LECTURE 9: Cylindrical Antennas – Classical Theoretical Models

(Reciprocity theorem. Self-impedance of a dipole using the induced emf

method. Pocklington’s equation. Hallén’s equation.)

1. Reciprocity theorem for antennas

1.1. Reciprocity theorem in circuit theory

If a voltage (current) generator is placed between any pair of nodes of a
linear circuit, and a current (voltage) reaction is measured between any
other pair of nodes, the interchange of the generator’s and the
measurement’s locations would lead to the same measurements results.

i j i j
IA IA
linear linear
VG A ≡ A VG
circuit circuit

i′ j′ i′ j′

Vi V j
= or Z ji = Z ij (9.1)
I j Ii

1.2. Reciprocity theorem in EM field theory (Lorentz’ reciprocity

theorem)
Consider a volume V[ S ] bounded by the surface S, where two pairs of
sources exist: ( J1 , M 1 ) and ( J 2 , M 2 ) . We shall denote the fields associated
with the ( J1 , M 1 ) sources as ( E1 , H1 ) , and the fields generated by ( J 2 , M 2 )
as ( E2 , H 2 ) .

1
 ∇ × E1 = − jωµ H1 − M 1 /⋅ H 2
(9.2)
∇ × H1 = jωε E1 + J1 /⋅ E2

∇ × E2 = − jωµ H 2 − M 2 / ⋅ H1
(9.3)
∇ × H 2 = jωε E2 + J 2 /⋅ E1
The vector identity
∇ ⋅ ( E1 × H 2 − E2 × H1 ) = H 2 ⋅∇ × E1 − E1 ⋅∇ × H 2 − H1 ⋅∇ × E2 + E2 ⋅∇ × H1
is used to obtain:
∇ ⋅ ( E1 × H 2 − E2 × H1 ) = − E1 ⋅ J 2 + H1 ⋅ M 2 + E2 ⋅ J1 − H 2 ⋅ M1 (9.4)
Equation (9.4) can be written in its integral form as:
∫∫ ( E1 × H 2 − E2 × H1 )ds = ∫∫∫ (− E1 ⋅ J 2 + H1 ⋅ M 2 + E2 ⋅ J1 − H 2 ⋅ M1 )dv (9.5)
S V[ S ]

Equations (9.4) and (9.5) represent the general form of the Lorentz’
reciprocity theorem in differential and in integral form, respectively.
One special case of the reciprocity theorem is of fundamental
importance to antenna theory, namely its application to unbounded (open)
problems. In this case, the surface S is of infinite radius. Therefore, the
fields integrated over the surface S are far-zone fields, which means that
the left-hand side of (9.5) vanishes:
 | E1 || E2 | | E1 || E2 | 
∫∫S 1 2 2 1
( E × H − E × H ) ds = ∫∫S  η cos γ −
η
cos γ  ds = 0 (9.6)

Here, γ is the angle between the polarization vectors of both fields, E1 and
E2 . It follows that in the case of open problems the reciprocity theorem
reduces to:
∫∫∫ ( E1 ⋅ J 2 − H1 ⋅ M 2 )dv = ∫∫∫ ( E2 ⋅ J1 − H 2 ⋅ M1 )dv
V[ S ] V[ S ]
(9.7)

Each of the integrals in (9.7) can be interpreted as coupling energy between

the field produced by some sources and another set of sources, which
generate another field. The quantity
1, 2 = ∫∫∫ ( E1 ⋅ J 2 − H1 ⋅ M 2 )dv
V[ S ]

2
is called reaction of the field ( E1 , H1 ) to the sources ( J 2 , M 2 ) . Similarly,
the quantity
2,1 = ∫∫∫ ( E2 ⋅ J1 − H 2 ⋅ M 1 )dv
V[ S ]

is the reaction of the field ( E2 , H 2 ) to the sources ( J1 , M 1 ) . Equation (9.7)

can be briefly written as
1, 2 = 2,1 (9.8)
The Lorentz’ reciprocity theorem is the most general form of reciprocity in
linear electromagnetic systems. Circuit theory reciprocity is a special case
of lumped element sources and reaction (local voltage or current
measurements). To illustrate the above statement, consider the following
experiment:
MEASUREMENT 1
Vs(1) Vm(1)

