutions through

a process of personal growth.

4. What is the nature of the therapeutic relationship between the client and the

therapist?

Psychodynamic therapy assumes that the therapist understands the client’s

intrapsychic conflicts better than the client and hence it is the therapist who

interprets the thoughts and feelings of the client to her/him so that s/he gains

an understanding of the same. The behaviour therapy assumes that the therapist

is able to discern the faulty behaviour and thought patterns of the client.

It further assumes that the therapist is capable of finding out the correct

behaviour and thought patterns, which would be adaptive for the client. Both the

psychodynamic and the behaviour therapies assume that the therapist is capable

of arriving at solutions to the client’s problems. In contrast to these

therapies, the existential therapies emphasise that the therapist merely

provides a warm, empathic relationship in which the client feels secure to

explore the nature and causes of her/his problems by herself/himself.

5. What is the chief benefit to the client?

Psychodynamic therapy values emotional insight as the important benefit that the

client derives from the treatment. Emotional insight is present when the client

understands her/his conflicts intellectually; is able to accept the same

emotionally; and is able to change her/his emotions towards the conflicts.

The client’s symptoms and distresses reduce as a consequence of this emotional

insight. The behaviour therapy considers changing faulty behaviour and thought

patterns to adaptive ones as the chief benefit of the treatment. Instituting

adaptive or healthy behaviour and thought patterns ensures reduction of distress

and removal of symptoms. The humanistic therapy values personal growth as the

chief benefit. Personal growth is the process of gaining increasing

understanding of oneself, and one’s aspirations, emotions and motives.

6. What is the duration of treatment?

The duration of classical psychoanalysis may continue for several years.

However, several recent versions of psychodynamic therapies are completed in

10–15 sessions. Behaviour and cognitive behaviour therapies as well as

existential therapies are shorter and are completed in a few months.

Thus, different types of psychotherapies differ on multiple parameters. However,

they all share the common method of providing treatment for psychological

distress through psychological means. The therapist, the therapeutic

relationship, and the process of therapy become the agents of change in the

client leading to the alleviation of psychological distress. The process of

psychotherapy begins by formulating the client’s problem.

TYPE AND TRAIT APPROACH TO PERSONALITY

Type Approaches

As we explained above, personality types are used to represent and communicate a

set of expected behaviours based on similarities. Efforts to categorise people

into personality types have been made since ancient times. The Greek physician

Hippocrates had proposed a typology of personality based on fluid or humour. He

classified people into four types (i.e., sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic and

choleric); each characterised by specific behavioural features.

In India also, Charak Samhita, a famous treatise on Ayurveda, classifies people

into the categories of vata, pitta and kapha on the basis of three humoural

elements called tridosha. Each refers to a type of temperament, called prakriti

(basic nature) of a person. Apart from this, there is also a typology of

personality based on the trigunas, i.e. sattva, rajas, and tamas. Sattva guna

includes attributes like cleanliness, truthfulness, dutifulness, detachment,

discipline, etc. Rajas guna includes intensive activity, desire for sense

gratification, dissatisfaction, envy for others, and a materialistic mentality,

etc. Tamas guna characterises anger, arrogance, depression, laziness, feeling of

helplessness, etc. All the three gunas are present in each and every person in

different degrees. The dominance of one or the other guna may lead to a

particular type of behaviour.

Within psychology, the personality types given by Sheldon are fairly wellknown.

Using body build and temperament as the main basis, Sheldon proposed the

Endomorphic, Mesomorphic, and Ectomorphic typology. The endomorphs are fat, soft

and round. By temperament they are relaxed and sociable. The mesomorphs have

strong musculature, are rectangular with a strong body build. They are energetic

and courageous. The ectomorphs are thin, long and fragile in body build. They

are brainy, artistic and introvert.

Let us remember that these body typologies are simple, and have limited use in

predicting behaviour of individuals. They are more like stereotypes which people

hold.

