Beruflich Dokumente
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Theory
1
1
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
`≤s
for all s ∈ S.
The Least Integer Axiom is equivalent to the Principle of Mathemat-
ical Induction. Assuming the Principle of Mathematical Induction, we
now derive the Least Integer Axiom.
Proof
Let S be any non-empty subset of Z+ and let u ∈ S. Write
Note that if the first set has a least positive integer, then this integer is
also a least positive integer of S. This shows that we only need to prove
the Least Integer Axiom for finite subsets of Z+ .
For k ≥ 1, let P (k) denote the proposition that “any non-empty subset
T of Z+ with k integers contains a least non-negative integer.” If a set
2
1.2 The Division Algorithm 3
T has one integer, then that integer is the least integer in T and hence,
P (1) is true. Suppose P (k) is true. Let T be a subset of Z+ with k + 1
elements. Let a ∈ T . Consider the set T − {a}. This is a set with k
elements. By induction hypothesis, T − {a} has a least non-negative
integer, say m. Then m ≤ s for all s ∈ T − {a}.
Now, if a ≤ m, then a ≤ t for all t ∈ T . If m ≤ a, then m is the least
non-negative integer in T . Hence, T has a least non-negative integer
and P (k + 1) is true. This completes the derivation of the Least Integer
Axiom from the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Remark 1.1.1
Assuming the Least Integer Axiom, one can derive the Principle of Math-
ematical Induction.
Proof
Let
S = {y ∈ Z|y = a − bx, x ∈ Z and y ≥ 0}.
Note that since
a − b(−|a|) = a + b|a| ≥ 0,
we find that
a + b|a| ∈ S,
for some positive integer k. On the other hand, both r, r0 lie in the
interval [0, b) and |r − r0 | can be a multiple of b only when |r − r0 | = 0.
In other words, r = r0 and by (1.2.1), q = q 0 . This contradicts the fact
that the representations a = bq 0 + r0 and a = bq + r are different and
therefore, the integers q and r must be unique.
Definition 1.2.1
If an integer b divides a, we say that b is a divisor of a and that a is a
multiple of b.
Definition 1.2.2
We say that a positive integer is a prime if it has exactly two divisors,
namely, 1 and itself.
Proof
We will prove (c) and leave the rest of the statements as exercises. Since
d|n, we find that n = ds for some integer s. Similarly, d|m implies that
m = dt for some integer t. Now,
Definition 1.3.1
Let a and b be integers for which at least one of them is non-zero. A
common divisor of integers a and b is an integer c with c|a and c|b.
Definition 1.3.2
A greatest common divisor of integers a and b is a number d with the
following properties :
(a) The integer d is non-negative.
(b) The integer d is a common divisor of a and b.
(c) If e is any common divisor of a and b, then e|d.
6 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
The greatest common divisor of two integers (one of which is non-zero)
is unique. It is written as
(a, b).
We will show later that the greatest common divisors of two integers a
and b exists.
Remark 1.3.1
Theorem 1.3.1
Let a and b be integers for which at least one of them is non-zero. Then
the smallest positive integer in the set
P := {sa + tb|s, t ∈ Z and sa + tb > 0}
is (a, b).
Proof
If a is positive then a ∈ P since
a = 1 · a + 0 · b.
Similarly, if b is positive, then b ∈ P . Suppose a and b are both negative.
Then 0·a+(−1)·b ∈ P . Hence that P is nonempty. By the Least Integer
Axiom, there is a smallest positive integer, say d, in P . Our aim is to
show that
d = (a, b).
Since d ∈ P ,
d = xa + yb (1.3.1)
for some integers x, y ∈ Z. We first show that d is a common divisor of
a and b.
By Theorem 1.2.1, we may suppose
a = dq + r, 0 ≤ r < d.
1.3 Greatest common divisors 7
Then
r = a − dq = a − (xaq + ybq) = a(1 − xq) + byq.
Therefore, r ∈ P and it is smaller than d. But d is the smallest integer
in P . Hence r = 0. In other words, d|a. By similar argument, with
a replaced by b, we conclude that d|b. This shows that d is a common
divisor of a and b.
Next, we observe that since d ∈ P , d > 0. Furthermore, if c|a and c|b
then a = cu and b = cv. This implies, by (1.3.1), that
d = xa + yb = c(ux + vy)
and hence, c|d. This shows that d satisfies the conditions in Definition
1.3.2 and we conclude that d = (a, b).
Identity (1.3.1) will be used frequently and we record it as follow:
Definition 1.3.3
We say that two integers a and b are relatively prime if
(a, b) = 1.
Theorem 1.3.3
Let a and b be nonzero integers. Then (a, b) = 1 if and only if 1 = ax+by
for some integers x and y.
Proof
Note that if (a, b) = 1, then by Corollary 1.3.2,
1 = ax + by
for some integers x and y.
Conversely, if
1 = ax + by,
8 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
then (a, b)|a and (a, b)|b, and therefore (a, b)|1. This implies that (a, b) =
1.
We now list down some basic properties of the greatest common divisor
of two integers.
Theorem 1.3.4
Let a, b and c be nonzero integers. Then
Proof
We will prove only (c) and leave the proofs of the other statements as
exercises. Let d = (ac, bc) and d0 = |c|(a, b). By Corollary 1.3.2,
d = acx + bcy
Now, d0 = |c|(a, b) and since (a, b)|a and (a, b)|b, we find that d0 is a
common divisor of a · |c| and b · |c| and therefore, by (1.3.2), d0 |d.
Next, since d0 /|c| = (a, b), by Corollary 1.3.2,
d0
= au + bv
|c|
|c|
d0 = a · |c| · u + b · |c| · v = (acu + bcv) .
c
But d is a common divisor of ac and bc and hence d|d0 . Since d0 |d and
d|d0 , we conclude by Theorem 1.2.2 (g) that |d| = |d0 |. Since both d and
d0 are positive, we deduce that d = d0 .
1.4 Congruences 9
1.4 Congruences
We say that a is congruent to b modulo n when n|(a − b). The notation
is
a≡b (mod n).
Theorem 1.4.2
Let a, b, c and n be integers. If ca ≡ cb (mod n) and (c, n) = 1, then
a ≡ b (mod n).
Proof
Recall from Corollary 1.3.2 that if (c, n) = 1 then there exist integers x
and y such that cx + ny = 1. Multiplying a and b yields
acx + any = a
and
bcx + bny = b,
Proof
For any integer n, (n, p) = 1 or p since p has only two divisors. Suppose
p - a. Then (p, a)=1. By Theorem 1.4.2, the relation
ab ≡ 0 (mod p)
then implies that
b≡0 (mod p).
Proof
We first show that n can be expressed as a prime or a product of primes.
We use induction on n. The statement is clearly true for n = 2 since 2 is
a prime. Suppose m is a prime or a product of primes for 2 ≤ m ≤ n− 1.
If n is a prime then we are done. Suppose n is composite then n = ab,
where 1 < a, b < n. By induction each of the a and b is either a prime
1.5 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 11
or a product of primes. Hence, n = ab is a product of primes. By
mathematical induction, every positive integer n > 1 is a prime or a
product of primes.
To prove uniqueness, we use induction on n again. If n = 2 then the
representation of n as a product of primes is clearly unique. Assume,
then that it is true for all integers greater than 1 and less than n. We
shall prove that it is also true for n. If n is prime, then there is noth-
ing to prove. Assume, then, that n is composite and that n has two
factorizations, say,
n = p1 p2 · · · ps = q1 q2 · · · qt . (1.5.1)
Since p1 divides the product q1 q2 · · · qt , it must divide at least one factor
by Corollary 1.4.4. Relabel q1 , q2 , ..., qt so that p1 |q1 . Then p1 = q1 since
both p1 and q1 are primes. In (1.5.1), we may cancel p1 on both sides
to obtain
n/p1 = p2 · · · ps = q2 · · · qt .
Now the induction hypothesis implies that the two factorizations of
n/p1 must be the same, apart from the order of the factors. Therefore,
s = t and the factorizations in (1.5.1) are also identical, apart from
order. This completes the proof.
In subsequent chapters, whenever we write
n = pα1 α2 αr
1 p2 · · · pr ,
we mean that pα 1 α2 αr
1 p2 · · · pr is the prime power decomposition of n that
is unique up to rearrangement of factors. When we write
r
Y
n= pα
k
k
k=1
Definition 2.1.1
A real or complex-valued function defined on the set of positive integers
is called an arithmetical function.
Example 2.1.1
X X
d(n) = 1= u(`).
`|n `|n
The function d(n) is the called the divisor function and it is the
number of divisors of n.
12
2.1 Arithmetical functions 13
4. Let α be a positive integer. Define
X
σα (n) = `α .
`|n
Remark 2.1.1
Therefore
X X n
f (`) = f . (2.1.1)
`
`|n `|n
14 Arithmetical Functions
2.2 Multiplicative functions
Definition 2.2.1
An arithmetical function f is said to be multiplicative if
f (1) = 1
and
f (mn) = f (m)f (n) whenever (m, n) = 1.
Example 2.2.1
i=1
i=1 i=1
is also multiplicative.
Proof
It is immediate that g(1) = 1. Let (m, n) = 1. Then observe that if
`|mn, then we may write ` = `1 `2 with `1 |m and `2 |n since m and n are
relatively prime. Therefore
X
g(mn) = f (`)
`|mn
XX
= f (`1 )f (`2 )
`1 |m `2 |n
= g(m)g(n).
Remark 2.2.1
Definition 2.3.1
Let µ(1) = 1. If n = pα αk
1 · · · pk , then define
1
(
(−1)k if α1 = α2 = · · · = αk = 1,
µ(n) =
0 otherwise.
The function µ(n) is known as the Möbius function.
We observe that by the above definition, the Möbius function µ(n) is
identically zero if and only if n has a square factor greater than 1.
Now, let
k
Y t
Y β
m= pα
i
i
and n = qj j .
i=1 j=1
Theorem 2.3.1
Let n be any positive integer and [x] denote the integer part of a real
number x. We have
X (
1 1 if n = 1,
µ(`) = =
n 0 if n > 1.