( J1 , M 1 ) ( E1 , H1 )

source region measurement region

MEASUREMENT 2

Vm(2) Vs(2)

( E2 , H 2 ) (J2, M 2 )

measurement region source region

3
Assume that the sources for both measurements have identical local
amplitude-phase distribution; that is: Vs(1) = Vs(2) = Vs , and J1 = J 2 , M 1 = M 2
everywhere in the source volume. Assume also that the measurements in
both cases are carried out in a volume of the same shape and dimensions
Vm(1) = Vm(2) = Vm . According to (9.7)
∫∫∫ ( E ⋅ J − H ⋅ M )dv = ∫∫∫ ( E
V[ S ]
1 1
V[ S ]
2 ⋅ J − H 2 ⋅ M )dv (9.9)

⇒ E1 = E2 and H1 = H 2 . Reaction (measurement data) is insensitive to the

interchange of source and measurement locations. This is the same
principle that was postulated as reciprocity in circuit theory (see Section
1.1). Only that we consider volumes instead of nodes, and field vectors
instead of voltages and currents.
The general reciprocity theorem can be postulated also as: any network
constructed of linear isotropic matter has a symmetrical impedance matrix.
This “network” can be two antennas and the space between them.

1.3. Reciprocity in antenna theory

According to the reciprocity theorem, if antenna #1 is a transmitting
antenna and antenna #2 is the receiving one, the ratio of transmitted to
received power Pt / Pr will not change if antenna #1 becomes the receiving
antenna and antenna #2 becomes the transmitting one. It should be
reiterated that the reciprocity theorem holds only if the whole system
(antennas + propagation environment) is isotropic and linear.
Let us assume that antennas #1 and #2 are matched to their feed
networks. Then the power fed to antenna #1 (the transmitting one) will be:
| Vg |2
P1 = , (9.10)
8 RA1
where RA1 = Re {Z A1 } = Rr1 + Rl1 is the resistance of antenna #1. If the
transfer admittance of the combined network consisting of antenna #1, free
space and antenna #2, is Y21 , then the current at the antenna #2 load is
(VgY21 ) . The power delivered to the load is:

4
 1 1
P2 = RA2 | Vg |2 | Y21 |2 = RL2 | Vg |2 | Y21 |2 (9.11)
2 2
P P
⇒ r = 2 = 4 RA1 RA2 | Y21 |2 (9.12)
Pt P1
In a similar manner, it can be shown that the ratio Pr / Pt when antenna
#2 transmits and antenna #1 receives, is:
Pr P1
= = 4 RA1 RA2 | Y12 |2 (9.13)
Pt P2
Since Y21 = Y12 , it follows that the ratio of received to transmitted power
does not change if the antennas interchange receiving with transmitting
mode.

Reciprocity of the radiation pattern

The radiation pattern is the same in receiving and in transmitting
modes if the materials used for the construction of the antenna and the
transmission lines are linear and the medium of wave propagation is linear.
Nonlinear devices such as diodes and transistors make the antenna system
nonlinear, therefore, nonreciprocal.
The two-port model of a measurement system is:
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 I 2
(9.14)
V2 = Z 21I1 + Z 22 I 2
Here:
Z11 - self-impedance of antenna #1
Z 22 - self-impedance of antenna #2
Z12 , Z 21 - mutual impedances.
The field pattern is measured as the open-circuit voltage of the receiving
antenna. If antenna #1 transmits, then the voltage
Voc2 = Z 21I1 / I 2 =0 (9.15)
is measured. If antenna #2 transmits, then the voltage
Voc1 = Z12 I 2 / I1 =0 (9.16)
is measured. The excitation currents I1 and I 2 do not depend on the
direction and cannot influence the shape of the pattern Voc (θ , ϕ ) . The

5
pattern depends only on the mutual impedance associated with a given
direction Z12 (θ , ϕ ) = Z 21 (θ , ϕ ) . It is now obvious that the pattern would not
depend on whether the antenna under test receives and the probe antenna
transmits, or vice versa. It also does not matter whether the antenna under
test rotates and the probe antenna is stationary, or vice versa.

