EG-335

Gas Dynamics. Part I

Igor Sazonov

Swansea University
School of Engineering

Room 160, e-mail: i.sazonovswansea.ac.uk

Recommended books
1. Y.U. Çengel, M.A.Boles, Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach.

2. J. John, T. Keith, Gas Dynamics

3. J.D. Mattingly, Elements of Gas Turbine Propulsion
4. Further reading: H.W. Liepmann and A. Roshko, Elements of Gas Dynamics

1 Introductory concepts of compressible flow

Gas dynamics studies flow of compressible gas and its interaction with bodies

Fluid = substance that does not sustain the shear stress (gas, liquid, plasma).

Fluid Mechanics

Air Mechanics Gas Dynamics

ρ = const ρ 6= const ··· etc.
v < 13 c v > 31 c

Gas dynamics is a part of fluid dynamics dealing with high speed flows in which the com-
pressibility is essential. The density, ρ, is not constant and depends on the pressure, p,

ρ = ρ(p, . . .) 6= const (1)

The density variation results in temperature, T , variation, and, hense, in variation of thermodynamic
energy.
In such flows, transfer of mechanical energy into thermodynamic energy and back must
be accounted.
Potential energy À Kinetic energy À Thermodynamic energy
| {z }
Aerodynamics
| {z }
Gas Dynamics

Here we study mainly gas dynamics as applied to turbine and other engines.
How to describe a flow?: velocity field ~v (x, y, z), pressure field p(x, y, z), temperature field T (x, y, z),
etc.

1
 Traditional Thermodynamics Gas Dynamics

Pistol »
:
»
- -
Gas - ~v (x, y, z)
- p(x, y, z) -
m, p, V, T
-
T (x, y, z)
also Q, U, S, etc. - -
Cylinder
~v ≡ 0 X
X
z

Intensive and extensive properties

In gas dynamics we do not deal with a fixed amount of gas (as in the standard thermodynamics of cylinder
and pistol) possessing a certain mass m, volume V , energy E, entropy S, etc. These properties are global
characteristics of the amount of gas; they are called extensive. Other ones, like, temperature T , pressure
p can vary from point to point. They are local characteristics of the gas and are called intensive. In gas
dynamics we will deal with intensive properties.
Let take two identical thermodynamic systems and combine them into a bigger system. Some param-
eters of the bigger system remain the same as for every smaller system but other increase in two times.
parameters which increase with increasing the system we called extensive, other which remains the same
we called intensive:

single system combined system

specific values
¥ ¥¥

velocity ~v ~v intensive
temperature T T intensive
pressure p p intensive

V 1
volume V 2V → m =∀= ρ
E
energy E 2E → m =e
~
momentum P~ 2P~ → P
m = ~v
Q
heat Q 2Q → m =q
m
mass m 2m → V = ρ!

For every extensive property we can define a correspondent intensive property: for example, for energy E
we can define a specific energy: energy per unit mass e. If gas is homogeneous then simply e = E/m. We
denote the correspondent specific properties by low-case letters.
Table of basic intensive and extensive properties (and the correspondent them specific
properties).

2
 Extensive Intensive
temperature T [K or ◦ K]
pressure p [Bar = N m−2 = kg m−1 s−2 ]
mass m [kg] density ρ = m/V = mass per unit volume [kg m−3 ]
momentum P~ = m~v [kg m s−1 ] velocity ~v = specific momentum (per unit mass) [m s−1 ]
V
volume V [m3 ] specific volume = ρ−1 [ m3 kg−1 ]
m
v2 KE v2
kinetic energy KE = m [J] specific kinetic energy ke = = [J kg−1 ]
2 m 2
PE
potential energy PE = mgz [J] specific potential energy pe = = gz [J kg−1 ]
m
E
energy E [J] specific energy e = [J kg−1 ]
m
U
internal energy U [J] specific internal energy u = [J kg−1 ]
m
W
work W [J] specific work w = [J kg−1 ]
m
Ẇ
power Ẇ [J s−1 =Wt] specific power ẇ = [J kg−1 s−1 ]
m
Q
heat Q [J] specific heat q = [J kg−1 ]
m
H
enthalpy H = U + pV [J] specific enthalpy h = [J kg−1 ]
m
S
entropy S [J K−1 ] specific entropy s = [J K−1 kg−1 ]
m
All the specific properties are per unit mass rather than per unit volume except the density which is
per unit volume.
If the gas is not homogenious, then for example of specific energy we have e = e(x, y, z). To find a
specific energy in the point x, y, z, consider a small volume of the gas around the point x, y, z. Let its mass
∆E
is ∆m and amount of energy in it is ∆E, then e(x, y, z) = lim .
∆m→0 ∆m
How to compute the total energy if the specific energy e(x, y, z) is known in every point?
N
X N
X ZZZ
E = lim ei ∆mi = lim ei ρi ∆Vi = eρ dV
∆Vi →0 ∆Vi →0 V
i=1 i=1

For the mass and density of inhomogeneous gas, we should write

∆m
ρ = lim ,
∆V →0 ∆V
N
X ZZZ
m = lim ρi ∆Vi = ρ dV
∆Vi →0 V
i=1

In gas dynamic we use specific volume ρ−1 (or density ρ) instead of volume V .

