AN ANALYTICAL REPORT

ON
BALLISTIC MISSILES

Submitted By

Arpita Sen

Jayashree. S

Deborah Joseph

Under the esteemed guidance of

G. Shivanand, Scientist- E

DEFENSE RESEARCH &DEVELOPMENT LABORATORY

Hyderabad

(Government Of India, Ministry Of Defense)

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

EXCEL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS

Komarapalayam - 637 303

Tamil Nadu

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Working through this project has given us a deep insight on the various
types of missiles used by the various Defense forces and has enabled us to gain
knowledge particularly about the Ballistic Missiles. We are extremely Grateful to
the Head of the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Dr.C.Karunakaran for
granting us permission to do this project and also to our respected Staff members
for the constant support and encouragement. We would like to extend our heart
filled gratitude to Mr.G.Shivanand, Scientist-E for giving us the opportunity and
for the step-by-step guidance and assistance provided by him. We acknowledge the
fact that without his help this project would not have been materialized.

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Abstract……………………………………………………….. 06

II. Introduction…………………………………………………… 07

III. Chapter 1- MATLAB

1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………….. 09

1.2 Basics………………………………………………………. 10

1.3 Plotting……………………………………………………... 17

1.4 Arithmetic………………………………………………….. 19

1.5 Polynomials………………………………………………… 20

1.6 Loops………………………………………………………. 23

IV. Chapter 2- MISSILE SYSTEM

2.1 Introduction………………………………………………… 28

2.2 Technology…………………………………………………. 29

2.2.1 Targeting Systems…………………………………. 30

2.2.2 Guidance Systems…………………………………. 30

2.2.3 Flight System……………………………………… 31

2.2.4 Engine……………………………………………… 31

2.2.5 Warhead …………………………………………… 32

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 2.3 Types of Missiles…………………………………………… 32

2.3.1 Surface-to-Surface Missile………………………… 33

2.3.2 Air-to-Surface Missile……………………………… 35

2.3.3 Surface-to-Air Missile……………………………… 37

2.3.4 Air-to-Air Missile…………………………………… 39

2.3.5 Anti-Satellite Weapons……………………………… 40

V. Chapter 3- BALLISTIC MISSILE

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………… 42

3.2 Components……………………………………………………. 43

3.2.1 Payload……………………………………………….. 43

3.2.2 Boosters………………………………………………. 44

3.3 Types Of Ballistic Missiles……………………………………. 45

3.3.1 Intercontinental Ballistic Missile…………………….. 47

3.3.2 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile…………………. 51

3.3.3 Medium-Range Ballistic Missile……………………… 52

3.3.4 Short-Range Ballistic Missile…………………………. 53

3.4 Ballistic Coefficient……………………………………………. 54

3.5 Standard Atmospheric Model…………………………………. 56

3.6 Projectile Motion……………………………………………… 60

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VI. Conclusion…………………………………………………………… 64

VII. Appendix………………………………………………………….. 65

A. Numerical Integration…………………………………………. 65

A.1 Midpoint Rule…………………………………………. 66

A.2 Trapezoidal Rule……………………………………… 67

A.3 Simpson’s Rule……………………………………….. 70

B. Differential Equation……………………………………….... 70

C.ODE 45 and ODE 23 …………………………………………. 72

VIII. Reference…………………………………………………………. 76

5
 ABSTRACT

This paper presents an analytical study on the various types of ballistic

missiles and the basic missile systems. It compares the different characteristics of
each type with numerous examples and some factors such as ballistic coefficient
that aids in obtaining an accurate evaluation is also discussed. It also includes a
few basic MATLAB codes for simple mathematical computations which aid in
evaluating the apt trajectories of the ballistic missiles.

6
 INTRODUCTION

The word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, meaning “to send”.
Missiles are greatly used in the military both to defend and to attack. In the words
of laymen, a missile is a body capable of being thrown or projected to strike a
distant object. In modern language though, a missile is a self-propelled precision-
guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self -propelled munition,
referred to as a rocket. These are categorized as ballistic missiles and cruise
missiles. A cruise missile is a guided missile used against terrentrial targets that
remains in the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight path at
approximately constant speed. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large
Warhead over long distances with high precision. Modern cruise missiles are
capable of travelling at supersonic or high subsonic speeds, are self-navigating, and
are able to fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low-altitude trajectory.