probe antenna
(stationary)
test antenna
(rotating)

probe antenna
(rotating)

test antenna
(stationary)

6
2. Self impedance of a dipole using the induced emf method
The induced emf method was developed by Carter1 in 1932, when
powerful computers were not available and analytical (closed-form)
solutions were very much needed to calculate the self-impedance of wire
antennas. The method was later extended to calculate mutual impedances
of multiple wires. The emf method is restricted to straight parallel wires.
Measurements indicate that the current distribution on thin dipoles is
nearly sinusoidal (except at the current minima). The induced emf method
assumes this type of idealized distribution. It results in satisfactory
accuracy for dipoles with length-diameter ratios as small as 100, provided
the terminals are at the current maximum.

Let’s assume that the feed is at the current maximum I m . Using the
reciprocity principle one can show that
l/2
Vm I m = − ∫
−l / 2
I z ( ρ = a, z = z′) Ez ( ρ = a, z = z′)dz′ (9.17)

1
P.S. Carter, “Circuit relations in radiating systems and applications to antenna problems,” Proc. IRE, 20, pp.1004-
1041, June 1932.

7
 z Vm is the voltage applied at the antenna feed.
I z ( ρ , z ) is the resulting current at the wire. I z
a
produces the field Ez ( ρ , z ) , which can be calculated
using the VP A , as if there were no conductor
J z adϕ
s backing the currents. It is not zero at the conducting
dz ′ surface of the wire, which implies the existence of
an induced field Ezi such that Ezi = − Ez . The
y induced field Ezi would produce the current Im at the
antenna input.
x ϕ The input (self) impedance of the antenna is:
V
Zm = m (9.18)
Im
It follows that:
l/2
1
Z m = − 2 ∫ I z ( ρ = a, z = z′) Ez ( ρ = a, z = z′)dz′ (9.19)
I m −l / 2
Note that in (9.17) and in (9.19) it is assumed that currents are concentrated
at the wire’s surface (which is practically true for all copper and aluminum
dipoles), and that the currents and the resulting Ez field are not dependent
on the angle ϕ . The latter assumption is only true for thin wires, as
mentioned above. Another assumption made is that the current distribution
along the wire induced by the applied voltage Vm is sinusoidal:
  l 
 I m sin  β  2 − z′   , 0 ≤ z′ ≤ l / 2
   
I ( z′) =  (9.20)
 I sin  β  l + z′   , − l / 2 ≤ z′ ≤ 0
  2 

m
 
So far, we have obtained only the far-field components of the field
generated by the current in (9.20) (see Lecture 6). However, when the
input resistance and reactance are to be found, the total near fields have to
be known. In our case, we are particularly interested in Ez , which is the
field produced by I ( z′) as if there is no conductor surface present. We
shall use cylindrical coordinates ( ρ , ϕ , z ) to describe the location of the

8
integration and the observation points. The electric field can be expressed
in terms of the VP A and the scalar potential φ (see Lecture 2).
E = −∇φ − jω A (9.21)
∂φ
⇒ Ez = − − jω Az (9.22)
∂z
The VP A is the superposition of the retarded current potentials:
µ l/2 e− jβ R
A= ∫
4π − l / 2
I z ( ρ = a, z = z′)
R
dz′ (9.23)

The scalar potential is the superposition of the retarded charge potentials:

e− jβ R
l/2
1
4πε −l∫/ 2
φ= ql ( ρ = a, z = z′) dz′ (9.24)
R
Here, ql stands for linear charge density (C/m). Knowing that the current
depends only on z , the continuity relation is written as:
∂I
jω ql = − z (9.25)
∂z′
 Im  l 
 − j c cos  β  2 − z′   , 0 ≤ z′ ≤ l / 2
   
⇒ ql ( z′) =  (9.26)
 + j I m cos  β  l + z′   , − l / 2 ≤ z′ ≤ 0
   2 

c 
where c = ω / β is the speed of light. Now, we can write the expressions
for A and φ .

µ  0  l   e− jβ R
l/2
 l   e− j β R 
4π − l∫/ 2   2
Az = I m  sin β  + z′   dz′ + ∫ sin  β  − z′   dz′ (9.27)
 R 0   2   R 
η Im  0  l   e− jβ R
l/2
 l   e− j β R 
4π  −l∫/ 2
φ= j − cos  β  + z′   dz′ + ∫ cos  β  − z′   dz′ (9.28)
  2   R 0   2   R 

Here, η = µ / ε is the intrinsic impedance of the medium ( ≈ 120π Ω in

vacuum).