State postulate
For given mass of gas, two properties determine the state of the gas (the third property can be calculated
from two given ones)

Given p, V Given V, T Given T, p

can be computed T can be computed p can be computed V

The state equation can be described by a function

f (p, V, T ) = 0

3
All possible states must be on the surface f (p, V, T ) = 0 in the 3D space {p, V, T }.
If the state equation can be resolved with respect to p then we can write

p = p(V, T )

In Gas Dynamics we will use the state equation in the form

p = p(ρ, T )

Ideal gas approximation

Given gas of mass m. Then using the state of gas can be approximated by the equation
m
pV = RT
µ
J J
where R is the universal gas constant R = 8.314 = 8314 , µ (g/mol or kg/kmol) is the
K · mol K · kmol
weight one mole of the gas. One mole of any gas (example 29g of air, 32g of O2 , 18g of water steam, all
contain the same number of molecules NA = 6.022 · 1023 Avogadro number).

Gas H2 He N2 O2 air
µ 2 4 28 32 29

The ideal gas state equations in intensive variables will be

R
p = Rg ρT, Rg = µ (2)

8314 J
Here Rg is the gas constant. Example Rair = = 287 . Equation (2) can be obtained from
29 kg · K
the previous one by dividing its both sides by V .
The higher temperature and lower pressure, the better is the ideal gas approximation (until developed
ionization occurs). If gas is not ideal than the following equation can be used p = ZRg ρT where Z = 1
for ideal gas. In general Z = Z(ρ, T ) ≤ 1. Its discrepancy from unity shows how good the ideal gas
approximation works.

Thermodynamic processes
Every process can be (internally) reversible or irreversible
Adiabatic + reversible = isentropic: S = const

Isothermal: Isobaric: Isochoric: Isentropic:

T = const p = const V = const (ρ = const) S = const (∆Q = const + reversible)

T
pV = const = const pV γ = const Extensive
V
p p p
= const T ρ = const = const = const Intensive
ρ T ργ

Polytropic pV n = const

Q 1: Find the process under ideal gas is for n = 0, 1, γ, ∞.

Answer: isobaric,isothermal, adiabatic,isochoric, relatively.

4
2 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy
• E = energy (J); specific energy e = E/m (J·m−3 )
Energy = capacity to do work
Q 2: List the form of energy
Answer:
n
X mi v 2
mv 2 i
1. Kinetic KE = . Many bodies KE = . Gas with v = v(x, y, z) and/or ρ = ρ(x, y, z): KE =
2 i=1
2
ZZZ
v2
ρ dV
Ω 2
x2
2. Potential PE = mgz (mass m lifted at height z) or k (compressed spring with elasticity k)
2
3. Thermal; 4. Chemical; 5. Electromagnetic; 6. Nuclear
Kinetic and potential are forms of mechanical energy.
Q3: How energy can be transferred? Answer: by work, by heat, by mass flow, by waves (wave drug of a
supersonic jet).

Work
Work done by a force F on the body displaced by the distance l is W = F l .
If the force is variable then and the path is curvilinear then it can be expressed throw the integral
Z 2
W12 = F dl
1

where dl is element of displacement. If the force and the displacement are not parallel each other then
projection of the force F~l onto the direction of displacement is taken
µ Z 2 ¶
W = F~ll = F~ · ~l = F~ d~l in general
1

Here dot means the dot-product operation

à Z (=scallar ! product, =inner product).
φ2
Work on a shaft W = M ∆φ = M dφ where M is the moment!
φ1
Boundary work (moving boundary work):
Z V2
out
• W = pdV work performed by the gas: W out > 0 if ∆V > 0.
V1
Z V2
• W in = − pdV = −W out work performed on the gas: W in > 0 if ∆V < 0.
V1
Z ρ1
• Specific work wout = W out /m = pρ−2 dρ
ρ2

• Ẇ = dW/dt = power, specific power ẇ = Ẇ /m.

Internal energy
Internal energy U = sum of microscopic forms of energy
• sensible = kinetic energy of molecules
• latent = associated with phase
• chemical = associated with bond in molecules
Thermal energy = sensible + latent

5
Energy conservation law
Change of energy of a system ∆E = E in − E out .
The 1st law of thermodynamics (gas at rest, no gravitational, electric fields)
∆U = ∆Q − W out
dU = δQ − δW out
(δ is because the integral is path dependent).
The boundary work δW in = dW in = pdV .
Mechanics + Thermodynamics: E = U + KE + PE

Generalization of the 1st thermodynamic law

δE = δQ − δW out
In terms of intensive variables
δe = δq − δwout , e = u + ke + pe
Return to the standard thermodynamic system: cylinder + pistol:
• isochoric process: V = const, W = 0, ∆E = ∆U
• isobaric process p = const, ∆E = ∆H where H = U + pV is the enthalpy (heat content) = maximal
amount of thermal energy extracted from the system gas + load (p = const)

Heat capacity
∆Q
The greater the heat capacity C, the smaller change of temperature T for the same amount of Q: C =
∆T
[J K−1 ]. Specific capacity [J K−1 kg−1 ]: capacity per unit mass
C ∆q
c= =
m ∆T
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂u ∂h
Specific neat capacities in the isochoric and isobaric processes: cV = , cp = .
∂T V ∂T p
Actually cV = (∂u/∂T )ρ but it is easy to confuse with p.
Relations for ideal gas. Internal energy is a function of T only: u = u(T )
1
h = u(T ) + p
ρ
but p = Rg ρT Then we have
h = u(T ) + Rg T
Hence enthalpy is also a function of T only: h = h(T ). Then
Z
du = cV (T )dT u = cV (T ) dT
Z
dh = cp (T )dT h = cp (T ) dT

