Philosophy of Science

Prepared by : Charles Francis B. Sanchez

Submitted to: Sir Domingo

Brief life History

Thales or also known as the Thales of Miletus was the Father of Philosophy was born
and guessed in 624 BCE in a Greek city of Miletus, which is located on western coast
of Anatolia near the mouth of the river Maeander. Today, the latter is known to be
under the Aydin Province of Turkey but some claim that he was born in Phoenicia
according to some historians. His Parents were Examyes and Cleobuline, who are
both Pheonicians and rich and distinguished as well. Thales had adopted his nephew,
Cybisthus which is evident that Thales have had at least a sibling. Thales was a well-
known as the founding father of greek mathematics by most Greek traditions, in
addition with this he is not only the first to receive credit for his mathematical
discoveries but is considered as the first of Greece’s seven wise men. The seven Wise
Men were a group of Greek philosophers and mathematicians who were considered the
best in their field of study. Thales was thought to be the mentor of Pythegoras but is
not true. Thales was also the chief representative of the Ionian school of
mathematics. Historians said that in Thales’ spare time he held different types of jobs.
Some of the jobs he might have held are making a fortune off of olive presses, being a
salt merchant, a stargazer, a defender of celibacy, or a farsighted statesman.

Proposed Theory

One of the theory that Thales proposed is that water is the primary principle. One
of the reasons why Thales was named as the founder of natural philosophy was
because of Aristotle. Thales says that it is water, the nature, the originating principle.
For Thales, this nature was a single material substance, water. Thales claimed that
water was the origin of all things, that from which all things emerge and to which they
return, and moreover that all things ultimately are water. He probably drew this
conclusion from seeing moist substances turn into air, slime and earth, and he
clearly viewed the Earth as solidifying from the water on which is floated and which
surrounded it.

Other Teachings and Doctrines

Thales recognized a single transcendental God, meaning there is no beginning nor

end, but who expresses himself through other gods. Thales’ idea of justice include
both the letter of the law and the spirit of the law, he also had some common sense
moral advise that we should expect the same support from our children that we give
to our parents, that we should not let talk influence us against those we have come to
trust, and that we should not do ourselves that for which we blame others. He believed
that a happy man was one who was healthy in body, resourceful in soul and of a readily
teachable nature. Thales’ political views were generally in favour of a benign tyranny,
rather than democracy. Moreover, he also believed that men were far better than
women, and that Greeks were better than barbarians.

Main contribution

In his work in geometry, Thales was engaged in circles and angles, and their
characteristics, and he could have arrived at his solution to the problem by applying
the geometrical knowledge he had acquired. Thales also learn and familiarize the
measurement by degrees from the Babylonians, that a circle is divided into 3600.
Thales adopted geometry from Egypt and introduced it into Greece. There are five
Euclidean theorems that have been attributed to Thales. His unique ability was with
the characteristics of lines, angles and circles. Some of which were, “a diameter of the
circle is a straight line drawn through the center and terminated in both directions by
the circumference of the circle; and such a straight line also bisects the circle.
Preposition, in isosceles triangles the angles at the base will be equal, if two straight
lines cut one another, they make the vertical angles equal to one another, if the angles
have the two angles equal to two angles respectively, and one side equal to one side
then the remaining angle will be equal to the other remaining angle.

Brief life History

Anaximander is sometimes called as the Father of Cosmology, the founder of

astronomy, the son of Praxiades, a Milesian, student and successor of Thales who
once said that the principle and element of existing things if boundless or infinite.
Anaximander says that it is neither water nor any other form of element but some
apeiron nature, from which it come into being all the heavens and the worlds in them.
Anaximander drew a map of the known world, which was later corrected by his fellow
Milesian, Hecataeus, a well-traveled man.
Proposed Theory

Because of his thinking about earth, he proposed that earth is flat consisting of the
top face of a cylinder, whose thickness is one-third its diameter. Earth is floating in
space, supported with nothing, and remains in place because it is equidistant from all
other things and thus has no disposition to fly off in any direction. Anaximander held
that the sun and the moon are hollow rings filled with fire. Their disks are vents
or holes in the rings, through which the fire can shine. The phases of the moon, as
well as eclipses of the sun and the moon are due to the vents closing up. More than
that, Anaximander held an evolutionary view of living things. The first creatures
originated from the moist element by evaporation. Man originated from some other
kind of animal, such as fish, since man needs a long period of nurture and could not
have survived if he had always been what he is now. Anaximander also discussed the
causes of meteorological phenomena, such as wind, rain, and lightning.