In this paper, we are mainly concentrating on ballistic missiles. A ballistic

is a missile that follows a ballistic trajectory with the objective of one are more
warheads to a predetermined target. A ballistic missile is only guided during
relatively brief periods of flight and most of its trajectory is unpowered and
governed by gravity and air resistance if in the atmosphere. This contrasts to a
cruise missile, which is aerodynamically guided in powered flight. Long range
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) are launched on a sub-orbital flight
trajectory and spend most of their flight out of the atmosphere. The Shorter- Range
Ballistic Missile stay within the earth’s atmosphere.

7
 MATLAB plays a major role in trajectory shaping for various ballistic
missile and provides a ballistic target flight trajectory simulation which aids in
evaluating its precision and helps in making the required amendments in the
missile systems. Numerous algorithms are used in MATLAB in order to compute
various values and obtain the perfect trajectory for a ballistic missile, which is
highly reliable. Thus a few basic MATLAB codes are also discussed in this paper.

8
Chapter 1
MATLAB

1.1 Introduction:

MATLAB is a high- level interactive software or language for

technical computing, scientific and engineering numerical computations.
MATLAB stands for Matrix Laboratory. It provides an extremely user friendly
environment for manipulation of Matrix, numerical computation and visualization
without the usage of traditional methods or programming. The solutions are
expressed just as they are written mathematically. The most usual uses of
MATLAB are listed below:

 Math and computation

 Prototyping and modeling
 Graphical problems related to engineering
 Development of Algorithm
 Data Analysis
 Visualization

In universities MATLAB is extensively used as the standard

instructional tool for advanced courses in mathematics, engineering and science. In
industries, it is used as a tool for high productivity research, development and
analysis. In MATLAB application the command window is used as an interactive
mathematical shell or executing text files containing MATLAB code. Since
simulation is easily possible with the use of MATLAB it proves particularly useful
for various research purposes. Using simulation rather than a real prototype saves

9
both time and money. Simulation by definition is the imitation of the operation of a
real- world process or system over time.

1.2 Basics:

1. Files in MATLAB are to be saved with an extension m, for example

‘good_day.m’. These files are called M-files.
2. Saving the name of a file without the extension causes automatic
execution of all the statements. These files are named as Script files.
3. While writing a program in MATLAB, per cent sign, ‘%’ is used to
comment on the program lines. For example, let us consider a simple
program by the name good_day.m

% The program by the name good_day greets you and asks for your name. Once
you and % asks for your name. Once you enter your name it greets you again by
your name and % wishes you to have a good day.

disp(‘Hello! What is your name?)

name= input(‘Please enter your name within quotation marks ’);
d= date;
answer= [‘Hello ’name ‘. Today is ’ d ‘.’];
disp(answer)
greet= [‘Have a good day!’];
disp(greet)
4. After executing the program or after writing a few lines save the program
by using the save as option in the file menu of the editor/debugger
window.

The program when executed will be as shown in the figure 1.1 below.

10
 Figure 1.1 Program for a greeting message

One of the most significant features of MATLAB is the help function. Help
lists all the major help topics in the Command Window. A few examples of the
syntax are listed below:

 help
 help /
 help functionname
 help toolboxname
 help toolboxname/functionname
 help functionname>subfunctionname
 help classname.methodname
 help classname
 help syntax
11
 Figure 1.2 The help function

To be able to work efficiently in MATLAB one need to know all the codes
and functions used for various requirements. Some of the very basic commands are
mentioned in the tables below.

Operators and Special Characters

+ Plus; addition operator
- Minus; subtraction operator.
* Scalar and matrix multiplication operator
.* Array multiplication operator
^ Scalar and matrix exponentiation operator.
.^ Array exponentiation operator.
\ Left-division operator.
/ Right-division operator.
.\ Array left-division operator

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 ./ Array right-division operator
: Colon; generates regularly spaced elements and represents an entire row or column
() Parentheses; encloses function arguments and array indices; overrides precedence
[] Brackets; enclosures array elements.
. Decimal point.
… Ellipsis; line-continuation operator
, Comma; separates statements and elements in a row
; Semicolon; separates columns and suppresses display.
% Percent sign; designates a comment and specifies formatting.
_ Quote sign and transpose operator.
._ Nonconjugated transpose operator.
= Assignment (replacement) operator.