Functions u(T ) and h(T ) are tabulated (see, Y.U. Çengel, M.A.Boles, Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach).
Q 3: Show that for ideal gas cp − cv = Rg .
The ratio
cp
γ= >1
cV
always for all the gases. For air with under normal conditions γ ≈ 1.4.
Q 4: Find cp and cv through Rg and γ.
Rg γRg
Answer cV = , cp = . (Note in ideal gas γ = γ(T ))
γ−1 γ−1
Q 5: Evaluate cp and cv for air under normal conditions.
Answer cV = 287/0.4 ≈ 720 J K−1 kg−1 , cp = 1.4 · 287/0.4 ≈ 1000 J K−1 kg−1

6
Concept of Perfect gas
Perfect gas = ideal gas with constant heat capacities
cp = const, cV = const, γ = const

u = cV T, h = cp T
This approximation works well if temperature does not vary too much in the process.

3 Conservations laws for a compressible flow

Control-volume approach
Two approaches:

1. Eulerian: consider a fixed control volume (domain Ω) and relate the movements of mass, momentum
and energy across the control volume boundaries (∂Ω) to changes taking place inside the control
volume.
2. Lagrangian: follow a fixed mass of fluid particles as it moves through the flow field.

The Eulerian approach is used in most the cases. In this course we will use it as well.

Volume integral. Total amount of a property

Given a domain Ω of volim V with the constant parameters: ρ = const, e = const, ~v = const, etc. Then it
is easy to compute

mass : m = ρV
energy : E = em = eρV
momentum : P~ = ~v m = ~v ρV

Consider a body which consists of parts with locally constant parameteres

∆V1 ρ1 e1 ~v1 ∆V2 ρ2 e2 ~v2

∆V3 ρ3 e3 ~v3 ∆V4 ρ4 e4 ~v4

Then
X
volume : V = ∆Vi
i
X
mass : m= ρi ∆Vi
i
X
energy : E= ei ρi ∆Vi
i
X
momentum : P~ = ~vi ρi ∆Vi
i

Now we have domain with variable parameters: ρ = ρ(x, y, z), e = e(x, y, z), ~v = ~v (x, y, z). Then split the
domain by small parts ∆Ωi of volume ∆Vi . Withing every part we approximate variables by constants

ρi ≈ ρ(xi , yi , zi )
ei ≈ e(xi , yi , zi )
~vi ≈ ~v (xi , yi , zi )

where [xi , yi , zi ] ∈ ∆Ωi is any points in part ∆Ωi . Then

X ZZZ
m = lim ρi ∆Vi = ρ(x, y, z)dV
∆Vi →0 Ω
i
X ZZZ
E = lim ei ρi ∆Vi = e(x, y, z)ρ(x, y, z)dV
∆Vi →0 Ω
i

7
and so on.
Some useful integrals
ZZZ X
volume : V = dV ≈ ∆Vi
Ω i
ZZZ X
mass : m= ρdV ≈ ρi ∆Vi
Ω i
ZZZ X
energy : E= eρdV ≈ ei ρi ∆Vi
Ω i
ZZZ X
momentum : P~ = ~v ρdV ≈ ~vi ρi ∆Vi
Ω i

Flow of mass and other properties

Consider a flow

Surface integral. Total flow of a property through a boundary

Compute the flow of e through the boundary ∂Ω of the control volume Ω.

Flow through the Control volume Ω Flow of φ through element of the

area ∆A
6
∂Ω
~n
¡
µ ∆A * ~
©© v
Ω ¡ µ ~v ¡ ©
∆A ¡ ©
¡ ©
©
¡ ©©
Φ :
©
-
-
vn
~n
¡
¡
¡

For this, first, consider amount of passing value through area ∆A in the time interval ∆t by uniform
velocity ~v normal to the area ∆A (i.e. ~v q ~n where ~n is normal to the area ∆A): ∆E = eρ v∆t ∆A; or,
in the unite time, ∆Ė = eρ v ∆A
Now consider that the velocity ~v is not normal to ∆A (~v / ~n) then ∆Ė = eρ vn ∆A where vn is the
projection of ~v onto the normal ~n, i.e. vn = ~v · ~n. Then we have v∆Ė = eρ ~v · ~n ∆A.
To make the notation briefer, introduce the vector ∆A ~ = ~n ∆A then ∆Ė = eρ ~v · ∆A.
~
The total flow through the boundary ∂Ω of the domain Ω can be calculated trough the sum
ZZ
[Flow of E] = lim ei ρi ~vi · ∆A ~i = ¨ ¥ ~
§ ¦ eρ (~v · dA)
∆Ai →0 ∂Ω

This value is positive if more e is escaping (the flow outward is greater) because ~n is directed outward,
therefore ZZ
¨ ¥ ~
[Flow in] − [Flow out] = − § ¦ eρ (~v · dA)
∂Ω
Material derivative
µ ¶ µ ¶ ZZ
dE DE ∂E ¨¥ ~
:= = + § ¦ eρ(~v · dA)
dt fixed particles Dt ∂t fixed volume ∂Ω
ZZZ ZZ
DE ∂ ¨¥ ~
= eρdV + § ¦ eρ(~v · dA)
Dt ∂t Ω ∂Ω

8
 Particular case: 1D flow in a conduit with variable area, e(x, y, z) = e(x), Control volume is between
to bnormal planes x1 and x2 and the walls
ZZZ Z x2
eρdV = e(x)ρ(x)A(x)dx
Ω x1
ZZ
¨¥ ~ = A2 v2 ρ2 e2 − A1 v1 ρ1 e1
§ ¦ eρ(~v · dA)
∂Ω