Other Teachings and Doctrines

Anaximander was the first astronomer to consider the sun as a huge mass (and
therefore to realize how far from Earth it might be), and the first to present a system
where the celestial bodies turned at different distances. He built a celestial sphere,
and his work on astronomy shows that he must have observed the inclination of the
celestial sphere in relation to the plane of the Earth to explain the seasons.
Anaximander also speculated on the plurality of worlds, which places him close to
the Atomists and the Epicureans who, more than a century later, also claimed that
an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared.

Main contribution

Main contribution of Anaximander was mathematics, he explained some basic notions

of geometry and introduced the sundial gnomon to Greece, meteorology (such as
thunder and lightning), geography (first to publish a map of the world)
Brief life History

Anaximenes was a Pre-Socratic philosopher from the Greek city of Miletus in Ionia and
the son of Eurystratos of Miletus. He is a friend a pupil of Anaximander who continues
the Milesians’ philosophical inquiries into the first principle of the universe, in which
Anaximenes deemed to be air. And sought to give explanation of the world. Some said
that he was also a pupil of Parmenides of Elea but it is unlikely. Anaximenes also got
evidence that he communicated once with Pythagoras. Anaximenes was the first Greek
to distinguish between planets and stars, and used his principles to account for
different natural phenomena such as thunder and lightning, rainbows, earthquakes and
etc.

Proposed Theory

From his pupil Anaximander which refined what Thales proposed; the single source of
all things in the universe which is said to be water, argued that no single element could
explain all of the opposites found in nature, and elaborated the solution of an endless,
unlimited priomordial mass which he called “apeiron”. Anaximenes arguably went
backward and noted that it is indeed that it is the single element that is the source of
all things and that element deemed to be air. With air being infinite and always in
motion Anaximenes proposed that it can produce all things without being actually
produced by anything.

Other Teachings and Doctrines

Air is infinite, can be found everywhere can be also used in anything and can
participate in physical processes. Natural forces constantly act on the air and
transform it into other materials, which came together from the organized world. In
early Greek literature, air is associated with the soul, meaning the breath of life and
Anaximenes thought of it as it can form and develop on its own way, as the soul
controls the body.
Main contribution

He wrote a book in prose probably within the same framework of natural philosophy
as that of Anaximander. Anaximenes speculated on cosmology, cosmogony and
meteorology.

Brief life History

Heraclitus was born into a wealthy family but turn his wealth and went to live in the
mountains. With his decision he has plenty of time to reflect on the natural world. He
observed that the nature is in a state of constant change. Everything is constantly
changing, where cold becomes hot, hot cools, the wet dries. He added, everything
is becoming something other to what it was before. Heraclitus is into the change and
flow that is presented by his predecessor Parmenides, and fed into the work of untold
philosophers from Marcus Aurelius to Friedrich Nietzsche. Heraclitus was perhaps
the first Western philosopher to go beyond physical theory in search of metaphysical
foundations and moral applications. Heraclitus’ idea regarding universe is a constant
change but with underlying order or reason.

Heraclitus abdicated the kingship to his brother since his father has a powerful figure
in the city and since he had no interest in politics or power. He as a youth taught
himself everything he knew by a process of self-questioning. Some say that he was one
of the pupil of Xenophanes. He is also known as the Obscure since he was having a
hard time deliberating his teachings, he was also known as the Weeping Philosopher
since he was prone to depression which prevented him from some of his work.

Proposed Theory

Heraclitus’ theory can be understood as a response to the philosophy of his Ionian

predecessors. Heraclitus seems to follow the pattern of his predecessors, Thales’ water
or Anaximenes’ air, he refers to the world as fire. He alludes the power of fire but then
fire is a strange thing to think that it is the origin of life, for it is the most inconstant
and changeable. It is indeed a symbol of change and process.

Other Teachings and Doctrines

Heraclitus held that everything is constantly changing and opposite things are
identical, so that everything is and is not at the same time. Moreover, Heraclitus
believe that “all things go and nothing stays, and comparing existents to the flow
of a river, he says you could not step twice into the same river” As for the alleged
doctrine of the Identity of Opposites Heraclitus does believe in some kind of unity of
opposites.

Main contribution

He suggests the first metaphysical foundation for philosophical speculation,

anticipating process philosophy. And he makes human values a central concern of
philosophy for the first time. His aphoristic manner of expression and his manner of
propounding general truths through concrete examples remained unique.