9
 The distance between integration and observation point is assumed:
R = ρ 2 + ( z − z′) 2 , (9.29)
which is actually an approximation of:
R = ( ρ − a )2 + ( z − z′) 2 (9.30)
z P( ρ ,ϕ , z )
R1
R
dz′ r

R2
y
ϕ ρ

Equation (9.29) is substituted in (9.27) and (9.28). The resulting equations

for A and φ are modified making use of Moivre’s formulas:
cos x = ( e jx + e− jx )
1
2
(9.31)
sin x =
2j
(e − e )
1 jx − jx

Then, the equations of A and φ are substituted in (9.22) to derive the

expression for Ez . This is a rather lengthy derivation, and we shall give
the final result only:
η I m  e − jβ R1 e− j β R2  βl  e
− jβ r

Ez = − j  + − 2cos    (9.32)
4π  R1 R2  
2 r 

10
 The final goal of this discussion is to find the self-impedance (9.19) of
the dipole. Equation (9.19) can be written as:
 l 
l/2
1
Zm = − ∫ sin 
I m −l / 2   2
β  − | z ′ | 

 Ez ( ρ = a, z = z′)dz′ (9.33)

Substituting (9.33) in (9.32) produces the following results for the real and
the imaginary part of Z in :

η
Rm = Rr = {C + ln( β l ) − Ci ( β l ) + 1 sin( β l ) [ Si (2 β l ) − 2Si ( β l )] +
2π 2
(9.34)
1
+ cos( β l ) [C + ln( β l / 2) + Ci (2 β l ) − 2Ci ( β l ) ]}
2

η
Xm = {2Si ( β l ) − cos( β l ) [ Si (2 β l ) − 2Si ( β l )] +
4π
(9.35)
  2 β a 2 
+ sin( β l ) Ci (2 β l ) − 2Ci ( β l ) + Ci  }
  l 

The equations above refer to a feed point, which coincides with the
maximum of the current distribution. The dipole is normally fed at the
center. However, the current has its maximum at the center only if
λ
l = ( 2k + 1) , k = 0,1,… (9.36)
2
If the length of the antenna is other than that in (9.36), the input impedance
will differ from that in (9.34) and (9.35). The relation between the input
resistance at the maximum-current point and the resistance at the centered-
feed point for any dipole length was already found in Lecture 6 (see
equation 6.34). The same relation holds for the reactances, too:
2
I  Rr
Rin =  m  Rr = (9.37)
 I in   βl 
sin 2  
 2 

11
 2
I  Xm
X in =  m  X m = (9.38)
 in 
I  β l 
sin 2  
 2 
For a small dipole, the input reactance can be approximated by:
X in = X m −120
[ln(l / a) − 1] (9.39)
tan( β l )
The results produced by (9.37) and (9.38) for different ratios l / λ are given
in the plots below.

12
Reactance of a thin dipole (emf method) for different wire radii a :

Note that:
• the reactance does not depend on the radius a , when the dipole
length is a multiple of a half-wavelength ( l = nλ / 2 ), as follows from
(9.35);
• the resistance does not depend on a according to the assumptions
made in the emf method (see equation (9.34)).

13
3. Pocklington’s equation
The assumption of a sinusoidal current distribution along the dipole is
considered accurate enough for wire diameters d < 0.05λ . Generally
speaking, the current distribution is not sinusoidal in the case of thicker
wires. The currents must be computed using some general numerical
approach. Below, we shall introduce two integral equations, which can
produce the current distribution on any wire antenna of finite diameter.
These equations are classics in wire antenna theory. We shall not discuss
in detail their numerical solution, which is somewhat beyond the subject of
this course.
To derive Pocklington’s equation, the concepts of incident and scattered
field will be introduced first.
The incident wave is a wave produced
z
by some sources. This wave would
exist in the location of the scatterer, if
i
E the scatterer were not present. The
scatterer though is present, and if it is
l a conducting body, it would require
2 the vanishing of the electric field
components tangential to its surface
y
Eτt = 0 (9.40)
s
E The vector E t denotes the so-called
ϕ total electric field. This means that as
l the non-zero incident field impinges
x
upon the conducting scatterer, it
2
induces on its surface currents J s ,
which in their turn produce a field, the
2a scattered field E s . The scattered and
the incident fields superimpose to
form the total field:
E = Ei + Ei
t
(9.41)
The scattered field is such that (9.40) is fulfilled, i.e.
Eτs = − Eτi (9.42)