Conservation laws applied to a control volume Ω

Conservation of mass in a flow

∂
[amount in Ω] = [Flow through ] − [Flow out]
∂t
Apply that to the mass m and density ρ
ZZZ
[Total amount] = ρdV
Z ZΩ
¨¥ ~
[Flow in] − [Flow out] = − § ¦ ρ(~v · dA)
∂Ω
ZZZ ZZ
∂ ¨¥ ~
Hence ρdV = − § ¦ ρ(~v · dA).
∂t Ω ∂Ω
From here we obtain the Continuity equation
ZZZ ZZ
∂ ¨¥ ~ =0
ρdV + § ¦ ρ(~v · dA)
∂t Ω ∂Ω

Differential form
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρvx ∂ρvy ∂ρvz
+ div(~v ρ) = 0 ⇔ + + + =0
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Can be obtain from Gauss-Ostrogradsky formula or if to consider small volume ∆x∆y∆z.

Conservation of energy in a flow

Write down again the energy conservation law

δQ − δW 0 = dE, E = U + KE + PE, W 0 = [Flow work] + [Net work]

Consider the energy change rate
ZZZ ZZ
∂ ¨¥ ~
Q̇ − Ẇ 0 = Ė = eρdV + § ¦ eρ (~v · dA)
∂t Ω ∂Ω

2
v
where e = u + ke + pe = u + 2 + gz. Therefore
ZZZ ZZ µ ¶
∂ ¨¥ v2 ~
Q̇ − Ẇ 0 = eρdV + § ¦ u + + gz ρ (~v · dA)
∂t Ω ∂Ω 2

Consider the flow work rate (power)

n
X ZZ
~ ¨ ¥ ~
Ẇflow = p~vi · ∆A → § ¦ p (~v · dA)
i=1 ∂Ω

Work of the flow on the area ∆A ∆Wflow = ρ∆A v∆t where F = ρ∆A is the force, l = v∆t is the
displacement.
Substitute this into the equation
ZZ ZZZ ZZ µ ¶
¨¥ ~ = ∂ ¨ ¥ v2 ~
Q̇ − Ẇ − § ¦ p (~v · dA) eρdV + § ¦ u + + gz ρ (~v · dA)
∂Ω ∂t Ω ∂Ω 2

9
Move Ẇflow onto r.h.s.
ZZZ ZZ µ ¶ ZZ
∂ ¨¥ v2 ~ ¨ ¥ ~
Q̇ − Ẇ = eρdV + § ¦ u + + gz ρ (~v · dA) + § ¦ p (~v · dA)
∂t Ω ∂Ω 2 ∂Ω

United the surface integrals

ZZZ ZZ µ ¶
∂ ¨¥ p v2 ~
Q̇ − Ẇ = eρdV + § ¦ u + + + gz ρ (~v · dA)
∂t Ω ∂Ω ρ 2

Note that h = u + p/ρ (H = U + pV ) is the enthalpy

ZZZ ZZ µ ¶
∂ ¨ ¥ v2 ~
Q̇ − Ẇ = eρdV + § ¦ h + + gz ρ (~v · dA)
∂t Ω ∂Ω 2

The value
v2
h0 = h +
2
is called stagnation enthalpy (or total enthalpy)

Conservation of momentum in a flow

d X
Momentum equation (2nd Newton’s law) P~ = F~
dt
Note that P~ = m~v , then dt d ~
P = m d~ v
dt = m~ a (provided m is constant). Apply this formula to the
momentum in the control volume Ω.
∂ h i h i X
Momentum P~ in Ω − Flow of momentum P~ through ∂Ω = F~
∂t
X
Consider r.h.s. F~ = F~pressure + F~Friction + F~body
ZZ
~ ¨ ¥ ~
HereFpressure = − § ¦ p dA
∂Ω ZZZ
∂ h ~
i ∂
The first term on l.h.s. Momentum P in Ω = ρ~v dV
∂t ∂t Ω ZZ
h i
~ ¨ ¥ ~
The second term on l.h.s. Flow of momentum P through ∂Ω = − § ¦ ρ~v (~v · dA)
∂Ω
Final formula is
ZZZ ZZ ZZ
∂ ¨¥ ~ + ¨ ¥ ~
ρ~v dV + § ¦ ρ~v (~v · dA) § ¦ pdA = F~friction + F~body
∂t Ω ∂Ω ∂Ω

Here F~pressure is moved onto the l.h.s

Differential form (after utilizing the continuity equation)

∂ ~ = f~visc + f~body
~ ~v + ∇p
ρ ~v + ρ(~v · ∇)
∂t
With the zero r.h.s, it is the famous Euler equation.
µ ¶
∂vx ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂p
ρ + ρ vx + vy + vz vx + = fx
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
µ ¶
∂vy ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂p
ρ + ρ vx + vy + vz vy + = fy
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y
µ ¶
∂vz ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂p
ρ + ρ vx + vy + vz vz + = fz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z
.

10
 Ffric Ffric = 0
v(x,y,z)
v(x)
x
x

Fbody Fbody= 0 DQ = 0
Q

Figure 1: Real flow and its approximation (left).