Brief life History

Pythagoras was known to be a mathematician, he was born on the island of Samosm

Greece in 569 BC. His father, Mnesarchus was known to be a gem merchant. While
his mother was Pythais and had 2 or 4 siblings. He was married to his wife named
Theano and had a daughter named Damo, son Telauges. Some say that Theano was
one of the students of Pythagoras, and never had children. Pythagoras was well
educated, and he played the lyre throughout his lifetime, knew poetry and recited
Homer. He was interested in mathematics, philosophy, astronomy and music. And was
greatly influenced by Pherekydes through Philosophy, Thales in mathematics and
astronomy and Anaximander in philosophy and geometry. Pythagoras left Samos for
Egypt in about 535 B.C. to study with the priests in the temples. Many of the practices
of the society he created later in Italy can be traced to the beliefs of Egyptian priests,
such as the codes of secrecy, striving for purity, and refusal to eat beans or to wear
animal skins as clothing.

Proposed Theory

Familiar and well known in the field of Math is the Pythagorean theorem, it is the
fundamental relation in Euclidean geometry among the three sides of a right triangle.
Where in it states that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides, this theorem can be written as an equation relating the lengths
of the sides of the triangle.

Other Teachings and Doctrines

Pythagoreans were a minority, who held their own beliefs amid and against the received
narratives of a Homeric underworld, of paradise or of nothing. Yet, despite the wide
agreement of early modern and ancient commentators, Pythagoras’ religious and
mystical preferences, his doctrine of immortality, are not taken seriously by Late Modern
scholarship, and are never considered as intrinsically related, even in a symbolic sense,
to his mathematical or scientific significance.

Main contribution

Pythagoras is most famous for his concept of geometry. It is believed that he was first
to establish that the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles and that
for a right-angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares on the other two sides. Although the last mentioned theorem was already
discovered by the Babylonians, Pythagoras was first to prove it. It is also believed that
he devised the tetractys, the triangular figure of four rows which add up to ten, which
according him, was the perfect number.

Brief life History

Parmenides’ hometown was Elea, a Greek settlement along the Tyrrhenian coast of
the Appenine Peninsula, just south of the Bay of Salerno, now located in the modern
municipality of Ascea, Italy. It is indeed Parmenides was of Ionian stock. His father
was a wealthy aristrocrat name Pyres, one of the colonizers. Parmenides is known to
be the founder of the Eleatic School of philosophy which taught a strict Monistic
view of reality. Parmenides was a student of Xenophanes of Colophon but left his
master’s discipline to take his own vision. Even so, the stamp of Xenophanes’ teachings
can be seen in the work of Parmenides in that both assert that the things in life
which one thinks one understands may be quite different than they seem to be,
especially regarding an understanding of the gods.

Proposed Theory

According to Parmenides, “There is a way which is and a way which is not” (a way of
fact, or truth, and a way of opinion about things) and one must come to an
understanding of the way “which is” to understand the nature of life. Known as the
Philosopher of Changeless Being, Parmenides' insistence on an eternal, single Truth
and his repudiation of relativism and mutability would greatly influence the young
philosopher Plato and, through him, Aristotle (though the latter would interpret
Parmenides’ Truth quite differently than his master did

Other Teachings and Doctrines

Parmenides, considering that beside Being there is no Non-Being, must necessarily

believe that Being is one; he, forced however to take into account the things that appear
to our senses, and assuming that the one is according to reason while the multiplicity
is according to senses, supposes two causes and two principles, the hot and the cold,
that is, the fire and the earth; and he assigns to hot the rank of Being and to cold the
rank of Non-Being”
Main contribution

Parmenides may be developing ideas from the earlier philosopher Pythagoras who
claimed the soul is immortal and returns to the sensible world repeatedly through
reincarnation. If so, however, Parmenides very radically departed from Pythagorean
thought which allows that there is plurality present in our reality. To Parmenides, and
his disciples of the Eleatic School, such a claim would be evidence of belief in the senses
which, they insisted, could never be trusted to reveal the truth. The Eleatic principle
that all is one, and unchanging, exerted considerable influence on later philosophers
and schools of thought

Brief life History

Zeno of Elea was born around 490 B.C in southern Italy. Zeno was the son of
Teleutagoras but was adopted by Parmenides. According to Plato, Zeno was tall and
fair to look upon and told to be Parmenides’ “beloved”. Zeno appeared to explain his
doctrines to prominent Athenian statesmen like Pericles and Callias. He was also
known as the “universal critic”, who is skilled in arguing both sides of any question.
He was also known to be devoted in explaining and developing the philosophical work
of Parmenides. Parmenides was once his teacher when he was a young man. Some
say that Zeno was arrested and killed at the hands of a tyrant of Elea. Zeno attempted
to kill the tyrant Demylus, bit of his tongue and spit on the face of the tyrant
according to historian Plutarch.