14
Any irradiated object presenting a discontinuity in the wave’s propagation
path is a scatterer, and so is any receiving antenna. However, the above
concepts hold for transmitting antennas, too. In the case of a wire dipole,
the incident field exists only at the base of the dipole (in its feed gap).
In the case of cylindrical dipoles with excitation of cylindrical
symmetry, the E field has no ϕ -component. The only tangential
component is the z one. The boundary condition at the dipole’s surface is:
Ezs = − Ezi / ρ =a ,− l < z < l (9.43)
2 2

The scattered field can be expressed in terms of A and φ , as it was already

done in (9.22):
∂φ 1 ∂ 2 Az
Ez = −
s
− jω Az = − j − jω Az (9.44)
∂z ωµε ∂z 2

or
1  2 ∂ 2 Az 
Ez = − j  β Az + 2 
s
(9.45)
ωµε  ∂z 
We assume only z -components of the surface currents and no edge effects:
µ l / 2 2π e − j β R
4π −l∫/ 2 ∫0
Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) = Jz adϕ ′dz′ (9.46)
R ds
If the cylindrical symmetry of the dipole and the excitation are preserved,
the current J z does not depend on the azimuthal angle ϕ . It can be shown
that the field created by a cylindrical sheet of surface currents J z is
equivalent to the field created by a current filament of current I z :
1
2π aJ z = I z ⇒ J z ( z′) = I z ( z′) (9.47)
2π a
Then, (9.46) reduces to:
µ l / 2 1 2π e− jβ R
4π − l∫/ 2 2π a ∫0
Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) = I z ( z′) adϕ ′dz′ (9.48)
R

15
The distance between observation and integration points is:
R = ( x − x′) 2 + ( y − y′) 2 + ( z − z′) 2 =
(9.49)
= ρ + a − 2 ρ a cos(ϕ − ϕ ′) + ( z − z′)
2 2 2

The cylindrical geometry of the problem implies the cylindrical symmetry

of the observed fields, i.e. A does not depend on ϕ and one can assume
that ϕ = 0 . Besides, we are interested in the scattered field produced by
this equivalent current at the dipole’s surface, i.e. the observation point is
at ρ = a . Then,
l/2
 1 2π e − jβ R  l/2
Az (a,0, z ) = µ ∫ I z ( z′)  ∫ dϕ ′  dz′ = µ ∫ I z ( z′)G ( z , z′ ) dz′ , (9.50)
−l / 2  2π 0
4 π R  −l / 2
where
2π
1 e− jβ R
G ( z , z′ ) =
2π ∫0 4π R
dϕ ′ (9.51)

 ϕ′ 
R( ρ =a ,ϕ =0) = 4a 2 sin 2   + ( z − z′) 2 (9.52)
  2
Substituting (9.50) in (9.45) yields:
1  2 d2 
l/2
Ez ( ρ = a ) = − j  β + 2  ∫ I z ( z′)G ( z , z′)dz′
s
(9.53)
ωε  dz  − l / 2
Imposing the boundary condition (9.43) on the field in (9.53) leads to:
 2 d 2  l/2
 β + 2  ∫ I z ( z′)G ( z , z′)dz′ = − jωε Ez ( ρ = a )
i
(9.54)
 dz  −l / 2
Since I z is the source, which does not depend on z , (9.54) can be rewritten
as:
l/2
 2 d 2G ( z , z′) 
∫ ′ β ′ + ′ = − ωε ( ρ = a)
i
I z ( z )  G ( z , z ) 2  dz j E z (9.55)
−l / 2  dz 
2
Equation (9.55) is called Pocklington’s integro-differential equation. It is
used to compute the equivalent filamentary current distribution I z ( z′) by
knowing the incident field on the dipole’s surface.
2
H.C. Pocklington, “Electrical oscillation in wires”, Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc., 9, 1897, pp.324-332.