Commands To Manage

clc Clears Command window.

clear Removes variables from memory.

exist Checks for existence of file or variable.

global Declares variables to be global.

help Searches for a help topic.

lookfor Searches help entries for a keyword.

quit Stops MATLAB.

who Lists current variables.

whos Lists current variables (long display).

13
System and File Commands

Cd Changes current directory.

Date Displays current date.

delete Deletes a file.

diary Switches on/off diary file recording.

Dir Lists all files in current directory.

Load Loads workspace variables from a file.

Path Displays search path.

Pwd Displays current directory.

Save Saves workspace variables in a file.

Type Displays contents of a file.

What Lists all MATLAB files in the current directory.

wklread Reads .wk1 spreadsheet file.

Input/ Output Commands

Disp Displays contents of an array or string.

fscanf Read formatted data from a file.

format Controls screen-display format.

fprintf Performs formatted writes to screen or file.

input Displays prompts and waits for input.

; Suppresses screen printing.

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Array Commands

cat Concatenates arrays.

find Finds indices of nonzero elements.

length Computers number of elements.

linspace Creates regularly spaced vector.

logspace Creates logarithmically spaced vector.

max Returns largest element.

min Returns smallest element.

prod Product of each column.

reshape Change size

size Computes array size.

sort Sorts each column.

sum Sums each column.

Basic xy plotting commands

Axis Sets axis limits.

fplot Intelligent plotting of functions.

Grid Displays gridlines.

Plot Generates xy plot.

print Prints plot or saves plot to a file

title Puts text at top of plot.

xlabel Adds text label to x-axis.

ylabel Adds text label to y-axis.

15
 Colors Symbol Line
Y Yellow . Point - Solid

M Magenta o Circle : Dotted

C Cyan x x-mark -. dash dotted

R Red + Plus -- Dashed

G Green * Star

B Blue d Diamond

W White v triangle (down)

K Black ^ triangle (up)

< triangle (left)

> triangle (right)

p Pentagram

Logical and Relational Operators

== Relational operator: equal to.

~= Relational operator: not equal to.

< Relational operator: less than.

<= Relational operator: less than or equal to.

> Relational operator: greater than.

>= Relational operator: greater than or equal to.

& Logical operator: AND.

| Logical operator: OR.

~ Logical operator: NOT.

Xor Logical operator: EXCLUSIVE OR.

16
Program Flow Control

break Terminates execution of a loop.

Case Provides alternate execution paths within switch structure.

Else Delineates alternate block of statements.

elseif Conditionally executes statements.

End Terminates for, while, and if statements.

error Display error messages.

For Repeats statements a specific number of times

If Executes statements conditionally.

otherwise Default part of switch statement.

return Return to the invoking function.

switch Directs program execution by comparing point with case expressions.

warning Display a warning message.

while Repeats statements an indefinite number of times.

1.3 Plotting:

Scientific and Engineering plots can be easily made in MATLAB for known
analytical functions. Plotting can be done as curves or as histograms. The
following figures show simple examples of the same.

17
Figure1.3 A simple Plot

Figure 1.4 A histogram

18
1.4 Arithmetic:

MATLAB can be used as calculators to perform arithmetic operations. For

example,

>> 3^2-(5+4)/2+6*3
ans=
22.5000
MATLAB prints the answers and assigns the value to a variable called ans.
If one wants to perform further calculations with the answer, the variable ans can
be used instead of retyping the answer.

Figure 1.5 The Arithmetic operations

For expressions that involve ‘pi’, to compute the exact answer in MATLAB,
an exact symbolic representation of .

Example,

19
>> cos (pi/2)
ans =
60.1232e-17
But we know that cos (/2)=0. Thus sym is used to get the exact value,
>> sym (‘pi/2’)
>> cos (sym(‘pi/2’))
ans =
0

1.5 Polynomials:

Polynomials are represented in MATLAB by the array of the coefficients of

their terms in the order of the descending powers of the variable.

Example,
X4 + 5X + 8
is stored in MATLAB as the array,
>> coeff= [1 5 8];
X4 + 5X +8 = 0

Figure 1.6 A polynomial Function

20
 The coefficients of a polynomial can be retrieved from its roots by using the
following command

>>p= poly(r)

Figure 1.7 Results for the polynomial function

POLYNOMAIL EVALUATION

If it is required to plot a polynomial function, y= x3 – 3x – 6x + 8

(Figure 1.8)

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF POLYNOMIAL

The multiplications of two polynomials can be easily performed in

MATLAB by operating on the arrays of their coefficients.