`|n
Proof
P
By Theorem 2.2.1, we know that g(n) = `|n µ(`) is multiplicative. In
other words, g(1) = 1 and
Y Y
g( pαp ) = g(pαp ).
p
But
g(pαp ) = µ(1) + µ(p) + 0 + · · · + 0 = 1 − 1 = 0.
2.4 The Euler totient function 17
In other words, if n 6= 1, then g(n) = 0.
Definition 2.4.1
The Euler totient ϕ(n) is defined to be the number of positive integers
not exceeding n which are relatively prime (see Definition 1.3.3) to n.
Theorem 2.4.1
Let n be any positive integer. Then
X n
ϕ(n) = µ(`) .
`
`|n
Proof
We first observe that
(
1 if j = 1,
I(j) =
0 if j > 1.
Theorem 2.4.2
Let n be any positive integer with prime factorization
k
Y α
n= pj j .
j=1
Then
Y 1
ϕ(n) = n 1− .
p
p|n
Proof
Since µ(n)/n is multiplicative, by Theorem 2.2.1 By Theorem 2.4.1, we
conclude that ϕ(n)/n is multiplicative. Therefore
ϕ(n) Y 1
= 1− ,
n p
p|n
Theorem 2.4.3
If m and n are positive integers such that (m, n) = 1, then ϕ(mn) =
ϕ(m)ϕ(n).
Proof
Let
Y α
Y Y γ
Y
m= pj j qkβk and n = pj j r`δ` ,
j k j `
and
Y min(αj ,γj ) max(αj ,γj )
f ([m, n])f ((m, n)) = f (pj )f (pj )f (qkβk )f (r`δ` ).
j,k,`
Proof
Let f (n) = ϕ(n). Then
ϕ(m)ϕ(n) = ϕ((m, n))ϕ([m, n]).
Note that with the notation of m and n in the proof of Theorem 2.4.4,
we find that
Y 1
1
1
ϕ(mn)
ϕ([m, n]) = [m, n] 1− 1− 1− = ,
pj qk r` d
j,k,`
20 Arithmetical Functions
where we have used (2.4.2). This completes the proof of the corollary.
Definition 2.5.1
Let f and g be two arithmetical functions. We define the Dirichlet
product of f and g, denoted by f ∗ g, as
X n
(f ∗ g)(n) = f (`)g .
`
`|n
ϕ = µ ∗ N.
Our aim now is to show that the set of multiplicative functions, which
we denote as M, together with the operation ∗ forms an abelian group.
We first note that ∗ is a binary operation on M. The proof of this fact
is similar to the proof of Theorem 2.2.1.
Theorem 2.5.1
Let f and g be multiplicative functions. Then f ∗ g is multiplicative.
Proof
Let h = f ∗ g. Note that
h(1) = f (1)g(1) = 1.
since (m/a, n/b) = 1 and both f and g are multiplicative. This implies
that
X m X n
h(mn) = f (a)g f (b)g
a b
a|m b|n
= h(m)h(n).
Theorem 2.5.2
The Dirichlet product is commutative and associative, that is, for any
arithmetical functions f, g, k, we have
f ∗g =g∗f
and
(f ∗ g) ∗ k = f ∗ (g ∗ k).
Proof
The Dirichlet product of f and g is given by
X n
(f ∗ g)(n) = f (`)g .
`
`|n
Therefore,
(f ∗ (g ∗ k))(n) = ((f ∗ g) ∗ k)(n).
Definition 2.5.2
Let n be any positive integer. The arithmetical function I is defined by
(
1 1 if n = 1
I(n) = =
n 0 if n > 1
Theorem 2.5.3
The function I is the identity function for ∗, that is, I ∗ f = f ∗ I = f
for every arithmetical function f .
Proof
By the definition of I, we find that
X n
(I ∗ f )(n) = I(`)f = f (n).
`
`|n
2.5 Dirichlet product 23
By the commutative law in Theorem 2.5.2, we conclude that
f ∗ I = f.
We now show that for any arithmetical function f (n) such that f (1) 6=
0 (not necessarily multiplicative), the inverse of f under ∗ exists.
Theorem 2.5.4
Let f be an arithmetical function. If f (1) 6= 0, then there is a unique
function g such that
f ∗ g = I. (2.5.1)
Proof
We show by induction on m that (2.5.1) has a unique solution g(m). In
order for (2.5.1) to hold, the function g(n) must satisfy
f (1)g(1) = 1.
Since f (1) 6= 0, we find that
1
g(1) =
f (1)
and g(1) is uniquely determined. Suppose m > 1 and assume the values
of g(k) have been determined for 1 ≤ k ≤ m − 1. From (2.5.1), we find
that
X m
f (1)g(m) + f (`)g = 0.
`
`|m
`>1
Therefore,
1 X
m
g(m) = − f (`)g
f (1) `
`|m
`>1
Example 2.5.1
From Theorem 2.3.1 which states that I = u ∗ µ, we conclude that the
inverse of µ is u.
The above observation leads us to the following important result.
Proof
Suppose f = g ∗ u. Then
f ∗ µ = (g ∗ u) ∗ µ = g ∗ (u ∗ µ) = g ∗ I = g.
Conversely, if g = f ∗ µ then
g ∗ u = (f ∗ µ) ∗ u = f ∗ (µ ∗ u) = f ∗ I = f.
We can now show the following identity that relates N (n) to ϕ(n).
Theorem 2.5.6
Let n be any positive integer. Then
X
ϕ(`) = n.
`|n
Proof
We have seen from Theorem 2.4.1 that
ϕ = µ ∗ N.
By Möbius inversion formula, we conclude that
N = u ∗ ϕ.
2.5 Dirichlet product 25
From the construction of f −1 in Theorem 2.5.4, it is not clear that
the Dirichlet inverse of a multiplicative function f is multiplicative. To
complete the proof that (M, ∗) forms an abelian group, it suffices to f −1
is multiplicative if f is multiplicative.
Theorem 2.5.7
If both g and f ∗ g are multiplicative, then f is also multiplicative.
Proof
We prove the theorem by contradiction. Suppose f is not multiplicative.
Let
h = f ∗ g.
Theorem 2.5.8
If g is multiplicative, then the Dirichlet inverse g −1 is also multiplicative.
Proof
The functions g and g ∗ g −1 = I are multiplicative. By Theorem 2.5.7,
g −1 is multiplicative.
3
Averages of Arithmetical Functions
3.1 Introduction
is usually written as π(x) and the Prime Number Theorem states that
f (x) = π(x)/x “behaves” like 1/ln x. On the other hand, we cannot
predict the value of f (n) for each n = [x] since we do not know the
location of primes in Z.
We now introduce the “big-O” notation and the notion of asymptotic.
27
28 Averages of Arithmetical Functions
Definition 3.1.1
Let a be any real number and let g(x) be a real-valued function such
that g(x) > 0 when x ≥ a. We write
f (x) = O(g(x))
to mean that the quotient f (x)/g(x) is bounded for x ≥ a; that is, there
exists a constant M > 0 such that
f (x) g(x)
Example 3.1.1
The function x2 = O(x3 ) when x is large. The function xn = O(ex ) for
any positive integer n.
Definition 3.1.2
If
f (x)
lim = 1,
x→∞ g(x)
f (x) ∼ g(x) as x → ∞.
Example 3.1.2
The Prime Number Theorem can be written as
x
π(x) ∼ .
ln(x)
3.2 Partial summation and the Euler-Maclaurin summation formula29
3.2 Partial summation and the Euler-Maclaurin summation
formula
Theorem 3.2.1
Let a(n) be an arithmetic function and set
X
A(x) = a(n).
n≤x
Proof
We observe that
Z x Z xX
A(t)f 0 (t) d t = a(n)f 0 (t) d t (3.2.2)
y y n≤t
X Z x
= a(n) f 0 (t) d t
n≤x max(y,n)
X
= a(n)[f (x) − f (max(y, n))].
n≤x
Therefore,
Z x X X
A(t)f 0 (t) d t = f (x)A(x) − a(n)f (y) − a(n)f (n)
y n≤y y<n≤x
X
= f (x)A(x) − f (y)A(y) − a(n)f (n).
y<n≤x
Fig. 3.1. Diagram for explaining the limits in the integral of (3.2.2)
When y = 1, we have
X Z x
a(n)f (n) = A(x)f (x) − A(1)f (1) − A(t)f 0 (t) dt.
1<n≤x 1
But
X X
a(n)f (n) + A(1)f (1) = a(n)f (n) + a(1)f (1)
1<n≤x 1<n≤x
X
= a(n)f (n).
n≤x
3.3 Some facts about Riemann-Stieltjes integrals 31
Consequently, we have
X Z x
a(n)f (n) = A(x)f (x) − A(t)f 0 (t) dt. (3.2.3)
n≤x 1
Let 0 < y < x and let f (x) be a real-valued function with continuous
derivative on [y, x]. Then
X Z x Z x
f (n) = f (t) dt + {t}f 0(t) dt − f (x){x} + f (y){y}. (3.2.4)
y<n≤x y y
Proof
By partial summation formula with a(n) = 1 and A(x) = [x], we find
that
X Z x
f (n) = f (x)[x] − f (y)[y] − [t]f 0 (t) dt
y<n≤x y
Z x
= f (x)x − {x}f (x) + f (y){y} − f (y)y − (t − {t})f 0 (t) dt
y
Z x Z x
0
= −{x}f (x) + f (y){y} + {t}f (t) dt + f (x)x − f (y)y − tf 0 (t) dt
y y
Z x Z x
0
= −f (x){x} + f (y){y} + {t}f (t) dt + f (t) dt.
y y
We can derive the analogue of (3.2.3) from . We observe that {1}f (1) =
0 and by adding f (1) to both sides of (3.2.4), we deduce that
X Z x Z x
0
f (n) = f (1) − f (x){x} + {t}f (t) dt + f (t) dt. (3.2.5)
n≤x y y
P = {a = x0 , x1 , x2 , · · · , xn−1 , xn = b}
Definition 3.3.2
Let f be defined on [a, b] and let P = {a = x0 , x1 , x2 , · · · , xn−1 , xn = b}
be a partition of [a, b]. If there exists a positive number M such that
n
X
|f (xk ) − f (xk−1 )| ≤ M
k=1
Definition 3.3.3
A partition P 0 is said to be finer than P if P ⊂ P 0 .