4 Isentropic one-dimensional flow

Many compressible flow problems can be solved to a good engineering approximation by the use of the
one-dimensional analysis. One-dimensional analysis implies that the flow variables are functions of only
one spatial co-ordinate.
Assumptions:

1. Velocity, pressure and other variables are constant in a cross section: ~v = ~v (x), p = p(x), etc.
2. Velocity is directed along the axis: v = {vx , 0, 0};
∂
3. The flow is steady: = 0;
∂t
4. Neglect friction between the gas and the walls: Ffric = 0;
5. Disregard gravity force and other body forces:Fbody = 0;
6. Neglect heat exchange between different parts of gas and between gas and the walls δQ = 0:

Consider a control volume between two cross-sections 1 and 2 and the duct walls. Apply the conserva-
tion laws to this model of the flow. We will derive the basic relations.
Basic relations for a isentropic one-dimensional flow

A1 ρ1 v1 = A2 ρ2 v2 mass conservation ṁ = Aρv = const

v2 v2
T1 + 1 = T2 + 2 energy conservation h0 = const, T0 = const
2cp 2cp
dp + ρvdv = 0 momentum conservation Adp + ṁdv = 0; if A = const: p + ρv 2 = const
p1,2 = Rg ρ1,2 T1,2 state relation
µ ¶γ µ ¶γ/(γ−1)
p2 ρ2 T2
= = isentropic relation
p1 ρ1 T1

The mass conservation law adjusted to the steady flow takes the form
ZZ
¨¥ ~ =0
§ ¦ ρ (~v · dA)
∂V

gives ρ1 v1 A1 = ρ2 v2 A2 or
ρvA = const or ṁ = const
where ṁ = ρvA is the flow rate (mass of fluid passing the cross-section during unity of time).
Differential form (1D) (take logarithm and then the differential)

dρ dv dA
+ + =0
ρ v A
The energy conservation law takes the form
ZZ
¨ ¥ ~ =0
§ ¦ h0 ρ (v · dA)
∂V

11
 F3 F2= p(x+Dx)A(x+Dx)
A1 A2 F1 = p(x)A(x)
v1 v2
r r x
1 2

x x+Dx

Figure 2: Control volumes for mass and energy(left) and for the momentum (right).

Applying this integral to the control volume between two cross-sections and the duct walls we obtain

−h01 ρ1 v1 A1 + h02 ρ2 v2 A2 = 0

or
h0 ρvA = const ⇐⇒ h0 ṁ = const
Remind that from the mass conservation law follows ṁ = const we finally obtain

h0 = const

From here we have

T0 = const
For a perfect gas (h = cp T )
v
T+ = const
2cp
The momentum equation takes the form
X ZZ
¨¥
F~ = § ¦ ρ~v (~v · dA)
~ (3)
∂Ω

Consider a control volume between two cross-sections x and x + ∆x and the duct walls.
Consider the r.h.s.

r.h.s. = −ρ(x + ∆x)v(x + ∆x)A(x + ∆x) v(x + ∆x) + ρ(x)v(x)A(x) v(x)

= −ṁ(x + ∆x) v(x + ∆x) + ṁ(x) v(x)
= −ṁ {v(x + ∆x) − v(x)}

Because ṁ = const. Now consider the l.h.s.

X
l.h.s. = F~ = p(x)A(x) − p(x + ∆x)A(x + ∆x) + Fwall

where Fwall is the projection of the resultant force onto the x axis.
To find it we temporary assume that fluid is at rest and p = const.
Then the sum of forces acting on the control volume (which must be zero) is

pA(x) − pA(x + ∆x) + Fwall = 0 =⇒ Fwall = p {A(x + ∆x) − A(x)}

Now we return to the variable p(x) then

Fwall = p̄ {A(x + ∆x) − A(x)}

where p̄ is the averaged pressure between x and x + ∆x. It is to show that p̄ = p(x) + O(∆x). Thus

Fwall = [p(x) + O(∆x)] {A(x + ∆x) − A(x)}

Then
X
l.h.s. = F~ = p(x)A(x) − p(x + ∆x)A(x + ∆x) + [p(x) + O(∆x] {A(x + ∆x) − A(x)}
= A(x + ∆x) {p(x + ∆x) − p(x)} + O(∆x) {A(x + ∆x) − A(x)}

12
 Substitute l.h.s and r.h.s into (3) divide the both sides by ∆x
½ ¾ ½ ¾ ½ ¾
p(x + ∆x) − p(x) A(x + ∆x) − A(x) v(x + ∆x) − v(x)
A(x + ∆x) + O(∆x) = −ṁ
∆x ∆x ∆x

Tending ∆x → 0 we obtain
½ ¾ ½ ¾ ½ ¾
∂p(x) ∂A(x) ∂v(x)
A(x) +0 = −ṁ
∂x ∂x ∂x

Finally
∂p(x) ∂v(x)
A(x) = −ṁ
∂x ∂x
or
Adp + ṁdv = 0
We can write this in a different form. Substituting ṁ = ρvA and dividing by A, we obtain

dp + ρv dv = 0

Main relations for the one-dimensional isentropic flow

Integral form Formulae for solving Differential form
dρ dv dA
mass ṁ := ρvA = const ρ1 v1 A1 = ρ2 v2 A2 + + =0
ρ v A
v12 v2
energy h0 = const T1 + = T2 + 2
2cp 2cp
momentum Adp + ṁdv = 0 ⇐⇒ dp + ρvdv = 0

Q 6: Find integral form of the momentum equation for the case A = const.
Answer: p + ρv 2 = const
Q 7: Consider the energy conservation law in the case ρ = const and derive the Bernoulli equation p + ρv 2 /2 =
const
Q 8: Explain why the both equations do not contradict each other.