Jung has proposed another important typology by grouping people into introverts

and extraverts. This is widely recognised. According to this typology,

introverts are people who prefer to be alone, tend to avoid others, withdraw

themselves in the face of emotional conflicts, and are shy. Extraverts, on the

other hand, are sociable, outgoing, drawn to occupations that allow dealing

directly with people, and react to stress by trying to lose themselves among

people and social activity.

In recent years, Friedman and Rosenman have classified individuals into Type-A

and Type-B personalities. The two researchers were trying to identify

psychosocial risk factors when they discovered these types. People characterised
by Type-A personality seem to possess high motivation, lack patience, feel short

of time, be in a great hurry, and feel like being always burdened with work.

Such people find it difficult to slow down and relax. People with Type-A

personality are more susceptible to problems like hypertension and coronary

heart disease (CHD). The risk of developing CHD with Type-A personality is

sometimes even greater than the risks caused by high blood pressure, high

cholesterol levels, or smoking. Opposite to this is the Type-B personality,

which can be understood as the absence of Type-A traits. This typology has been

further extended. Morris has suggested a Type-C personality, which is prone to

cancer. Individuals characterised by this personality are cooperative,

unassertive and patient. They suppress their negative emotions (e.g., anger),

and show compliance to authority. More recently, a Type-D personality has been

suggested, which is characterised by proneness to depression.

Personality typologies are usually very appealing, but are too simplistic. Human

behaviour is highly complex and variable. Assigning people to a particular

personality type is difficult. People do not fit into such simple categorisation

schemes so neatly.

Trait Approaches

These theories are mainly concerned with the description or characterisation of

basic components of personality. They try to discover the ‘building blocks’ of

personality. Human beings display a wide range of variations in psychological

attributes, yet it is possible to club them into smaller number of personality

traits. Trait approach is very similar to our common experience in everyday

life. For example, when we come to know that a person is sociable, we assume

that s/he will not only be cooperative, friendly and helping, but also engage in

behaviours that involve other social components. Thus, trait approach attempts

to identify primary characteristics of people. A trait is considered as a

relatively enduring attribute or quality on which one individual differs from

another. They include a range of possible behaviours that are activated

according to the demands of the situation.

To summarise, (a) traits are relatively stable over time, (b) they are generally

consistent across situations, and (c) their strengths and combinations vary
across individuals leading to individual differences in personality.

A number of psychologists have used traits to formulate their theories of

personality. We will discuss some important theories.

Allport’s Trait Theory

Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer of trait approach. He proposed that

individuals possess a number of traits, which are dynamic in nature. They

determine behaviour in such a manner that an individual approaches different

situations with similar plans. The traits integrate stimuli and responses which

otherwise look dissimilar. Allport argued that the words people use to describe

themselves and others provide a basis for understanding human personality. He

analysed the words of English language to look for traits which describe a

person. Allport, based on this, categorised traits into cardinal, central, and

secondary. Cardinal traits are highly generalised dispositions. They indicate

the goal around which a person’s entire life seems to revolve. Mahatma Gandhi’s

non-violence and Hitler’s Nazism are examples of cardinal traits. Such traits

often get associated with the name of the person so strongly that they derive

such identities as the ‘Gandhian’ or ‘Hitlerian’ trait. Less pervasive in

effect, but still quite generalised dispositions, are called central traits.

These traits (e.g., warm, sincere, diligent, etc.) are often used in writing a

testimonial or job recommendation for a person. The least generalised

characteristics of a person are called secondary traits. Traits such as ‘likes

mangoes’ or ‘prefers ethnic clothes’ are examples of secondary traits.

While Allport acknowledged the influence of situations on behaviour, he held

that the way a person reacts to given situations depends on her/his traits,

although people sharing the same traits might express them in different ways.

Allport considered traits more like intervening variables that occur between the

stimulus situation and response of the person. This meant that any variation in

traits would elicit a different response to the same situation.