Example : (2x2 + 3x +1) (5x – 2)= 10x3 + 11x2 – x – 2

conv is the command used for multiplication and deconv is used for division.

21
 Figure 1.8 Plot of a polynomial function

Figure 1.9 The multiplication and division of polynomial functions

22
1.6 Loops:

A loop specifies that a command on group of commands should be repeated

several times. The easiest way to create a loop is to use a for statement. Here is a
simple example that computes displays 10! = 10*9*8*………2*1

10*9*8*7*6*5*4*3*2*1= 3,628,800

Figure 1.10 A simple Loop

The loop begins with the ‘for’ statement and ends with the ‘end; statement.
The command between those statements is executed a total of nine times, once for
each value of n from 2 to10.

REPETITIVE CONTROL STRUCTURES- FOR LOOPS:-

Repetitive execution of a statement can be performed in MATLAB in a for

loop. for example,

23
function h= pyt(a,b)
h=sqrt(a.^2 + b^2);

After saving the file, enter the MATLAB and type

>> pyt (3,4)

ans
=5
Now the resulting table is a 5-by-5 array;
>> p= zeroes(5,5);
Now open the loop with the statement
for k=1:5
for 1=1:5
p(k,1)=pyt(k,1);
end
end
>>p
p=
1.4142 2.2361 3.1623 4.1231 5.0990
2.2361 2.8284 3.6065 4.4721 5.3852
3.1623 3.6056 4.2426 5.0000 5.8310
4.1231 4.4721 5.0000 5.6569 6.4031
5.0990 5.3852 5.8310 6.4031 7.0711
The transpose of resulting matrix p is
>> p-p’
ans=

24
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

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REPETITIVE CONTROL STRUCTURES- WHILE LOOPS:-

Apart from for loop there is another repetitive control structure is called-
While loop. In the following program, x is a dividend, y is a divisor, q an integer
quotient and r a remainder such that, x=qy+r

function[q,r]= divide(x,y)
q=0;
c=1;
k=1;
if(x==0)|(x<y)
q=0;
r=x;
end
if y==0
error('Division by zero')
end
if x<o
x=-x;
c=-c;
k=-k;
end
if y<0
y=-y;
c=-c;
end
while x>=y
x=x-y;
q=q+1;
end
q=c*q;
r=k*x;

26
 The program checks if x equals to zero or if x is smaller than y. the relational
operator ‘==’ compares x with y; ‘<’ checks if x is smaller than y; ‘<=’ means
smaller or equal; ‘>’ means greater than; ‘>=’ means greater than or equal to and
‘~=’ stands for not equal.

In this WHILE loop, if the relation acting as the condition is true, the
statements within the loop are executed; if not, execution of the loop is stopped and
the error message Division by zero is displayed.

The WHILE loop has the syntax

WHILE condition
Expressions
END
Here for example a function is shown;
>> [q,r]= divide(11,5)
q=
2
r=
1

27
Chapter 2
MISSILE SYSTEMS

2.1 Introduction:

The invention of missiles was inspired by rockets which were used

since A.D 1232 by the Chinese. Rockets could be in other words called the
“unguided missiles”. The early usage of rockets was as weapons in wars and later
on was developed to be used for communication or signals. The idea of creating
guided missiles was greatly influenced by aircrafts. The history of guided missiles
dates back to the beginning of World War I when the idea was born and
implemented in World War II by the Germans (V1 and V2 series of guided
missiles). In the simplest of terms, Missile is an unmanned guided weapon . It is a
precision-guided munition that hits the specified target precisely with no collateral
damage and maximum destruction of the target (enemy’s assets). Basically
missiles are categorized into Guided and Unguided missiles; but in this chapter we
will be discussing only about the guided missiles, its classifications, systems and
properties. Guided missiles are also known as homing missiles. Homing guidance
is generally of active, semi-active, or passive type. Once the active missiles are
launched to the target they are capable of guiding themselves independently. These
are also called launch-and-leave missiles and are heavier than semi-active and
passive missiles. The active guided missile have a radiation source, this radiation
from the interceptor missile radiates and strikes the target and is reflected back.
The missile then guides itself on this reflected radiation. In case of passive
missiles, the radiation originated by the target or some other source that is not a
part of the overall weapon system is used. While a semi-active missile uses a

28
combination of both active and passive missiles, the source of radiation in these
types of missiles is at the launch point which radiates energy to the target. This
energy is reflected back to the missile and sensing the reflected radiation the
missile homes on it.