Proposed Theory

Zeno became most famous with Paradox, His paradoxes is an example of a method of
proof called reduction ad absurdum or known to be the proof by contradiction.
Although Parmenides was the first to use this kind of argument, Zeno became the most
popular. Zeno argued that time or quantity of space must be either composed of
ultimate indivisible units or must be divisible ad infinitum. “If it is composed of
indivisible units, then these must have magnitude and we are faced with
the contradiction of a magnitude which cannot be divided. If, however, it is divisible
ad infinitum, then we are faced with the different contradiction of supposing that
an infinite number of parts can be added up to make a merely finite sum”.

Other Teachings and Doctrines

Zeno tried to show that the assumption of the existence of a plurality of things in time
and space carried with it more serious inconsistencies. In early youth he collected his
arguments in a book, which, according to Plato, was put into circulation without his
knowledge. Zeno made use of three premises: first, that any unit has magnitude; second,
that it is infinitely divisible; and third, that it is indivisible. Yet he incorporated
arguments for each: for the first premise, he argued that that which, added to or
subtracted from something else, does not increase or decrease the second unit is
nothing; for the second, that a unit, being one, is homogenous and that therefore, if
divisible, it cannot be divisible at one point rather than another; for the third, that a
unit, if divisible, is divisible either into extended minima, which contradicts the second
premise or, because of the first premise, into nothing. He had in his hands a very
powerful complex argument in the form of a dilemma, one horn of which supposed
indivisibility, the other infinite divisibility, both leading to a contradiction of the
original hypothesis. His method had great influence and may be summarized as follows:
he continued Parmenides’ abstract, analytic manner but started from his opponents’
theses and refuted them by reductio ad absurdum. It was probably the two latter
characteristics which Aristotle had in mind when he called him the inventor of dialectic.

Main contribution

It is generally held nowadays that the paradox stems from the false assumption that
it is impossible to complete an infinite number of discrete tasks in a finite time, but
Zeno's paradoxes have continued to tease and stimulate thinkers, and there is still
some debate over whether they have been fully disproved even today.

Brief life History

Empedocles was a Greek philosopher, who is considered to be a member of the

Pluralist school. He was known to be ecletic in his thinking. Emoedocles was known
to be the best originator of the cosmogenic theory of the four classical elements,
earth, fire, water and air. Empedocles was born at arounf 490 B.C at Acragas, a Greek
colony in Sicily. His father, Meto or some say Meton seems to have been instrumental
in overthrowing Thrasydaeus, tyrant of Argentum. As the other philosophers,
Empedocles were came from a wealthy family and a very generous person when it
comes to the poor.

Proposed Theory

Empedocles believed in the transimigration of the soul meaning reincarnation between

humans, animals and even plants. Moreover, that all living things were on the same
spiritual plane. He urged to be vegetarian lifestyle because he believes that the bodies
of animals are the dwelling places of punished souls. More than that he also believed
that wise people who learned the secret of life are like divine, who can freely rest in
happiness for eternity. Like many other pre-socratics, he assumed Paramenides’ claim
that change is impossible not acceptable, and even tried to find the basis of all change.
Empedocles have that change in mind that what we call coming into living and death
is only the mixture and separation of the four indestructible elements, the earth, fire,
water and air.

Other Teachings and Doctrines

He believed that there are two divine powers, Love and Strife, which bring about these
mixtures and separation. Where love explains the attraction of different forms of matter
and Strife accounts for separation. He further elaborated that there was a time that
the four indestructible and the two divine powers were co-existed in a condition of rest
and inertness. The uniting power of Love then predominated in the sphere, and the
separating power of Strife guarded the extreme edges of the sphere. Since that time,
however, Strife has gained more sway, and the actual world is full
of contrasts and oppositions, due to the combined action of both principles.

Main contribution

Empedocles was credited for his ideas, such as the light travels with a finite velocity,
it is a form of law of conservation of energy and a theory of chemical reactions. With
these theory it had a little influence on the development of science, stated as they were
within an insufficient theoretical framework, but in retrospect were
remarkably prophetic. Moreover, His major work, On Nature and Purifications, written
in hexameter verse, exists in more than 150 fragments. He was a poet of
outstanding ability, and of great influence on later poets such as Lucretius at around
99 - 55 B.C.