Sound speed
Consider a flow with pressure disturbance unmovable in the given reference frame (i.e. the flow is moving
with the speed velocity relative the given reference frame).

v c
p(x)

Pressure perturbation

Momentum equation
dp + ρv dv = 0
Mass conservation equation (when A = const)

dρ dv
+ =0
ρ v
Finding dv substituting into the momentum equation
dp
dp = v 2 dρ =⇒ v 2 =
dρ

Here the flow velocity coincides with the sound speed (denoted by a or c)

dp
c2 =
dρ

13
Question: which the process? Answer if frequency is not too high (< 100kHz) the process can be considered
as adiabatic and reversible (isentropic). Thus
µ ¶
∂p
c2 =
∂ρ S
Q 9: Compute the sound speed for an ideal gas.
Answer. In the ideal gas we have the following equation describing the adiabatic process

p = const ργ

Then
dp
= γ const ργ−1
dρ
const ργ
= γ
ρ
p
= γ
ρ
= γRg T

Remind the ideal gas equation: p = Rg ρT .

Remember: dp = c2 dρ
Q 10: Evaluate the sound speed in the air under normal conditions.
Q 11: Derive the dependance of c on p and ρ within a dimensionless factor by comparing the dimensions.

Mach number
Mach number of rthe flow is
v
M=
c
It can depened on x, y, z.

List of types of flow

Incompressible M ¿1
Subsonic M <1
Transonic M ≈1
Sonic M =1
Supersonic M >1
Hypersonic M À1

5 Stagnation properties
Stagnation properties: if flow is brought adiabatically to rest
v2
Consider h0 − h =
2
For the perfect gas h0 − h = cp (T0 − T )
v2
Hence T0 = T +
2cp
If cp = γRg /(γ − 1) then

v2
T0 = T + (γ − 1)
2γRg
· ¸
γ − 1 v2
= T 1+
2 γRg T
· ¸
γ − 1 v2
= T 1+
2 c2
Finally
£ ¤ γ−1
T0 = T 1 + γ 1 M 2 , γ1 =
2

14
 Remind that this is valid for perfect gas.
Q 12: Find p0 and ρ0 assuming the gas to be perfect and the process adiabatic.
Answer:
µ ¶γ
p2 ρ2
=
p1 ρ1
µ ¶γ µ ¶γ−1
T2 p2 /Rg ρ2 p2 ρ1 ρ2 ρ1 ρ2
= = = =
T1 p1 /Rg ρ1 p1 ρ2 ρ1 ρ2 ρ1
µ ¶ 1 µ ¶ γ
ρ2 T2 γ−1 p2 T2 γ−1
∝ and ∝
ρ1 T1 p1 T1
· ¸ 1 · ¸ γ
ρ0 γ − 1 2 γ−1 p0 γ − 1 2 γ−1
Hence = 1+ M and = 1+ M .
ρ 2 p 2
Q 13: Find how much per cent T0 , p0 and ρ0 greater their real values for M = 1/3, 1/2, 1, 2 and γ = 1.4.

6 Critical properties. Area-Velocity variation

Critical properties if flow is brought adiabatically to sound speed
The properties of a fluid at a location where M = 1 are called critical properties (T ∗ , p∗ , ρ∗ ). Find the
ration of stagnation and critical properties. Substitution M = 1 into the ratio T0 /T = 1 + γ 1 M 2 we have
T0 /T∗ = 1 + γ 1 = γ 2 . From here we can get
T∗ 2 1
= =
T0 1+γ γ2
· ¸ γ
p∗ 1 γ−1
=
p0 γ2
· ¸ 1
ρ∗ 1 γ−1
=
ρ0 γ2

Q 14: Compute T ∗ /T0 , p∗ /p0 and ρ∗ /ρ0 for γ = 1.3, 4/3, 1.4, 5/3.
Q 15: Calculate c0 /c∗ . Evaluate it for γ = 1.4.

Velocity-Area Variation
Consider temporally a incompressible flow with ρ = const. Then we have from ρvA = const that vA =
dv dA dv v
const. or + = 0. Hence = − < 0. The smaller area, the greater the velocity.
v A dA A
Return to a gas dynamic (ρ 6= const). Consider the similar relation in the compressible gas. List the
relations we have
dρ dv dA
+ + = 0
ρ v A
dp + ρvdv = 0
dp = c2 dρ

We have to eliminate dp and dρ and reman dv and dA. Substituting dp from the third equation into the
second we have
dρ dv dA
+ + = 0
ρ v A
c2 dρ + ρvdv = 0
dρ vdv vdv dv dA
From the second equation we have = − 2 . Substitute this into the first equation − 2 + + = 0.
µ ρ
¶ c c v A
2
dv v dA
Combing the terms 1− 2 =−
v c A

15
 Finally
dv v 1
=−
dA A 1 − M2
where the ratio
v
M=
c
is called the Mach number.

Table for the different types of flow depending on the mach number.
For subsonic flow M <1 dv/dA < 0
For supersonic flow M > 1 dv/dA > 0
For sonic flow M =1 dA/dv = 0 (A = const)