Definition 3.3.4
Let P = {a = x0 , x1 , x2 , · · · , xn−1 , xn = b} be a partition of [a, b] and
let tk be a point in the subinterval [xk−1 , xk ]. A sum of the form
n
X
S(P, f, α) = f (tk )(α(xk ) − α(xk−1 ))
k=1
|S(P, f, α) − A| < .
Theorem 3.3.1
If f is continuous on [a, b] and if α is of bounded variation on [a, b], then
f ∈ R(α) on [a, b].
Theorem 3.3.2
If f ∈ R(α) on [a, b], then α ∈ R(f ) on [a, b] and we have
Z b Z b
f (x)dα(x) + α(x)df (x) = f (b)α(b) − f (a)α(a).
a a
For the proofs of Theorems 3.3.1 and 3.3.2, see [MA-Apostol, p.159,
Theorem 7.27] and [MA-Apostol, p.144, Theorem 7.6] respectively.
We now give another proof of Theorem 3.2.1.
Definition 3.4.1
For each real number s > 1, we define the Riemann zeta function as
X∞
1
ζ(s) = s
.
n=1
n
Definition 3.4.2
The Euler constant C is defined as
1 1 1
C = lim 1 + + + · · · + − ln n .
n→∞ 2 3 n
Theorem 3.4.1
If x ≥ 1, then
X 1
1
(a) = ln x + C + O ,
n x
n≤x
X 1 x1−s
(b) = + C(s) + O(x−s ) if s > 0 and s 6= 1,
ns 1−s
n≤x
where
ζ(s) if s > 1,
C(s) = X 1 x1−s
lim
x→∞ − if 0 < s < 1.
ns 1−s
n≤x
X 1
(c) s
= O(x1−s ) if s > 1, and
n>x
n
X xα+1
(d) nα = + O(xα ) if α ≥ 0.
α+1
n≤x
3.4 Some elementary asymptotic formulas 35
Proof
To prove (a), we first let f (t) = 1/t in Theorem 3.2.2. Then by (3.2.5),
X 1 Z x dt Z x {t} {x}
= − 2
dt + 1 −
n 1 t 1 t x
n≤x
Z x
{t} 1
= ln x − 2
dt + 1 + O
1 t x
Z ∞ Z ∞
{t} {t} 1
= ln x + 1 − 2
dt + 2
dt + O .
1 t x t x
The improper integral
Z ∞
{t}t−2 dt
1
Furthermore,
Z ∞ Z ∞
{t} 1 1
0≤ dt ≤ dt = ,
x t2 x t 2 x
so the last equation becomes
X1 Z ∞
{t} 1
= ln x + 1 − 2
dt + O .
n 1 t x
n≤x
f (x) = x−s ,
Therefore,
X 1 x1−s
s
= + C(s) + O(x−s ), (3.4.1)
n 1−s
n≤x
36 Averages of Arithmetical Functions
where
Z ∞
1 {t}
C(s) = 1 − −s dt.
1−s 1 ts+1
If s > 1 then the left-hand side of (3.4.1) approaches ζ(s) as x approaches
∞ and both x1−s and x−s approach 0. Hence
C(s) = ζ(s)
For 1 ≤ y ≤ x, we have
X X x X x
x
(f ∗ g)(n) = g(n)F + f (m)G −F G(y).
n x m y
n≤x n≤y m≤ y
Proof
First, we observe that
X X
(f ∗ g)(n) = f (m)g(d).
n≤x md≤x
Theorem 3.5.2
For all x ≥ 1,
X √
d(n) = x ln x + (2γ − 1)x + O( x),
n≤x
38 Averages of Arithmetical Functions
where γ is the Euler’s constant.
d(x) ∼ ln x. (3.5.1)
Remark 3.5.1
The error term in Theorem 3.5.2 can be improved. In 1903 Voronoi
proved that it is O(x1/3 log x). In 1928, J.G. van der Corput improved the
error term to O(x27/82 ) using the method of exponential sums. In 1988,
H. Iwaniec and C.J. Mozzochi showed that the error term can be taken
as O(x7/22 ). The best possible error term is one given recently by M.N.
Huxley in 2003, who showed that the error is O(x131/416 (ln x)26947/8320 ).
Theorem 3.6.1
Let ϕ(n) be the Euler ϕ function. For x > 1,
X 3
ϕ(n) = x2 + O(x3/2 ).
π2
n≤x
Proof
We recall that ϕ = µ ∗ N . Applying Theorem 3.5.1 with f = N and
g = µ, we find that
X X X x X x
x
ϕ(n)= µ∗N (n)= µ(n)F + N (m)G −F G(y),
n x m y
n≤x n≤x n≤y m≤ y
3.6 An application of the hyperbola method 39
where
X x2
F (x) = N (n) = + O(x)
2
n≤x
and
X
G(x) = µ(n) = O(x).
n≤x
Therefore,
X x 2 X
1X
ϕ(n) = µ(n)
+O µ(n) x
2 n n≤y
n≤x n≤y
X 2 !
x x
+O m +O y .
x
m y
m≤ y
√
Let y = x and we conclude that
X X µ(n) x2
ϕ(n) = + O(x3/2 ). (3.6.1)
√ n2 2
n≤x n≤ x
X µ(n) X ∞ X µ(n)
µ(n)
2
= 2
−
√ n n=1
n √ n2
n≤ x n> x
X∞ X 1
µ(n)
= 2
+O 2
n=1
n √ n
n> x
6
= 2 + O(x−1/2 ),
π
40 Averages of Arithmetical Functions
where the last equality follows from Theorem 3.4.1 (c). Substituting the
above into (3.6.1), we conclude the proof of the theorem.
Now, let T be a positive integer and
S = {(m, n)|1 ≤ m ≤ T, 1 ≤ n ≤ T }.
Then the total number of elements in S such that (m, n) = 1 is given by
X X X X
1=1+2 1
n≤T m≤T m≤T n<m
(m,n)=1 (m,n)=1
X 6 2
=1+2 ϕ(m) = T + O(T 3/2 ).
π2
m≤T
This shows that the probability that two randomly chosen positive in-
tegers are relatively prime is
|S|
lim = 6/π 2 .
T →∞ T 2
4
Elementary Results on the Distribution of
Primes
4.1 Introduction
Definition 4.1.1
For real number x > 0, let π(x) denote the number of primes not
exceeding x.
41
42 Elementary Results on the Distribution of Primes
A. Selberg and P. Erdös. Their proofs do not involve ζ(s) and complex
function theory, hence the name “elementary”.
There are other elementary proofs of the prime number theorem since
the appearance of the work of Selberg and Erdös, one of which is due
to A. Hildebrand. The proof given by Hildebrand relies on proving an
equivalent statement of the Prime Number Theorem and the mean value
of µ(n). This equivalent statement of the Prime Number Theorem will
be established in Section 4.5.
In this chapter, we derive some basic properties of π(x) and establish
several statements equivalent to the Prime Number Theorem. We will
also use the results discussed in this chapter to study Bertrand’s Pos-
tulate, which states that for n ≥ 2, there exists a prime between n and
2n.
Definition 4.2.1
Let n be a positive integer and let
(
ln p, if n is a prime power
Λ(n) =
0, otherwise.
Definition 4.2.2
For real number x ≥ 1,
X X
ψ(x) = Λ(n) = ln p.
n≤x pm ≤x
Theorem 4.2.1
There exist positive constants c1 and c2 such that
c1 x ≤ ψ(x) ≤ c2 x.
4.2 The function ψ(x) 43
Proof
For x ≥ 4, let
X X
S= ln n − 2 ln n.
n≤x n≤ x
2
x
≤S≤x (4.2.2)
2
whenever x ≥ x0 ≥ 4. Next, since
X
ln n = Λ(d),
d|n
we find that
XX XX
S= Λ(d) − 2 Λ(d)
n≤x d|n n≤ x
2 d|n
X hxi hxi
X
= Λ(d) −2 Λ(d)
d 2d
d≤x d≤ x
2
X nh x i h x io X hxi
= Λ(d) −2 + Λ(d) .
x d 2d x d
d≤ 2 2 <d≤x
Hence,
X X hxi
S= Λ(d)θd + Λ(d) ,
d
d≤ x
2
x
2 <d≤x
where
hxi hxi
θd = −2 . (4.2.3)
d 2d
Now, for
x
< d ≤ x,
2
44 Elementary Results on the Distribution of Primes
we have
hxi
= 1.
d
Therefore, we may simplify the second term on the right-hand side of
(4.2.3) to obtain
X X
S= Λ(d)θd + Λ(d). (4.2.4)
d≤ x
2
x
2 <d≤x
X X X
S≤ Λ(d) + Λ(d) = Λ(d) = ψ(x) (4.2.5)
d≤ x
2
x
2 <d≤x d≤x
and
X x
S≥ Λ(d) = ψ(x) − ψ . (4.2.6)
x
2
2 <d≤x
Definition 4.3.1
For real number x ≥ 1, let
X
θ(x) = ln p.
p≤x
Theorem 4.3.1
For real number x ≥ 1, we have
√
θ(x) = ψ(x) + O( x).
Proof
We first note that the difference of ψ(x) and θ(x) is
X
ψ(x) − θ(x) = ln p
pm ≤x
m≤2
X X X
= ln p + ln p 1.
√
p≤ x p≤x1/3 3≤m≤ ln x
ln p
m=2
Hence,
√ X ln x
ψ(x) − θ(x) ≤ ψ( x) + ln p
ln p
p≤x1/3
√ √
x + x1/3 ln x x,
where f (x) g(x) is another notation for f (x) = O(g(x)) (see Defini-
tion 3.1.1).
c1 x ≤ θ(x) ≤ c2 x.
Theorem 4.3.3
For each positive real x ≥ 4,
c1 x c2 x
≤ π(x) ≤ .
ln x ln x
Proof
It suffices to prove that
1 x
π(x) = θ(x) + O
ln x ln2 x
If
(
ln p if n is a prime p,
a(n) =
0 otherwise,
where A is a constant.