Brief life History

Anaxagoras was a Greek philosopher from Ionia, he was considered to be part of the
pluralism school. Anaxagoras was born around 500 B.C. to an aristocratic and landed
family in the city of Clazomenae in the Greek colony of Ionia. He was known to
abandon his inheritance to study philosophy. He was known to be the first of the
presocratic philosophers to live in Athens. Anaxagoras was a friend and protégé
of Pericles who is the Athenian general and political leader. Diogenes Laertius says
that he came to Athens to study philosophy as a young man. Anaxagoras was then a
resident in the city for at least twenty years, he said to have been charged with impiety
and banished from the city. The said charged against Anaxagoras may have been such
as political religious because of his association of Pericles. Democritus who is a
younger contemporary reportedly accused Anaxagoras of plagiarism.

Proposed Theory

Anaxagoras proposed theories on a variety of subjects, but popular with these two
theories. First, he speculated that in the physical world everything contains a
portion of everything else. His observation of how nutrition works in animals led him
to conclude that in order for the food an animal eats to turn into bone, hair, flesh, and
so forth, it is said that it already contains all of those remains on it. The second theory
was Anaxagoras’ postulation of mind, it is the initiating and governing principle
of the cosmos.

Other Teachings and Doctrines

Anaxagoras proposed that the moon shines by reflected light from the "red-hot stone"
which was the sun, the first such recorded claim. Showing great genius he was also
then able to take the next step and become the first to explain correctly the reason for
eclipses of the sun and moon. His explanation of eclipses of the sun is completely
correct but he did spoil his explanation of eclipses of the moon by proposing that in
addition to being caused by the shadow of the earth, there were other dark bodies
between the earth and the moon which also caused eclipses of the moon. It is a little
unclear why he felt it necessary to postulate the existence of these bodies but it does
not detract from this major breakthrough in mathematical astronomy. There is also
other evidence to suggest that Anaxagoras had applied geometry to the study of
astronomy

Main contribution

Anaxagoras introduced the idea of Nous, a mind or reason, as the giver of order,
purpose, and teleological relationships among things in the cosmos. The Nous, however,
remained only as the giver of the initial Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit
of scientific inquiry from Ionia to Athens. His observation of the celestial bodies led him
to form new theories of universal order, and brought him into collision with the popular
faith. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows and
the sun, which he described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the Peloponnesus;
the heavenly bodies were masses of stone torn from the earth and ignited by rapid
rotation.

Brief life History

Democritus was born in Abdera, Greece in 460 B.C. he was known to be the laughing
philosopher and the founder of the Greek philosophical school of Atomism and
developed a materialist account of the natural world. His father was very wealthy
and even received the Persian king Xerxes on his march through the northern
Greece. According to some, Democritus studied astronomy and theology from some of
the wise men. With his father being dead, he spent his inheritance on his expensive
travels to satisfy his grit on acquiring knowledge. Through his wealth he was able to
buy some of the writings of the other presocratic Greek philosophers which acquire a
knowledge of its culture. After learning the culture throughout Greece he went to his
native land and settled to his brother Damosis and occupied himself with natural
philosophy and gave public lectures in order to pay his way even his father is wealthy.
Democritus great influencer was Leucippus which he credited him as the co-founding
Atomism. Leucippus was once found a school and Democritus was one of his star
pupil.

Proposed Theory

Atomic theory was originally from his mentor Leucippus but it was adopted by
Democritus. The atomic theory stated that “The universe is composed of two elements:
the atoms and the void in which they exist and move.” According to Democritus atoms
were miniscule quantities of matter. Democritus hypothesized that atoms cannot be
destroyed, differ in size, shape and temperature, are always moving, and are invisible.
He believed that there are an infinite number of atoms. This theory of Democritus
assumed that everything was composed of atoms, which are physically, but not
geometrically, indivisible, that between atoms, there lies empty space and atoms are
indestructible and are freely moving in space which differ in size and shapes.

Other Teachings and Doctrines

Democritus’ physical and cosmological doctrines were gave emphasized and

systemized version of those of his teacher, Leucippus. It is to account for the world’s
changing physical phenomena. Democritus asserted that space, or the Void, had an
equal right with reality, or being, to be considered existent. He conceived of the Void
as a vacuum, an infinite space in which moved an infinite number of atoms that made
up being .These atoms are eternal and invisible; absolutely small, so small that their
size cannot be diminished. Democritus devoted considerable attention to perception
and knowledge. He asserted, for example, that sensations are changes produced in
the soul by atoms emitted from other objects that impinge on it; the atoms of the soul
can be affected only by the contact of other atoms.
Main contribution

Democritus created the first atomic model. He helped the people to easily understand
the idea of an atom, and helped other scientists to further look into the science of the
atom and its generic makeup.

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