Thus for subsonic flow velocity grows in a converging nozzle. in supersonic flow the velocity grows in
a diverging nozzle (diffuser). Sonic flow can exist in a smallest cross-section (throat of the nozzle).
Q 16: Find which properties (p, ρ, T ) grow and which decrease in converging nozzle for subsonic flow.
Q 17: Find which properties (p, ρ, T ) grow and which decrease in diverging nozzle for subsonic flow.
Q 18: Find which properties (p, ρ, T ) grow and which decrease in converging nozzle for supersonic flow.
Q 19: Find which properties (p, ρ, T ) grow and which decrease in diverging nozzle for supersonic flow.
General relations for 1D isentropic flow

A1 ρ1 v1 = A2 ρ2 v2 mass conservation (4)

v2 v22
T1 + 1 = T2 + energy conservation (perfect gas) (5)
2cp 2cp
dp + ρvdv = 0 momentum equation (6)
µ ¶γ µ ¶ γ
p2 ρ2 T2 γ−1
= = adiabatic relation (7)
p1 ρ1 T1
dp
= c2 = γRg T sound speed (8)
dρ
Additional relations γ 1 = (γ − 1)/2, γ 2 = 1 + γ 1 = (γ + 1)/2
T0
= 1 + γ1M 2 stagnation temperature (perfect gas) (9)
T
T0
= γ2 critical temperature (M = 1) (10)
T∗

7 Converging nozzle
Consider a flow through a converging nozzle with the exit (outlet) area Ae and the back pressure pb . Note
that the pressure in the converging nozzle cannot become smaller than the critical value p∗ . Therefore, it
is worth to consider the cases.
Case 1: pb > p∗ . Then the flow is subsonic everywhere and the exit pressure pe is pe = pb > p∗ .
Case 1.5: pb = p∗ . Then the flow is subsonic everywhere but reaches the sound speed in the exit:
ve = c∗ . In this case we have pe = pb = p∗ .
Case 2: pb < p∗ . If the background pressure drops below the critical pressure the flow becomes non-
sensitive to the background pressure. That is because any information about change of the background
pressure can propagates with the sound speed and cannot propagate upstream if its velocity is equal or
greater than the sound speed. In this case we have ve = c∗ and pe = p∗ > pb . The flow adjusts from
critical pressure pe = p∗ to the background pressure pb < pe by a pattern of expansion waves and oblique
shock waves (see below).
Let the nozzle inlet be large that velocity is close to zero v ≈ 0 and all the properties are close to their
stagnation values p0 , T0 . Let p0 , T0 and Ae be given.
Given Ae , p0 , T0 , find maximal flow rate ṁmax .
The flow rate is maximal when the exit velocity equals the sound speed in the exit:

ṁmax = ρ∗ c∗ Ae

16
Employing the state equation and the sound speed formula we have
√
p∗ p γp∗
ṁmax = γRg T∗ Ae = p Ae
Rg T∗ Rg T∗
Now we use relations for critical pressure and temperature
√ γ/(γ−1) √ −γ/(γ−1)
γp0 /γ 2 γp0 γ
ṁmax = p Ae = p 2 −1/2 Ae
Rg T0 /γ 2 Rg T0 γ 2

Finally we have
√ √ · ¸ γ+1
γp0 1/2−γ/(γ−1) γp0 1 2(γ−1)
ṁmax =p γ2 Ae = p Ae (11)
Rg T0 Rg T0 γ 2

Given Ae , p0 , T0 , and pb find dependance of the mass flow rate ṁ = ρvA on the background pressure
pb .
1) If pb ≤ p∗ , (regimes 1.5, 2) then the flow rate takes its maximal value (11).
2) If pb > p∗ (regime 1) then the flow is isentropic and subsonic in the nozzle and pe = pb . We calculate
the mass flow rate in the exit:
ṁ = ρe ve Ae
We have to find ρe and ve . Employing the state equation and the relation for the Mach number and
the sound speed we can write
pe p pe √ pb √
ṁ = Me γRg Te Ae = p γMe Ae = p γMe Ae (12)
Rg Te Rg Te Rg Te

We can find the Mach number using the relation

µ ¶γ/(γ−1)
p0 T0 ¡ ¢γ/(γ−1)
= = 1 + γ 1 Me2
pe Te

and the condition that pe = pb (regime 1). Solving this equation with respect to Me we have
"µ ¶ # "µ ¶ #
(γ−1)/γ (γ−1)/γ
2 1 p0 1 p0
Me = −1 = −1 (13)
γ1 pe γ1 pb

and also µ ¶(γ−1)/γ µ ¶(γ−1)/γ

T0 p0 pb
= =⇒ Te = T0 (14)
Te pb p0
Substituting found Me and Te into (12) we obtain a cumbersome relation
s
µ ¶− γ−1 µ ¶(γ−1)/γ
pb pb 2γ √ 1 p0
ṁ = p γ√ − 1 Ae
Rg T0 p0 γ1 pb
s
µ ¶1 − γ−1 r µ ¶(γ−1)/γ
p0 pb 2γ γ p0
= p e − 1 Ae
Rg T0 p0 γ1 pb
s
µ ¶ γ+1 r µ ¶(γ−1)/γ
p0 pb 2γ γ p0
= p − 1 Ae
Rg T0 p0 γ1 pb

Thus, for a particular ideal gas, the maximum flow rate through the nozzle with given exit area is fixed
by a stagnation pressure and temperature of the inlet flow. The nozzle exit pressure in the converging
nozzle is pe = max{pb , p∗ } and can increase the back pressure if pb < p∗ . The highest velocity to which
a fluid can be accelerated is limited by a sonic velocity (M = 1), which occurs at the exit cross-section
(throat) of the nozzle.