Proof
(a) First, we write
X Λ(n) X 1 h x i
= Λ(n) + O(1)
n x n
n≤x n≤x
1X hxi 1 X
= Λ(n) +O Λ(n) .
x n x
n≤x n≤x
Now,
X hxi X
Λ(n) = (Λ ∗ u)(n).
n
n≤x n≤x
= ln x + O(1).
X ln p
2
1.
√ p
p≤ x
Hence,
X ln p
= ln x + O(1).
p
p≤x
(c) Let
X
A(x) = a(n)
n≤x
4.4 Merten’s estimates 49
where
ln p , if p is prime
a(n) = p
0, otherwise.
A(t) = ln t + R(t),
with
R(t) 1, t ≥ 2. (4.4.2)
where
1 1
rp = ln 1 − + .
p p
50 Elementary Results on the Distribution of Primes
Hence,
Y 1
X X1
ln 1− = rp −
p p
p≤x p≤x p≤x
X X
1
= − ln ln x + A + O + rp − rp . (4.4.4)
ln x p p>x
Now,
∞
X
1 1
rp = − =O , (4.4.5)
m=2
mpm p2
mpm ≥ 2m .
Hence,
Y 1
1
0
ln 1− = − ln ln x + A + O . (4.4.6)
p ln x
p≤x
since et = 1 + O(t).
4.5 Prime Number Theorem and M (µ) 51
4.5 Prime Number Theorem and M (µ)
Definition 4.5.1
Let f be an arithmetical function. We define
1X
M (f ) = lim f (n)
x→∞ x
n≤x
Theorem 4.5.1
The Prime Number Theorem is equivalent to the relation
M (µ) = 0.
Proof
We will first show that the Prime Number Theorem implies that M (µ) =
0.
Define
1 X
M1 (µ) = lim µ(n) ln n .
x→∞ x ln x
n≤x
Note that
M (µ) = 0 if and only if M1 (µ) = 0, (4.5.1)
since
1 X ln n 1
− 1 .
x ln x ln x
n≤x
where we have used the fact that the terms with n non-squarefree are 0.
Furthermore, the value Λ(d) is nonzero only when d is a prime power.
But since n is squarefree, the divisors d|n that are prime powers are
simply primes. Hence,
X X X
µ(n) ln n = ln p µ(n)
n≤x p≤x n≤x
p|n
X X
= ln p (µ(n0 )) ,
p≤x 0
n ≤x/p
p-n0
Now, write
X X µ(n) X x
µ(n) ln n = −x − µ(n)R + O(x), (4.5.2)
n n
n≤x n≤x n≤x
where
R(y) = θ(y) − y.
Since
XX X hxi X µ(n)
1= µ(d) = µ(n) =x + O(x),
n n
n≤x d|n n≤x n≤x
4.5 Prime Number Theorem and M (µ) 53
we find that
X µ(n)
x = O(x).
n
n≤x
≤ x ln x + O (x).
Thus,
1 X x
lim R ≤ .
x ln x n
n≤x
This shows that the Prime Number Theorem implies that M1 (µ) = 0.
By (4.5.1), we deduce that M (µ) = 0.
To prove the converse, let
ln n = d(n) − 2C + r(n)
where r(n) is some arithmetical function. Let y ≥ 1. By (4.2.1),
X X X
r(n) = ln n − d(n) + 2Cy + O(1)
n≤y n≤y n≤y
= y(ln y − 1) + O(ln y)
√ √
− (y ln y + (2C − 1)y + O( y)) + 2Cy + O(1) = O( y).
(4.5.3)
54 Elementary Results on the Distribution of Primes
Next, since
Λ = ln ∗µ,
we conclude that
X X
Λ(n) = (µ ∗ ln)(n)
n≤x n≤x
X X X
= (µ ∗ d) − 2C( µ ∗ u) + (µ ∗ r)
n≤x n≤x n≤x
X
= [x] − 2C + (µ ∗ r)(n).
n≤x
Thus, the Prime Number Theorem follows from ψ(x) ∼ x (see Corollary
4.3.4) if
1X
lim (µ ∗ r)(n) = 0.
x→∞ x
n≤x
= S1 + S2 − S3 ,
where
X X
S1 = µ(d1 )r(d2 )
d2 ≤y d1 ≤x/d2
X X
S2 = µ(d1 )r(d2 )
d1 ≤x/y d2 ≤x/d1
X X
S3 = µ(d1 )r(d2 ),
d1 ≤x/y d2 ≤y
M (µ) = 0,
we find that
1 X
lim µ(d1 ) = 0.
x→∞ x
d1 ≤x/d2
Hence,
1 X 1 c2
lim (µ ∗ r)(n) ≤ 0 + c1 √ + √ .
x→∞ x y y
n≤x
Since y is arbitrary,
1X
lim (µ ∗ r)(n) = 0.
x→∞ x
n≤x
Most books that discuss Theorem 4.6.1 prove the result following
Erdös’ approach. In this course, we will first present the proof due
to S. Ramanujan. In the next section, we will discuss Erdös’ proof.
Ramanujan’s proof was mentioned in an interesting article by P. Erdös
titled “Ramanujan and I”. Erdös’ proof of Theorem 4.6.1 was published
around 1932 and it was Kalmar who asked Erdös to look up on Ramanu-
jan’s proof and that was the first time Erdös heard about Ramanujan.
By definitions of ψ(x) and θ(x), we observe that
Lemma 4.6.3
x x
ln([x]!) = ψ(x) + ψ +ψ + ··· . (4.6.2)
2 3
Proof
The function
X
ψ(x) = Λ(n),
n≤x
and
x
ψ(x) − ψ ≤ ln[x]! − 2 ln[x/2]!
2 x x
≤ ψ(x) − ψ +ψ . (4.6.6)
2 3
Proof of (4.6.3).
This follows directly from (4.6.1). More precisely,
∞
X ∞
X
√ √ √
ψ(x) − 2ψ( x) = θ k x −2 θ 2k
x .
k=1 k=1
Proof of (4.6.4).
This follows from (4.6.2), namely,
∞
X x ∞
X x
ln[x]! − 2 ln[x/2]! = ψ −2 ψ .
k 2k
k=1 k=1
Proof of (4.6.5).
Note that θ(x) is increasing. Hence, from (4.6.3),
√
ψ(x) − 2ψ( x) ≤ θ(x).
Proof of (4.6.6).
This follows immediately from (4.6.4).
58 Elementary Results on the Distribution of Primes
Lemma 4.6.5 Let x be a real number. Then
2
ln[x]! − 2 ln[x/2]! > x if x > 750, (4.6.7)
3
3
ln[x]! − 2 ln[x/2]! < x if x > 3, (4.6.8)
4
x x 2
ψ(x) − ψ( +ψ > x if x > 750, (4.6.9)
2 3 3
and
x 3
ψ(x) − ψ < x if x > 3. (4.6.10)
2 4
Proof of (4.6.7).
(ln Γ(x))00 ≥ 0,
which leads to
Γ00 (x)Γ(x) ≥ 0.
Since Γ(x) is positive for x > 0 (see the definition of Γ(x), we deduce
that
Γ00 (x) ≥ 0.
Observe now that Γ(3) > Γ(2) and thus, by mean value theorem, there
is a c ∈ [2, 3] such that Γ0 (c) > 0. Since Γ00 (x) ≥ 0 for x > 0, we deduce
4.6 The Bertrand Postulate (Ramanujan’s proof ) 59
that Γ0 (x) > 0 for all x ≥ c. In other words, Γ(x) is increasing for
x > 3 > c and we conclude that
1
ln[x]! − 2 ln[x/2]! ≥ ln Γ(x) − 2 ln Γ x+1 .
2
To prove (4.6.7), it suffices to show that for x > 750,
1 2x
ln Γ(x) − 2 ln Γ x+1 > . (4.6.12)
2 3
By (4.6.11), we deduce that
1
ln Γ(x) − 2 ln Γ x+1
2
√ 1 ϑ1 √
= ln 2π + x − ln x − x + − 2 ln 2π
2 12x
x
x 1 x ϑ2
−2 + ln +1 +2 +1 − , (4.6.13)
2 2 2 2 3x + 6
where both ϑ1 , ϑ2 belong to the interval (0, 1). Since
ϑ1 ϑ2
2+ − ≥ 1,
12x 3x + 6
we find from (4.6.13) that
x
√ 2x 1 x
ln Γ(x)−2 ln Γ + 1 > − ln 2π+1+x ln − ln x−ln 1 + .
2 2+x 2 2
√
Using the fact that − ln 2π + 1 > 0, −1/2 > −1 and that for x > 2,
x
− ln x 1 + > − ln x2 ,
2
we find that
x
2x
ln Γ(x) − 2 ln Γ + 1 > x ln − 2 ln x.
2 x+2
It suffices to show that for x > 750,
2x 2x
x ln − 2 ln x > .
x+2 3
But if we let
ln x
f (x) = ln 2x − ln(x + 2) − 2 ,
x
then
1 1 2 ln x
f 0 (x) = − − 2 +2 2 .
x x+2 x x
60 Elementary Results on the Distribution of Primes
But
1 1
− >0
x x+2
and
ln x 2
2 − 2 >0
x2 x
if x > 3. Hence if x > 3, then f 0 (x) > 0. Therefore, f (x) is increasing.
In other words, if x > 750, then
2
f (x) > f (750) = 0.672 · · · > ,
3
and the proof of (4.6.12) is complete.
Proof of (4.6.8).
The proof is similar to that for (4.6.7). We use the inequality
1 1
ln[x]! − 2 ln[x/2]! ≤ ln Γ(x + 1) − 2 ln Γ x+
2 2
and Stirling’s formula to conclude that (why?)
3
ln[x]! − 2 ln[x/2]! ≤ x
4
for all x > 3.
Proof of (4.6.9) and (4.6.10).
These two inequalities follow immediately from (4.6.6)-(4.6.8).
Proof of (4.6.14).