Cattell: Personality Factors Raymond Cattell believed that there is a common

structure on which people differ from each other. This structure could be

determined empirically. He tried to identify the primary traits from a huge

array of descriptive adjectives found in language. He applied a statistical

technique, called factor analysis, to discover the common structures. He found

16 primary or source traits. The source traits are stable, and are considered as

the building blocks of personality. Besides these, there are also a number of

surface traits that result out of the interaction of source traits. Cattell

described the source traits in terms of opposing tendencies. He developed a

test, called Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), for the assessment

of personality. This test is widely used by psychologists.

Eysenck’s Theory

H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality could be reduced into two broad

dimensions. These are biologically and genetically based. Each dimension

subsumes a number of specific traits. These dimensions are:

(1) Neuroticism vs. emotional stability : It refers to the degree to which

people have control over their feelings. At one extreme of the dimension, we

find people who are neurotic. They are anxious, moody, touchy, restless and

quickly lose control. At the other extreme lie people who are calm,

eventempered, reliable and remain under control.

(2) Extraversion vs. introversion : It refers to the degree to which people are

socially outgoing or socially withdrawn. At one extreme are those who are

active, gregarious, impulsive and thrillseeking. At the other extreme are people

who are passive, quiet, cautious and reserved.

In a later work Eysenck proposed a third dimension, called Psychoticism vs.

Sociability, which is considered to interact with the other two dimensions

mentioned above. A person who scores high on psychoticism dimension tends to be

hostile, egocentric, and antisocial. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire is the

test which is used for studying these dimensions of personality.

The trait approach is very popular and many advances in this respect are taking

place. These are beyond the scope of your present studies. A new formulation has

also been advanced that provides a novel scheme of organising traits.

VARIATIONS IN INTELLEGENCE AND SPECIAL ABILITIES

Intellectual Deficiency
On the one hand are the gifted and creative persons we discussed briefly

earlier. On the other hand, there are children who face enormous difficulty in

learning even very simple skills. Those children who show intellectual

deficiency are termed as ‘mentally challenged’ or ‘mentally retarded’. As a

group, there is wide variation among the mentally deficient or retarded. The

American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation as

“significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing

concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the

developmental period”. This definition points to three basic features. First, in

order to be judged as mentally retarded, a person must show significantly

sub-average intellectual functioning. Persons having IQs below 70 are judged to

have sub-average intelligence. The second relates to deficits in adaptive

behaviour. Adaptive behaviour refers to a person’s capacity to be independent

and deal effectively with one’s environment. The third feature is that the

deficits must be observed during the developmental period, that is between 0 and

18 years of age.

Individuals who are categorised as having mental retardation show significant

variation in their abilities, ranging from those who can be taught to work and

function with special attention, to those who cannot be trained and require

institutional care throughout their lives. You have learnt earlier that the mean

IQ score in the population is 100. These figures are used to understand the

categories of mentally retarded.

The different levels of retardation are: mild retardation (IQs 55–69),

moderate retardation (IQs 40–54),

severe retardation (IQs 25–39),

and profound retardation (IQs below 25).

Although the development of people with mild retardation is typically slower

than that of their peers, they can function quite independently, hold jobs and

families. As the level of retardation increases, the difficulties are strongly

marked. The people with moderate retardation lag behind their peers in language

and motor skills. They can be trained in self-care skills, and simple social and

communication skills. They need to have moderate degree of supervision in

everyday tasks. Individuals with profound and severe retardation are incapable

of managing life and need constant care for their entire lives.