16
 When the gap of length b is the only place where Ezi exists, equation
(9.55) is written as:
 b b
− jωε E i
, − < z <
 2 d G ( z , z′)  
l/2 2 z
2 2 (9.56)
∫ I z ( z ′) 

β G ( z , z ′) +
dz 2


dz ′ = 
b l
−l / 2  0, <| z |<
 2 2
If one assumes that the wire is very thin, then the Green’s function
G ( z , z′) simplifies to:
2π
1 e− jβ R e − jβ R
G ( z , z′ ) = ∫ dϕ ′ = , (9.57)
2π 0
4π R 4π R
 ϕ′ 
since R reduces R( ρ =a→0) = 4a 2 sin 2   + ( z − z′) 2 ≈ z − z′ .
to
2
3
Richmond has differentiated and rearranged (9.55), where (9.57) is
assumed, in a more convenient for programming form:
+l / 2
e− jβ R 
∫ I z ( z′) 5 (
1 + j β R ) ( 2 R 2 − 3a 2 ) + ( β aR ) dz′ = − jωε Ezi (9.58)
2

4π R 
−l / 2

Equation (9.58) is solved numerically by the Method of Moments, after

the structure is discretized into small linear segments.

3
J.H. Richmond, “Digital computer solutions of the rigorous equations for scattering problems,” Proc. IEEE, 53,
pp.796-804, August 1965.

17
4. Hallén’s equation
Hallén’s4 equation can be derived as a modification of Pocklington’s
equation. It is easier to solve numerically, but it makes some additional
assumptions. Consider again equation (9.56). It can be written in terms of
Az explicitly as:
 b b
2  − jωεµ E i
z , − < z <
d Az 2 2
2
+ β Az = 
2
(9.59)
dz  0, b l
<| z |<
 2 2
When b → 0 , one can express the incident field in the gap via the voltage
applied to the gap:
Vg = limb→0 bEzi (9.60)
The Ezi ( z ) function is an impulse function of z , such that:
Ezi = Vgδ ( z ) (9.61)
The excitation term in (9.59) collapses into a δ -function:
d 2 Az
+ β 2
Az = − jωεµVgδ ( z ) (9.62)
dz 2
If z ≠ 0 ,
d 2 Az
+ β 2
Az = 0 (9.63)
dz 2
Because the current density on the cylinder is symmetrical with respect to
z′ , i.e. J z ( z′) = J z (− z′) , the potential Az must also be symmetrical. Then,
the general solution of the ODE in (9.63) has the form:
Az ( z ) = B cos ( β z ) + C sin ( β | z |) (9.64)
From (9.62) it follows that
dAz 0+
= − jωµεVg (9.65)
dz 0−
From (9.64) and (9.65) one can calculate the constant C.
dAz 0+
= C β cos(0+ ) − C ( − β ) cos(0− ) = − jωµεVg
dz 0−
4
E. Hallén, “Theoretical investigation into the transmitting and receiving qualities of antennae,” Nova Acta Regiae Soc.
Sci. Upsaliensis, Ser. IV, No. 4, 1938, pp. 1-44.

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 ⇒ 2C β = − jωµεVg
V µ Vg
⇒ C = − j µε g = − j (9.66)
2 η 2
Equation (9.66) is substituted in (9.64), and Az is expressed with its
integral over the currents, to obtain the final form of Hallén’s integral
equation:
+l / 2
e− jβ R Vg
∫ I ( z ′) dz ′ = − j sin ( β | z |) + B cos( β z ) (9.67)
4π R 2η
z
−l / 2

Here, R = a 2 + ( z − z′) 2 . It must be repeated again that Hallén’s equation

assumes that the incident field exists only in the infinitesimal dipole gap,
while in Pocklington’s equation there are no restrictions on the distribution
of the incident field at the dipole.

5. Modeling the excitation field

• Delta-gap source (Pocklington and Hallén)
• Magnetic frill source (Pocklington)

l
2

Ezi J mϕ J mϕ
l
2

2a delta-gap magnetic frill

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