To prove (4.6.14), we use (4.6.10) repeatedly, with x replaced by x/2,
x/4, · · · and add up the results. We find that
3 1 3
ψ(x) ≤ x 1 + + · · · < x.
4 2 2
Proof of (4.6.15).
4.7 Bertrand’s postulate (Erdös’ proof ) 61
From (4.6.5), we find that
√
ψ(x) − 2ψ( x) ≤ θ(x).
Hence
√
ψ(x) ≤ θ(x) + 2ψ( x).
whenever x > 750. This implies that for n > 375, there is a prime
between n and 2n.
We are now left with verifying that Bertrand’s Postulate is true for
2 ≤ n ≤ 375. This is straightforward and we leave it as an exercise.
Then
Y
2n
| pr(p) .
n
p≤2n
62 Elementary Results on the Distribution of Primes
Proof hni
The number of integers less than n and divisible by m is . There-
m
fore, the number of integers from 1 to n that is exactly a multiple of pj
is
n n
− .
pj pj−1
Hence, the exponent of p in n! is
n n n n n n n
− 2 +2 2
− 3
+ · · · + (k − 1) k−1
− k + k
p p p p p p p
n n n
= + 2 + ···+ k ,
p p p
where k is such that
pk ≤ n < pk+1 .
2n
Therefore the exponent of p is is
n
r(p) r(p)
X 2n n X
−2 j ≤ 1 = r(p).
j=1
pj p j=1
Hence,
Y
2n
| pr(p) .
n
p≤2n
Proof
If p satisfies
2n
< p ≤ n,
3
4.7 Bertrand’s postulate (Erdös’ proof ) 63
then p occurs once in the factorization of n!. This is because if 2p ≤ n,
then
n 2n
p≤ < < p,
2 3
which is a contradiction to our assumption. Now p occurs twice in (2n)!
because 3p > 2n. Therefore,
2n
p- .
n
Proof
Let P (n) denote the statement. It is clear that P (2) and P (3) are true.
If m > 1, then
Y Y
p= p ≤ 42m−1 < 42m .
p≤2m p≤2m−1
But,
2m+1 2m + 1 2m + 1 2m + 1
(1 + 1) = + + ···+
0 1 m
2m + 1 2m + 1 2m + 1
+ + ··· + ≥2 .
m+1 2m + 1 m
64 Elementary Results on the Distribution of Primes
Therefore,
2m + 1
< 4m .
m
Hence,
Y
p ≤ 4m · 4m+1 = 42m+1
p≤2m+1
Theorem 5.1.1
For positive real number x, we have
√
10
ψ(x) = x + O x exp(−c ln x) ,
66
5.3 Euler’s product and the product representation of ζ(s) 67
Definition 5.2.1
Let s = σ + it ∈ C and σ > 1. Define
X∞
1
ζ(s) = s
.
n=1
n
Theorem 5.2.1
The Riemann zeta function ζ(s) is an analytic function for σ > 1.
Proof
Note that if σ ≥ 1 + δ, then
M
X XM XM
1 1 1
≤ ≤ .
ns n σ n 1+δ
n=m n=m n=m
Theorem 5.3.1
68 The Prime Number Theorem
For σ > 1,
Y 1
−1
ζ(s) = 1− s .
p
p
Definition 5.3.1
An infinite product
∞
Y
(1 + an )
n=1
is absolutely convergent.
Theorem 5.3.2
Let f be a multiplicative arithmetical function such that the series
∞
X
f (n)
n=1
Proof
Consider the finite product
Y
P (x) = (1 + f (p) + f (p2 ) + · · · )
p≤x
where A consists of those n having all their prime factors less than or
equal to x. Therefore,
∞
X X
f (n) − P (x) = f (n),
n=1 n∈B
where B is the set of n having at least one prime factor greater than x.
Therefore,
X∞ X X
f (n) − P (x) ≤ |f (n)| ≤ |f (n)|.
n>x
n=1 n∈B
Since
∞
X
|f (n)|
n=1
is convergent,
X
lim |f (n)| = 0.
x→∞
n>x
Hence,
∞
X
lim P (x) = f (n).
x→∞
n=1
Since the partial sums are bounded, the series of positive terms
X
|f (p) + f (p2 ) + f (p3 ) + · · · |
p≤x
Theorem 5.4.1
The Riemann zeta function ζ(s) can be extended to a function that
is analytic in σ > 0, except at s = 1, where it has a simple pole with
residue 1.
Proof
Recall from Theorem 3.2.2 that
X Z x Z x
f (n) = f (1) + f (t)dt + f 0 (t){t}dt − {x}f (x).
n≤x 1 1
With s real,
1
x = N ∈ N and f (n) = ,
ns
we have
XN Z N Z N
1 dη s{η}
s
= 1 + s
− dη.
n=1
n 1 η 1 η s+1
and
Z N Z ∞
{η} {η}
lim dη = dη =: Φ(s).
N →∞ 1 η s+1 1 η s+1
Therefore,
1
ζ(s) = 1 + − sΦ(s), σ > 1.
s−1
But, Φ(s) is analytic for σ > 0. Define, for σ > 0, the extension of ζ(s)
by
1
1+ − sΦ(s).
s−1
Note that this function has a pole at s = 1.
Theorem 5.5.1
Let A be a positive real number. If
1 A
|t| ≥ 2 and σ ≥ max ,1 − , (5.5.1)
2 ln |t|
then there are positive constants M and M 0 (depending on A) such that
Proof
Suppose s is real and s > 1. Then by the Euler-Maclaurin summation
formula (see Theorem 3.2.2),
72 The Prime Number Theorem
Fig. 5.1. The shaded regions indicate the regions for which (5.5.2) and (5.5.3)
hold.
XN Z N Z N
1 dx {x}
s
=1+ s
−s s+1
dx
n=1
n 1 x 1 x
Z ∞
N 1−s − 1 {x}
=1+ − sΦ(s) + s s+1
dx
1−s N x
Z ∞
N 1−s {x}
= ζ(s) + +s s+1
dx.
1−s N x
XN Z ∞
1 N 1−σ dx
|ζ(s)| ≤ σ
+ + |s| σ+1
n=1
n |1 − s| N x
XN
1 N 1−σ |s|
≤ σ
+ + .
n=1
n |t| σN σ
For σ ≥ 1,
X 1 X 1
≤ = ln |t| + O(1). (5.5.6)
nσ n
n≤|t| n≤|t|
For
1 A
max ,1 − < σ < 1,
2 ln |t|
and n ≤ N , we find that
1 1 1 1
σ
≤ n1−σ ≤ N 1−σ ≤ 1 + eA − 1 .
n n n n
Hence,
X 1 X 1
σ
≤ eA = eA (ln |t| + u(t)) , (5.5.7)
n n
n≤|t| n≤|t|
|ζ(s)| ≤ M ln |t|,
74 The Prime Number Theorem
where M is a positive constant depending on A. This proves (5.5.2).
We leave the proof of (5.5.3) as an exercise.
Theorem 5.6.1
For real number t 6= 0,
ζ(1 + it) 6= 0.
Proof
The inequality follows immediately from the following computations:
Proof
By Lemma 5.6.3, we have for σ > 1,
∞
!
XX 1
ζ(s) = exp ms
p m=1
mp
∞
!
XX 1
= exp exp {−(ln p)ms}
p m=1
m
∞
!
XX 1
= exp exp {−mσ ln p − itm ln p} ,
p m=1
m
Therefore,
∞
!
XX 1 1
|ζ(s)| = exp cos(tm ln p) .
p m=1
m pσm
76 The Prime Number Theorem
This implies that
≥ exp(0) = 1.
Now, since ζ(σ) has a simple pole with residue 1 at σ = 1, we find that
Next,
ζ(σ + it0 )
lim = ζ 0 (1 + it0 ). (5.6.3)
σ→1+ σ−1
It is clear that
ζ(1 + it) 6= 0,
Theorem 5.7.1
For |t| ≥ 2, there exist positive constants c and d such that for
c
σ >1− ,
(ln |t|)9
we have
d
|ζ(σ + it)| ≥ .
(ln |t|)7
Proof
For σ ≥ 2,
X ∞
1 X∞
1
|ζ(s)| = ≥1−
n=1
ns
n=2
ns
X∞
1 π2 1
≥1− 2
= 2 − > .
n=2
n 6 4
Therefore, for σ ≥ 2,
d
|ζ(s)| ≥ ,
(ln |t|)7
provided that
ln7 (2)
d≤ and |t| ≥ 2. (5.7.1)
4
For δ > 0, let
δ
1+ ≤ σ ≤ 2, |t| ≥ 2.
(ln |t|)9
1
|ζ(σ + it)| ≥ .
|ζ(σ)|3/4 |ζ(σ + 2it)|1/4
78 The Prime Number Theorem
Now, if σ ≤ 2,
X∞ Z ∞
1 1 1
ζ(σ) = σ
≤ 1 + σ
dx = 1 +
n=1
n 1 x σ−1
2
≤
σ−1
2
≤ (ln |t|)9 ,
δ
since
δ
σ ≥1+ .
(ln |t|)9
Now suppose
ln9 2
δ< . (5.7.2)
2
Then since |t| > 2 we have
1 1
<
ln |t| ln 2
and therefore,
δ 1 ln9 2 1 ln 2
9 ≤ < .
ln |t| 2 ln8 |t| ln |t| 2 ln |t|
In other words, if δ satisfies (5.7.2) and
δ
σ >1− ,
ln9 |t|
we must have
1 ln 2
σ >1− . (5.7.3)
2 ln |t|
1
By Theorem 5.5.1 with A = 2 ln 2, we can find a constant M > 0 such
that
|ζ(σ + 2it)| ≤ 2M ln |t|.
Hence,
3/4 1/4
δ 1
|ζ(σ + it)| ≥
2 ln9 |t| 2M ln |t|
δ 3/4 d
= 7 ≥ 7 ,
2M 1/4 ln |t| ln |t|
5.7 A lower bound for |ζ(s)| near σ = 1 79
for
δ 3/4
d≤ . (5.7.4)
2M 1/4
Next, consider
δ δ
1− 9 ≤σ ≤1+ 9 , |t| ≥ 2.
ln |t| ln |t|
If
δ
σ0 = 1 + 9 ,
ln |t|
then we want to show that ζ(σ + it) is close to ζ(σ0 + it).