Intellectual Giftedness

Intellectually gifted individuals show higher performance because of their

outstanding potentialities. The study of gifted individuals began in 1925, when

Lewis Terman followed the lives of about 1500 children with IQs of 130 and above

to examine how intelligence was related to occupational success and life

adjustment. Although the terms ‘talent’ and ‘giftedness’ are often used

interchangeably, they mean different things. Giftedness is exceptional general

ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of areas. Talent is a

narrower term and refers to remarkable ability in a specific field (e.g.,

spiritual, social, aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented are sometimes called

‘prodigies’. It has been suggested by psychologists that giftedness from the

teachers’ point of view depends on a combination of high ability, high

creativity, and high commitment.

Gifted children show early signs of intellectual superiority. Even during

infancy and early childhood, they show larger attention span, good recognition

memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity to environmental changes, and early

appearance of language skills. To equate giftedness with brilliant academic

performance is not correct. Athletes who show superior psychomotor ability are

also gifted. Each gifted student possesses different strengths, personalities

and characteristics. Some important characteristics of gifted children are :

• Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving behaviour.

• High speed in processing information.

• Superior generalisation and discrimination ability.

• Advanced level of original and creative thinking.

• High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.

• Independent and non-conformist thinking.

• Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods.

Performance on intelligence tests is not the only measure for identifying the

gifted. Many other sources of information, such as teachers’ judgment, school

achievement record, parents’ interviews, peer and selfratings, etc. can be used

in combination with intellectual assessment. To reach their full potential,

gifted children require special attention and different educational programmes

beyond those provided to normal children in regular classrooms. These may

include life enrichment programmes that can sharpen children’s skills in

productive thinking, planning, decision-making, and communication.

SPECIAL ABILITIES

Aptitude :

Nature and Measurement By now you have learnt enough about intelligence. You may

recall that intelligence tests assess a general mental ability. Aptitude refers

to special abilities in a particular field of activity. It is a combination of

characteristics that indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire some specific

knowledge or skill after training. We assess aptitude with the help of selected

tests. The knowledge of aptitude can help us to predict an individual’s future

performance.

While assessing intelligence, psychologists often found that people with similar

intelligence differed widely in acquiring certain knowledge or skills. You may

observe in your class that there are certain areas in which some intelligent

students do not do well. When you have a problem in mathematics, you may turn to

Aman for help, and with similar difficulties in literature you may consult

Avinash. You may request Shabnam to sing for your annual function, and may turn

to John when facing a problem with your bike.

These specific skills and abilities are called aptitudes. With proper training

these abilities can be considerably enhanced. In order to be successful in a

particular field, a person must have both aptitude and interest. Interest is a

preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform

that activity. A person may be interested in a particular job or activity, but

may not have the aptitude for it. Similarly, a person may have the potentiality

for performing a job, but may not be interested in doing that. In both cases,

the outcome will not be satisfactory. A student with high mechanical aptitude

and strong interest in engineering is more likely to be a successful mechanical

engineer.
Aptitude tests are available in two forms: independent (specialised) aptitude

tests and multiple (generalised) aptitude tests. Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical

Aptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and Typing Aptitude are independent aptitude

tests. Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form of test batteries, which

measure aptitude in several separate but homogeneous areas. Differential

Aptitude Tests (DAT), the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), and the Armed

Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known aptitude test

batteries. Among these, DAT is most commonly used in educational settings. It

consists of 8 independent subtests: (i) Verbal Reasoning, (ii) Numerical

Reasoning, (iii) Abstract Reasoning, (iv) Clerical Speed and Accuracy, (v)

Mechanical Reasoning, (vi) Space Relations, (vii) Spelling, and (viii) Language

Usage. J.M. Ojha has developed an Indian adaptation of DAT. Several other

aptitude tests have been developed in India for measuring scientific,

scholastic, literary, clerical, and teaching aptitudes.

PREJUDICE

PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION

Prejudices are examples of attitudes towards a particular group. They are

usually negative, and in many cases, may be based on stereotypes (the cognitive

component) about the specific group. As will be discussed below in the section

on social cognition, a stereotype is a cluster of ideas regarding the

characteristics of a specific group. All members belonging to this group are

assumed to possess these characteristics. Often, stereotypes consist of

undesirable characteristics about the target group, and they lead to negative

attitudes or prejudices towards members of specific groups.