17
 Ae
pb
po At
po pe
v@0 x
v@0 x

pb
po
p 1 1.5
p I
po
pe p>p 2
b *
1 p
*
pe p 2.5
p p=p II
* b * 1.5 3

p<p 2 p 3.5
b * III 4
x
M
3,3.5,4

M
1 1.5,2
1
2.5
1 2

1.5
x 1
0

Figure 3: Pressure distribution along the converging nozzle (left). Pressure and velocity distribution along
a converging-diverging nozzle.

18
8 Converging-diverging nozzle
Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities can be accomplished by attaching a diverging flow section to
a the subsonic nozzle at the throat. The resulting combined flow section is a converging-diverging nozzle,
which is a standard equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket propulsion.
Consider a converging-diverging nozzle shown in Fig. A fluid enters the nozzle with a low velocity at
stagnation pressure p0 . The back pressure is pb . Let us starting with pb = p0 (when the there is no flow:
now pressure difference) we decrease the value pb .
Regime 1. When p0 > pb > pI is greater a certain value pI (which we calculate later) the flow remains
subsonic throughout the nozzle. The flow velocity increases in the converging section and decreases in the
diverging one. The pressure behaves quit opposite and reaches its minimum in the throat.
Regime 1.5 (intermediate). When pb = pI the throat pressure becomes p∗ and the fluid achieves sonic
velocity at the throat. But in the diverging section the velocity is still slowing.
Regime 2. When pII < pb < pI (the value pII which we calculate below) the fluid that achieved a
sonic velocity at the throat continues accelerating to supersonic velocities in the diverging section as the
pressure decreases. This acceleration comes to sudden stop, however, a normal shock develops at a section
between the throat and the exit plane, which causes a sudden drop in velocity to subsonic level and sudden
increase in pressure. The fluid then continues to decelerate further in the remaining part of the diverging
section. Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot be approximated as isentropic.
The normal shock moves downstream as pb is decreased, and approaches the nozzle exit as pb approaches
pII .
Regime 2.5 (intermediate). When pb = pII , the normal shock forms at the exit plane of the nozzle.
The flow is supersonic through the entire diverging section in this case, and it can be approximated ad
isentropic. However, the fluid velocity drops to subsonic level just before leaving the nozzle as it crosses
the normal shock.
Regime 3. When pb < pII , the flow in the diverging section is supersonic, and the fluid expands to
pIII at the nozzle exit with no normal shock forming within the nozzle. Thus, the flow through the nozzle
can be approximated as isentropic. Pattern of oblique shock and expansion waves started with the shock
wave is observed in the exhaust. During this pattern the pressure is adjusting from pe to pb
Regime 3.5 (intermediate). When pb = pIII , no shocks occur within or outside the nozzle. This is the
case of the best performance of the nozzle. The exit Mach number Me in this regime is the Mach number
this nozzle is designed for.
Regime 4. When pb < pIII , irreversible mixing and expansion waves occur downstream of the exit plane
of the nozzle. When pb < pIII , however, the pressure of the fluid increases from pIII to pb irreversible in
the wake of the nozzle exit, creating oblique shocks.

Addition to CD-nozzle
Area versus Mach

ṁ = Aρv = const
Consider the density (express it through M )
µ ¶1/(γ−1) µ ¶1/(γ−1) µ ¶1/(γ−1)
T 1 p0 1
ρ = ρ0 = ρ0 =
T0 1 + γ1M 2 Rg T0 1 + γ 1 M 2
Consider the velocity (express it through M )
p p ¡ ¢−1/2
v = M c = M γRg T = M γRg T0 1 + γ 1 M 2
Now
· ¸
p0 ¡ ¢−1/(γ−1) h p ¡ ¢−1/2 i
ṁ = A 1 + γ1M 2 M γRg T0 1 + γ 1 M 2
Rg T0
√
p0 γ ¡ ¢−1/(γ−1)−1/2
= Ap M 1 + γ1M 2
Rg T0
√
p0 γ ¡ ¢−1/(2γ 3 )
= Ap M 1 + γ1M 2
Rg T0

19
 Mass flow in the throat √
p0 γ −1/(2γ 3 )
ṁt = At p (1 + γ 1 )
Rg T0
¡ ¢−1/(2γ 3 ) −1/(2γ 3 )
AM 1 + γ 1 M 2 = At (1 + γ 1 )
¡ ¢1/(2γ 3 )
A 1 + γ1M 2
= 1/(2γ 3 )
At M γ 2

Background pressure in CD when the normal shock is just in the outlet. Boundary between
regime 1 and regime 2. Regime 1.5.
Consider a converging diverging nozzle designed to operate with the exit Mach number Me .
Change of pressure across a normal shock is described by a formula (derived later).

p2 γM12 − γ 1
=
p1 γ2

Hence ratio of background and exit pressures is

γMe2 − γ 1
pb = pe (15)
γ2

As the flow is isentropic in a whole nozzle (to the very exit) we can calculate the exit pressure
p0 ¡ ¢γ/(γ−1)
= 1 + γ 1 Me2
pe
p0
pe = γ/(γ−1)
(16)
(1 + γ 1 Me2 )
Substituting (16) into (15) we obtain the background pressure in this regime

γMe2 − γ 1 p0
pb = γ/(γ−1)
(17)
γ2 (1 + γ 1 Me2 )
p0 ¡ ¢γ/(γ−1) γ2
= 1 + γ 1 Me2 2
pb γMe − γ 1

20