Z σ0
|ζ(σ + it) − ζ(σ0 + it)| = ζ 0 (u + it)du
σ
≤ |σ − σ0 | max |ζ 0 (u + it)|.
σ≤u≤σ0
Theorem 5.8.1
Let x be a half integer. Then for any b ∈ [1, 3] and any T ≥ 1,
Z b+iT 0
1 ζ xs xb ln2 x
ψ(x) = − (s) ds + O +x .
2πi b−iT ζ s T (b − 1) T
Proof
The proof is immediate using the formula
Λ = µ ∗ ln
X∞ ∞ ∞
f ∗ g(n) X f (n) X g(n)
= .
n=1
ns n=1
ns n=1 ns
5.8 Perron’s Formula 81
Lemma 5.8.3 For σ > 1,
0
ζ
(s) 1 + 1.
ζ σ−1
Proof
For σ > 1,
0 ∞ Z ∞X
ζ X Λ(n) dt
(s) ≤ =σ Λ(n) σ+1
ζ n σ t
n=1 1 n≤t
Z ∞
ct
≤σ dt, by Theorem 4.2.1,
1 tσ+1
σ 1
=c 1+ .
σ−1 σ−1
Proof
We will only prove the result when y > 1. By the Residue Theorem,
Z b+iT s Z 3 Z
1 y 1 ys 1 X ys
ds = ds = 1 + ds.
2πi b−iT s 2πi Γ0 s 2πi j=1 Γj s
with j = 1, 2, 3.
On Γ2 ,
s
y ya
= a
s |s| ≤ y ,
82 The Prime Number Theorem
Γ1
Γ2 Γ0
a b
Γ3
Hence, for j = 1 or 3,
Z Z Z
y s b σ
y 1 b σ ln y yb
ds ≤ dσ ≤ e dσ .
Γj s a T T −∞ T | ln y|
For the case 0 < y < 1, we will leave it as exercise for the reader.
Let
∞
X Λ(n)
R= b | ln x |
.
n=1
n n
Then
X Λ(n) X Λ(n)
R= + = R1 + R2 .
x n | ln nx |
b nb | ln nx |
2 ≤n≤2x n6∈[ x
2 ,2x]
Now, if
1
− ≤ t < 1,
2
then
|t|
| ln(1 + t)| ≥
2
and we deduce that
x
ln = ln 1 + x − n x − n . (5.8.2)
n n n
Furthermore, since
Λ(n) ≤ ln x (5.8.3)
and
1 2b
≤ (5.8.4)
nb xb
84 The Prime Number Theorem
for x/2 < n. Using (5.8.2)–(5.8.4), with the observations that 2b ≤ 23
and |n| ≤ |x|, we find that
X Λ(n) ln x X x
R1 = b x − n . (5.8.5)
x nb | ln nx | x x
2 ≤n≤2x 2 ≤n≤2x
Step 1.
Application of Perron’s Formula:
Let
1 1
T ≥ 1, x = N + ≥ 2 and b = 1 + .
2 ln x
Then
Z 0 s
1 b+iT
ζ x x ln2 x
ψ(x) = − (s) ds + O .
2πi b−iT ζ s T
Step 2.
Shifting of path of integration:
5.9 Completion of the proof of the Prime Number Theorem 85
Choose a sufficiently close to 1 so that
ζ(s) 6= 0
for all σ ≥ a, |t| ≤ T . We note that the integrand
ζ0 xs
− (s)
ζ s
is analytic in the region enclosed by the old and new paths with an
exception of a pole at s = 1, with residue x. By the Residue Theorem,
Z b+iT 0 s X3 Z 0 s
1 ζ x 1 ζ x
− (s) ds = x + − (s) ds.
2πi b−iT ζ s j=1
2πi Γj ζ s
Γ3
Γ2
Γ1
Fig. 5.3. Contours used in the proof of the Prime Number Theorem
Step 3.
Z 0 s
ζ x
Estimation of − (s) ds:
Γj ζ s
Let 0
ζ
B = max (s) .
s∈Γ1 ,Γ2 ,Γ3 ζ
Therefore,
ln9 T x ln2 x
ψ(x) = x + O x +O
T T
ln x
+ O x ln10 T exp −c 9 .
ln T
Now the first two error terms can be bounded by
ln10 x
O x .
T
Hence
ln10 x ln x
ψ(x) = x + O x + O x ln10 T exp −c 9 .
T ln T
Step 5.
Choice of T :
Assume 2 ≤ T ≤ x. The expression in the error term is minimal if
1 c ln x
= exp − 9 .
T ln T
Therefore,
1/10
T = exp{c3 ln1/10 x}.
88 The Prime Number Theorem
With the choice of T , we have for sufficiently large x ≥ x0 , 2 ≤ T ≤ x,
!
ln10 x
ψ(x) = x + O x .
exp(c1/10 ln1/10 x)
Since for any > 0,
ln10 x exp ln1/10 x ,
we conclude that
ψ(x) = x + O(x exp(−c0 ln1/10 x))
with a suitable choice of c0 > 0. For 2 ≤ x ≤ x0 , we have
ψ(x) = x + O(x exp(−c0 ln1/10 x)).
This completes the proof of the Prime Number Theorem.
The equivalent statements of the above for θ(x) and π(x) are
θ(x) = x + O(x exp(−c ln1/10 x)), (x ≥ 2),
and
π(x) = Li(x) + O(x exp(−c ln1/10 x)), (x ≥ 2),
where Z x
dt
Li(x) = .
2 ln t
6
Dirichlet Series
Theorem 6.1.1
Suppose the series
∞
X
f (n)
ns
n=1
does not converge for all s or diverge for all s. Then there exists a real
number σa called the abscissa of absolute convergence, such that the
series
X∞
f (n)
n=1
ns
89
90 Dirichlet Series
Proof . Let D be the set of all reals σ such that
X∞
f (n)
ns
n=1
diverges. Then D is not empty because the series does not converge for
all s. The set D is bounded above since the series does not diverge for
all s. Therefore, D has a least upper bound which we call σa . If σ < σa
then we claim that
X∞
|f (n)|
n=1
nσ
converges implies
∞
X
f (n)
ns
n=1
converges for all Re s > σ. Hence, σ is an upper bound for D and since
σ < σa , σa is not a least upper bound for D. If σ > σa , then σ 6∈ D
since σa is an upper bound for D and the Dirichlet series converges
absolutely. This proves the theorem.
Theorem 6.2.1
Let
X∞ X∞
f (n) g(n)
F (s) = and G(s) =
n=1
ns n=1
ns
Hence,
∞
X h(n)
h(N ) = N s H(s) − N s .
ns
n=N +1
and
X∞
f −1 (n)
G(s) =
n=1
ns
Theorem 6.3.1
Given two functions F (s) and G(s) represented by Dirichlet series
X∞
f (n)
F (s) = for σ > a,
n=1
ns
and
X∞
g(n)
G(s) = for σ > b.
n=1
ns
Then in the half plane where both series converge absolutely, we have
X∞
f ∗ g(n)
F (s)G(s) = .
n=1
ns
If
X∞
α(n)
F (s)G(s) =
n=1
ns
Proof
For any s for which both series converge absolutely, we have
X∞ X ∞
f (n)g(m)
F (s)G(s) = .
n=1 m=1
(nm)s
where
X
h(k) = f (n)g(m) = f ∗ g(k).
mn=k
This proves the first assertion. The second assertion follows from The-
orem 6.2.1.
Theorem 6.4.1
For every Dirichlet series, there exists σc ∈ [−∞, ∞] such that the series
converges (conditionally) for any s with σ > σc and diverges for any s
with σ < σc . Moreover,
σc ≤ σa ≤ σc + 1.
Proof
We will show that if
X∞
f (n)
n=1
ns
converges for s = s1 , then it also converges for every s with σ > σ1 .
Since
∞
X f (n)
n=1
ns
converges at s = s1 , we conclude that there exists a positive integer N0
such that
X f (n)
≤1
s
y<n≤x n 1
for all x > y > N0 . Now, let s with σ > σ1 be given and let x > y ≥ N0 .
Let > 0 be given. Then
94 Dirichlet Series
X f (n) X f (n)
s
= ns1 −s
n ns1
y<n≤x y<n≤x
X f (n) Z x X
s1 −s f (y) s1 −s f (n) s1 −s−1
= s
x − s
y − t (s1 − s)dt.
n 1 y 1
y nσ1
y<n≤x y<n≤t
Therefore,
X Z x
f (n)
≤ 2y σ1 −σ + |s1 − s|tσ1 −σ−1 dt
s
y<n≤x n y
|s1 − s|
≤ 2y σ1 −σ + (6.4.1)
σ − σ1
<
provided that
1/(σ−σ1 )
|s1 − s|
2 1 +
σ − σ1
y≥ .
We have therefore shown that for any > 0 and a fixed s with σ > σ1 ,
X
f (n)
<
s
y<n≤x n
whenever
−1/(σ−σ1 ) !
|s1 − s|
x ≥ y ≥ max N0 , 1+ .
σ − σ1
is absolutely convergent.
Now, we have shown that if
X∞
f (n)
n=1
ns
X∞
f (n)
is convergent at s1 = σ1 + it, hen is absolutely convergent
n=1
ns
whenever σ > σ1 + 1.
Therefore,
σ1 + 1 > σa .
Now,
σ1 = σc + δ
96 Dirichlet Series
for any positive δ and hence,
σc + 1 ≥ σa .
Theorem 6.5.1
A Dirichlet series
X∞
f (n)
F (s) =
n=1
ns
Theorem 6.5.2
Let
X∞
f (n)
F (s) =
n=1
ns
be a Dirichlet series with f (n) ≥ 0 for all n ∈ N and σc < ∞. Then the
function F (s) has a singularity at s = σc .