The cognitive component of prejudice is frequently accompanied by dislike or

hatred, the affective component. Prejudice may also get translated into

discrimination, the behavioural component, whereby people behave in a less

positive way towards a particular target group compared to another group which

they favour. History contains numerous examples of discrimination based on race

and social class or caste. The genocide committed by the Nazis in Germany

against Jewish people is an extreme example of how prejudice can lead to hatred,

discrimination and mass killing of innocent people.

Prejudices can exist without being shown in the form of discrimination.

Similarly, discrimination can be shown without prejudice. Yet, the two go

together very often. Wherever prejudice and discrimination exist, conflicts are

very likely to arise between groups within the same society. Our own society has

witnessed many deplorable instances of discrimination, with and without

prejudice, based on gender, religion, community, caste, physical handicap, and

illnesses such as AIDS. Moreover, in many cases discriminatory behaviour can be

curbed by law. But, the cognitive and emotional components of prejudice are more

difficult to change.

Social psychologists have shown that prejudice has one or more of the following

sources :

• Learning : Like other attitudes, prejudices can also be learned through

association, reward and punishment, observing others, group or cultural norms

and exposure to information that encourages prejudice. The family, reference

groups, personal experiences and the media may play a role in the learning of

prejudices (see section on ‘Attitude Formation and Change’). People who learn

prejudiced attitudes may develop a ‘prejudiced personality’, and show low

adjusting capacity, anxiety, and feelings of hostility against the outgroup.

• A strong social identity and ingroup bias : Individuals who have a strong

sense of social identity and have a very positive attitude towards their own

group boost this attitude by holding negative attitudes towards other groups.

These are shown as prejudices.

• Scapegoating : This is a phenomenon by which the majority group places the

blame on a minority outgroup for its own social, economic or political problems.

The minority is too weak or too small in number to defend itself against such

accusations. Scapegoating is a groupbased way of expressing frustration, and it

often results in negative attitudes or prejudice against the weaker group.

Kernel of truth concept : Sometimes people may continue to hold stereotypes

because they think that, after all, there must be some truth, or ‘kernel of

truth’ in what everyone says about the other group. Even a few examples are

sufficient to support the ‘kernel of truth’ idea.

• Self-fulfilling prophecy : In some cases, the group that is the target of

prejudice is itself responsible for continuing the prejudice. The target group

may behave in ways that justify the prejudice, that is, confirm the negative

expectations. For example, if the target group is described as ‘dependent’ and

therefore unable to make progress, the members of this target group may actually

behave in a way that proves this description to be true. In this way, they

strengthen the existing prejudice.

STRATEGIES FOR HANDLING PREJUDICE

Knowing about the causes or sources would be the first step in handling

prejudice. Thus, the strategies for handling prejudice would be effective if

they aim at :

(a) minimising opportunities for learning prejudices,

(b) changing such attitudes,

(c) de-emphasising a narrow social identity based on the ingroup, and

(d) discouraging the tendency towards selffulfilling prophecy among the victims

of prejudice.

These goals can be accomplished through :

• Education and information dissemination, for correcting stereotypes related to

specific target groups, and tackling the problem of a strong ingroup bias.

• Increasing intergroup contact allows for direct communication, removal of

mistrust between the groups, and even discovery of positive qualities in the

outgroup.

However, these strategies are successful only if :

- the two groups meet in a cooperative rather than competitive context,

- close interactions between the groups helps them to know each other better,

and

- the two groups are not different in power or status.

• Highlighting individual identity rather than group identity, thus weakening

the importance of group (both ingroup and outgroup) as a basis of evaluating the

other person. More details about social identity and intergroup conflict have

been presented in the next chapter on Social Influence and Group Processes.
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