Proof
Suppose F (s) is analytic at σc . Then there exists δ > 0 such that F (s)
is analytic in D1 := {s : |s − σc | < δ}. Fix a point on the real axis, say
σ0 > σc contained in this disc and an > 0 such that the whole disc
D2 := {s : |s − σ0 | < } is inside D1 and σc ∈ D2 (see the following
diagram).
Since F (s) is analytic in D2 , we have the expansion
X∞
F (n) (σ0 )
F (s) = (s − σ0 )n .
n=0
n!
D1
δ
D2
• •
σc σ0
where the interchanging of the summations is valid since all the terms
involved are non-negative. Hence,
X∞
f (n)
F (σ) = exp((σ0 − σ) ln n))
n=1
nσ0
X∞ ∞
f (n) σ0 −σ X f (n)
= n = .
n=1
nσ0 n=1
nσ
The last equality shows that Dirichlet series is convergent for some
σ < σc and this contradicts our assumption that σc is the abscissa of
conditional convergence.
7
Primes in Arithmetic Progression
7.1 Introduction
In Chapter 4, we proved that there are infinitely many primes by showing
that (see Theorem 4.4.1 (c))
X1
= ln ln x + O(1). (7.1.1)
p
p≤x
Theorem 7.1.1
Let k > 1 and l be positive integers such that (k, l) = 1. Then
X 1 ln ln x
= + O(1).
p ϕ(k)
p≤x
p≡`(mod k)
If k and l are positive integers such that (k, l) = 1, then there are
infinitely many primes of the form kn + l.
98
7.2 Dirichlet’s characters 99
7.2 Dirichlet’s characters
Definition 7.2.1
A Dirichlet character (mod k) is an arithmetical function
χ:N→C
satisfying
(i) χ(mn) =(χ(m)χ(n) for all m, n ∈ N.
1 if (n, k) = 1
(ii) |χ(n)| =
0 otherwise.
(iii) χ(n + km) = χ(n) for all n, m ∈ N,
(iv) χϕ(k) (n) = 1, (n, k) = 1.
Remark 7.2.1
(a) The values of χ are 0 or ϕ(k)-th roots of unity. This follows from (iv).
(b) There are only finitely many characters (mod k). This follows from the
fact that χ is defined on ϕ(k) values j with 1 ≤ j ≤ k and (j, k) = 1.
Hence, from (iv), we see that for each j, there are ϕ(k) values we can
assign to χ(j). This shows that there can be at most ϕ(k)ϕ(k) characters.
(c) If χ1 and χ2 are characters modulo k, then so is χ1 χ2 .
(d) A character χ modulo k can be obtained from a homomorphism
∗
χ
e : (Z/kZ) → {z ∈ C||z| = 1}
where (Z/kZ)∗ is the multiplicative group of residue classes
({[n]k |(n, k) = 1}, ·),
with multiplication · as group operation. Given a character χ
e, one de-
fines
(
χe([n]k ), (n, k) = 1
χ(n) =
0, otherwise.
Conversely, given χ, one obtains a homomorphism χ
e given by
χ
e([n]k ) = χ(n).
This shows that there is a one to one correspondence between Dirichlet’s
characters modulo k and homomorphisms from
∗
(Z/kZ) to {z ∈ C||z| = 1}.
100 Primes in Arithmetic Progression
Theorem 7.2.1
There are exactly ϕ(k) Dirichlet characters modulo k.
Proof . From Remark 7.2.1 (d) above, it suffices to show that there
are exactly ϕ(k) homomorphisms from
set
χ
e([ai ]k ) = wi , 1 ≤ i ≤ r.
If
Y
[n]k = [ai ]α
k ,
i
then define
Y
χ
e([n]k ) = e([ai ]k )αi .
χ
i
Note that χ
e is a homomorphism from
∗
(Z/kZ) to {z ∈ C||z| = 1}.
h1 · · · hr = ϕ(k)
such homomorphisms.
∗
Next, let [a]k ∈ (Z/kZ) . Then
[a]k = [a1 ]α αr
k · · · [ar ]k
1
where
0 ≤ αi ≤ hr − 1.
7.3 The orthogonal relations 101
Now if χ
e is a homomorphism from
∗
(Z/kZ) to {z ∈ C||z| = 1},
then
Y
χ
e([a]k ) = e([ai ]k )αi .
χ
i
In this section, we will often identify (see Remark 7.2.1 (d)) Dirichlet’s
characters χ with homomorphism χ e from
∗
(Z/kZ) to {z ∈ C||z| = 1}.
Theorem 7.3.1
∗
Now, the multiplication of elements in (Z/kZ) by [a0 ]k permutes the
elements in (Z/kZ)∗ . Hence,
X X k
X
χ
e([a0 ]k [a]k ) = χ
e([a]k ) = χ(a).
[a]k ∈(Z/kZ)∗ [a]k ∈(Z/kZ)∗ a=1
Proof of (b).
(
X ϕ(k) if a ≡ 1 (mod k),
χ(a) = (7.3.2)
χ(mod k)
0 otherwise.
where we have used the fact that multiplying the elements in the group
of Dirichlet characters modulo k by χ∗ permutes the elements in the
group. This implies that
X
χ(a) = 0.
χ
χ(a1 )χ(a2 ) = χ
e([a1 ]k )e
χ([a2 ]k ).
Definition 7.4.1
The Dirichlet L-series is defined as
X χ(n)
L(s, χ) = , σ > 1.
ns
n≥1
Theorem 7.4.1
104 Primes in Arithmetic Progression
(a) If χ = χ0 then L(s, χ) can be analytically continued to the half-plane
σ > 0, with the exception of the point s = 1 where it has a simple pole
with residue ϕ(k)/k.
(b) If χ is not the principal character (mod k), then L(s, χ) can be analyt-
ically continued to σ > 0.
Therefore,
Y 1
−1 Y
1
−1 Y
1
L(s, χ0 ) = 1− s = 1− s 1− s
p p
p p
p-k p|k
ϕ(k) Y 1
= 1− s .
k p p
Proof of (b).
If χ 6= χ0 , then
k
X
χ(n) = 0.
n=1
Therefore,
X
χ(n) ≤ k,
n≤x
for x ≥ 1. Now,
X χ(n) x Z x
1 X
+ s X
s
= s
χ(n) s+1
χ(n) dt.
n t y y t
y<n≤x n≤t n≤t
7.5 Proof of Dirichlet’s Theorem 105
Hence, for any > 0,
X χ(n) 2k |s|
≤ 1+ < ,
s σ
y≤n≤x n y σ
whenever
1/σ
2k |s|
|y| > 1+ .
σ
This implies that L-series converges for σ > 0.
Step 1.
Let
X 1 X 1
Σ1 = and Σ2 = ,
pσ p
p≡l(mod k) p≤x
p≡l(mod k)
where
1
σ =1+ .
ln x
Then
X 1 1
X 1
|Σ1 − Σ2 | ≤ − + .
p pσ p>x
pσ
p≤x
| {z } | {z }
Σ3 Σ4
106 Primes in Arithmetic Progression
Now,
X 1 − e−(σ−1) ln p X (σ − 1) ln p
Σ3 = ≤
p p
p≤x p≤x
1 X ln p
= = O(1),
ln x p
p≤x
and
X 1
Σ4 = lim
y→∞ pσ
x≤p≤y
X X Z yX
1 1 σ
= lim σ 1− σ 1− 1 − σ+1 dt
y→∞ y x x t
p≤y p≤x p≤t
Z ∞
t dt
= O(1) + O σ+1
x ln t t
Z ∞
dt
= O(1) + O
tσ ln t
x Z ∞
1 dt
= O(1) + O = O(1).
ln x x tσ
Therefore, if
1
σ =1+ ,
ln x
then
X 1 1 1 1
= ln + O(1) = ln ln x + O(1)
p pσ ϕ(k) σ − 1 ϕ(k)
p≡l (mod k)
X 1 X 1
− = O(1).
p pσ p
p≤x
p≡`(mod k) p≡`(mod k)
Step 2.
7.5 Proof of Dirichlet’s Theorem 107
We observe that for σ > 1,
X 1 X 1 X
= 1 χ(l)χ(p)
p σ p σ ϕ(k)
p p χ (mod k)
p≡l(mod k)
1 X
= χ(l)S(σ, χ),
ϕ(k)
χ (mod k)
where
X χ(p)
S(σ, χ) = .
p
pσ
Now,
XX 1 X 1 X 1
X
1
− = − ln 1 − − = O(1),
p m≥1
mpmσ p
p σ
p
p σ
p
p σ
since
XX 1 1XX 1 1X 1
mσ
≤ mσ
= = O(1).
p m≥2
mp 2 p p 2 p pσ (pσ − 1)
m≥2
Therefore,
XX 1 XX 1
S(σ, χ0 ) = mσ
−
p m≥1
mp mpmσ
p|k m≥1
X 1
=− ln 1 − σ + O(1)
p
p
Y 1
−1
= ln 1− σ + O(1)
p
p
= ln ζ(σ) + O(1)
1
= ln + O(1).
σ−1
The last equality follows from the fact that for σ near 1, we have
1
ζ(σ) = + g(σ),
σ−1
where g(σ) is a function analytic at 1. We conclude that the main term
arises from the principal character χ0 . Hence, it remains to show that
S(σ, χ) = O(1)
for σ > 1 and all non-principal characters χ (mod k).
108 Primes in Arithmetic Progression
Step 3.
Step 5.
Remark 7.5.1
If p is a prime that satisfies the property that p + 2 is also a prime, then
we call p a twin prime. The twin primes conjecture states that there are
infinitely many twin primes. This statement remains an open problem.
Motivated by Merten’s estimates and the proof of Dirichlet’s Theorem
of primes in arithmetical progression, it is natural to consider the sum
X 1
p
p≤x,p∈T
where T is the set of twin primes. If one can prove that the sum is
divergent, then there would be infinitely many primes. Unfortunately,
this sum turns out to be convergent (using sieve method). Consequently,
110 Primes in Arithmetic Progression
this line of attack fails to provide a proof of the twin primes conjecture.
8
Introduction to Sieves
Y
P = p,
√
p≤ x
√
then to decide if x < n < x is a prime, it suffices to check if (n, P ) = 1.
Let x > 1 be a real number and π(x) be the number primes less than
111
112 Introduction to Sieves
x. We find that
√ X
π(x) − π( x) = 1
√
x<n≤x
(n,P )=1
X X
= µ(d)
√
x<n≤x d|P
d|n
X X
= µ(d) 1
√
d|P x<n≤x
d|n
X h i √
x x
= µ(d) −
d d
d|P
X µ(d) X √ X µ(d)
=x +O 1 − x
d d
d|P d|P d|P
Y 1
√ √ Y 1
=x 1− + O 2π( x) − x 1− .
√ p √ p
p≤ x p≤ x
with
Y
P = p.
p≤y
8.2 Selberg’s sieve and its applications 113
To see why (8.1.1) is true, we note that the left hand side gives the
number of primes between y and x. The function α(x) measures the
number of integers n ≤ x that are divisible by “large primes”, that is,
primes greater than y. This would include primes between y and x and
hence the left hand side is less than the right hand side of (8.1.1). But
α(x) also counts those integers n ≤ x which are relatively prime to P .
Therefore,
Y 1
π(x) − π(y) = O x 1− + O 2π(y)
p
p≤y
x
=O + O(2y ).
ln y
Setting y = ln x, we find that
x
xln 2 ,
ln ln x
and hence
x
π(x) − π(ln x) + 1 ,
ln ln x
or, as a corollary,
x
π(x) .
ln ln x
This bound is of course weaker than Tchebychev’s estimate but nonethe-
√
less, it is a non-trivial bound that is obtained from replacing x by y.
We will now study the situation closely. Let A be a subset of the set
of integers less than x and P be the set of primes. Let
The set E is an example of a sifted set. Note that in our example above,
our set A is the set of integers less than x and P is the set of primes less
than y and α(x) = |E|.
Example 8.2.1
√
Let A = {n|n ≤ x} and P = {p prime|p ≤ x}. In other words,
√
Q = x. Let Ωp = {0}. This implies that γ(p) = 1. Let
The next example illustrates the use of Selberg’s sieve in the study of
twin primes.
Example 8.2.2
Let π2 (x) be the number of primes p less than x such that p + 2 is also
prime. We will show that
x
π2 (x) = O . (8.2.1)
ln2 x
116 Introduction to Sieves
As a result, we have
X 1
= O(1).
p
p≤x
p + 2 is a prime
The sum
X µ2 (q)2ω(q)
q
q∈Q
with
B = {m| p|m =⇒ p|q}.
Therefore,
X µ2 (q)2ω(q) X 1 X 2ω(n)
≥ . (8.2.2)
q n n
q∈Q n∈B n∈Q
2ω(q) 1
· 0
q q
and this term is present in the sum of the left hand side. Now,
X 2ω(n) X 2ω(n)
= .
n √ n
q∈Q q≤ x
Since
X 6
2ω(n) = y ln y + O(y),
π2
n≤y
and
X 2ω(n) 3
= 2 ln2 y + O(ln y),
n π
n≤y
In this section, we introduce the Large Sieve. This will be used in the
next section to derive Selberg’s sieve.
118 Introduction to Sieves
Theorem 8.3.1
Let x1 , x2 , · · · , xR be δ-well spaced. That is to say, if
k x k= min |x − n|,
n∈Z
then for k 6= j,
k xk − xj k≥ δ.
Let
M+N
X
S(x) = an e2πinx .
n=M+1
Then
R
X M+N
X
3
|S(xj )|2 ≤ N +1+ |an |2 .
j=1
δ
n=M+1
Proof
For all (ξs ) ∈ CR , we have
X X
(f − ξk φk , f − ξk φk ) ≥ 0.
k k
8.3 The Large Sieve 119
Hence
X X
(f − ξk φk , f − ξk φk ) ≥ 0.
k k
Now
X X X
(f − ξk φk , f ) + (f − ξk φk , − ξk φk )
X X X X
= (f, f ) − ( ξk φk , f ) − (f, ξk φk ) + ( ξk φk , ξj φj )
X X X
= kf k2 − ξk (φk , f ) − ξk (φk , f ) + ξk ξj (φk , φj )
X X
= kf k2 − 2Re ξk (φk , f ) + ξk ξj (φk , φj ).
Next observe that
X
ξk ξj (φk , φj )
k,j
Therefore,
R
X |(f, φk )|2
(f, f ) ≥ PR
k=1 j=1 |(φk , φj )|
Theorem 8.3.3
Let x1 , x2 , · · · , xR be δ-well spaced. That is to say, if
k x k= min |x − n|,
n∈Z
then
R
X X
N
3
|S(xj )|2 ≤ 2N + 1 + |an |2 ,
j=1
δ
n=−N
where
N
X
S(x) = an e2πinx .
n=−N
But
N
X 1 sin(2N + 1)x − sin x
cos 2nx = (8.3.3)
n=1
2 sin x
and
N
X 1 cos x − cos(2N + 1)x
† sin 2nx = . (8.3.4)
n=1
2 sin x
Hence,
N
X N
X
N + 2N cos 2nx − 2 n cos 2nx
n=1 n=1
1
= (sin(2N + 1)x sin x + cos x cos(2N + 1)x − 1)
2 sin2 x
1
= (cos(2N x) − 1)
2 sin2 x
sin2 N x
= .
sin2 x
† Use 2
X X
N
sin x cos 2nx = (sin(2n + 1)x − sin(2n − 1)x) .
n=1N n=1
122 Introduction to Sieves
Now, let H be the space of sequences α = (α(n))n∈Z such that
X
|α(n)|2 < ∞.
n
Define
X
(α, β) = α(n)β(n).
n
Let
(
an if |n| ≤ N,
f (n) =
0 otherwise.
Let
e−2πinxj |n| ≤ N
1/2
N + ` − |n|
φj (n) = e−2πinxj , if N < |n| ≤ N + ` .
`
0 otherwise.
Clearly,
N
X
kf k2 = |an |2
n=−N
and
N
X
(f, φj ) = an e2πinxj .
n=−N
Also,
N
X X N + ` − |n| −2πin(xk −xj )
(φk , φj ) = e−2πin(xk −xj ) + e
`
n=−N N <|n|≤N +`
N
X +` XN
N + ` − |n| −2πin(xk −xj ) N − |n| −2πin(xk −xj )
= e − e
` `
n=−N −` n=−N
2 2 !
1 sin(π(N + `)(xk − xj )) sin(πN (xk − xj ))
= − ,
` sin(π(xk − xj )) sin(π(xk − xj ))
Let
1
`= + 1.
δ
Then
1 1
< ` ≤ + 1.
δ δ
Therefore,
R
X 3
|(φk , φj )| ≤ 2N + 1 + .
j=1
δ
yields
P 2
N
N
X X n=−N an e2πinxk
2
|an | ≥ .
3
n=−N i 2N + 1 +
δ
Rearranging, we complete the proof of Theorem 8.3.3.
To deduce Theorem 8.3.1, we set an = a0M+N +n+1 . Then the sum
ranges from M + 1 to M + 2N + 1 and
M+2N
X +1
2πi(−M−N −1)
S(x) = e a0n e2πinx .
n=M+1
But
M+2N +1
X
|S(x)| = a0n e2πinx .
n=M+1
Hence, we obtain
R
X M+2N
X +1
3
|S(xj )|2 ≤ 2N + 1 + |a0n |2
j=1
δ
n=M+1
M+2N
X +1
3
≤ 2N + 1 + 1 + |a0n |2 .
δ
n=M+1
This implies that Theorem 8.3.1 is true for odd positive integers. Next,
in the above odd case, set
a0M+2N +1 = 0.
and Theorem 8.3.1 is true for even positive integers. This completes the
proof of Theorem 8.3.1.
8.4 Farey sequence and Selberg’s Sieve 125
8.4 Farey sequence and Selberg’s Sieve
By a Farey sequence of order n, denoted Fn , we mean a set of reduced
fractions in the interval from 0 to 1, whose denominators are less than
or equal to n, arranged in ascending order of magnitude.
One fact about elements in Farey sequence is that if a/b, a0 /b0 are
successive terms in Fn , then
a0 a 1
0
− = 0.
b b bb
Therefore,
a a0
− = 1 > 1
b b0 bb0 Q2
an = 0 whenever n 6∈ E. (8.4.2)
M+N 2 2
X q
2 Y γ(p) X
S a .
an µ (q) ≤ (8.4.3)
p − γ(p) q a=1
n=M+1 p|q
(a,q)=1
Therefore,
N + 1 + 3Q2
|E| ≤ ,
L
where
X Y γ(p)
L= µ2 (q) .
p − γ(p)
q∈Q p|q
q
X 2
S a ≥ |S(0)|2 J(q). (8.4.4)
q
a=1
(a,q)=1
qq
X
0 2 Xq q0
X 2
S c = S a + b
qq 0 q q0
c=1 a=1 b=1
(a,qq0 )=1 (a,q)=1 (b,q0 )=1
q 2
X
≥ S a J(q 0 )
q
a=1
(a,q)=1
The two observations above show that we would only need to prove
(8.4.4) for q = p where p is a prime.
Now, let p be a prime and let
M+N
X
Z(p, a) = an .
n=M+1
n≡a (mod p)
We note that
2
X
|Z(p, a)| = an am . (8.4.6)
M+1≤m,n≤M+N
m≡n≡a (mod p)
Z(p, a) = 0 if a ∈ Ωp (8.4.7)
where we have used (8.4.6) in the last equality. In other words, we have
X a 2
p−1 X p
2
S =p |Z(p, a)| . (8.4.8)
p
a=0 a=1
Let
(
1 if a 6∈ Ωp
χa =
0 otherwise.
By Cauchy’s inequality
X 2 X X
an b n ≤ |an |2 |bn |2 ,
we find that
p 2
X p
X
2
Z(p, a)χa ≤ (p − γ(p)) |Z(p, a)| . (8.4.9)
a=1 a=1
But by (8.4.7),
p 2
X
Z(p, a)χa = |S(0)|2 . (8.4.10)
a=1
and this completes the proof of (8.4.4) for prime number p and the proof
of Theorem 8.2.1 is complete.