2.2 Technology:

Missiles basically have five major system components;

1. Targeting system
2. Guidance system
3. Flight System
4. Propulsion System/Engine
5. Warhead

2.2.1 Targeting systems:

One of the most essential parts of Missiles is its targeting system.
There are numerous ways in which missiles can be targeted, the most common
being the use of some type of radiation such as infrared, radio or lasers to guide the
missile onto its target. If the location of the target is known, then guidance system

29
such as Inertial Navigation System, Terrain Contour Matching or Satellite
Guidance is used which calculates the course between the missile and target when
the location of both these components is known. This work also can be done by a
human operator who can visualize the target and the missile and guide it using
either cable or radio-based remote control or by an automatic system that can
simultaneously track the target and the missile.

2.2.2 Guidance systems:

The three major parts of the guidance system of the missiles are
navigation, guidance and control. Navigation tracks the existing location of the
missile; guidance directs the missile in the accurate direction of the target by taking
navigation data and the target information as input. On the grounds of the profile of
the target, guidance system is classified into Go-onto-target (GOT) and Go-
Onto- Location-in- space (GOLIS). GOT is highly efficient on both stationary
and moving targets while GOLIS is mostly successful in cases with stationary or
almost stationary targets. Line of sights system, pure pursuit and proportional
navigation are the most used Guidance Systems.

2.2.3 Flight system:

The Flight system uses the data from the targeting or guidance system to
maneuver the missile in flight, allowing it to convert inaccuracies in the missile or
to follow a moving target.
They are two main systems;
1. Vectored thrust- enables the missile to manipulate the direction of thrust
in order to gain control over the attitude or the angular velocity of the missile.

30
 2. Aerodynamic maneuvering- since missiles do not posses conventional
control surfaces, they employ aerodynamic control surfaces in order to maneuver
the missile in the desired direction.

2.2.4 Engine:
Missiles are obviously powered by rocket engines. Rockets are generally
of the solid propellant type for ease of maintenance and fast deployment, although
some larger ballistic missiles use liquid-propellant rockets. Long-range missile
may have multiple engine stages, particularly in those launched from the surface.
These stages may all be of similar types or may include a mix of engine types. For
Example, Surface- launched cruise missiles often have a rocket booster for
launching and a jet engine for sustained flight. Some missiles may have additional
propulsion from another source at launch; for example, the MGM-51 S shillelagh
was fired out of a tank gun.

2.2.5 Warhead:
Missiles generally have one or more explosive warheads, which provide
primary destructive power to the missile and also sometimes provide extensive
secondary destructive power due to the high kinetic energy of the weapon and
unburnt fuel that may be on board. Warheads are most commonly of the high
explosive type, often employing shaped charges to exploit the accuracy of a guided
weapon to destroy hardened targets. There are some types of warhead used in
missiles are sub munitions, incendiaries, nuclear weapons, chemical, biological or
radiological weapons or kinetic energy penetrators. Without warhead missile
cannot be constructed, the warheadless missiles are often used for testing and
training purposes.

31
2.3 Types Of Missiles:
Missiles are generally categorized by their launch platform and
intended target. In broadest terms there will either be surface i.e ground or water,
and then sub-categorized by range and the target type. Missiles require some
modification in order to be launched from the air or surface, such as adding
boosters to the surface-launched version.

1. Surface-to-surface missile

2. Air-to-surface missile

3. Surface –to-air missile

4. Air-to-air missile

5. Anti-satellite weapons

Figure 2.1 The various types of missiles

32
2.3.1 Surface-to-surface missiles:

Figure 2.2 Surface-to-Surface Missile- Prithvi II-Range of 205- 350 km

A surface -to-surface missile (SSM) or ground -to-ground missile

(GGM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground or the sea and strike
targets on land or at sea. They may be fired from hand-held or vehicle mounted
devices. They are often powered by a rocket engine or sometimes fired by an
explosive charge. It’s having fins or wings which provide lift and stability. The V-
1 flying bomb was the first operational surface-to- surface missile.

Some surface-to-surface missiles examples are given below;

 Prithvi- I SRBM- India- Range of 150km

 Prithvi- II SRBM - India- Range of 205-350km

 Prithvi- III SRBM - India- Range of 350-600km

 Agni-I MRBM- India- Range of 700-900km

 Agni- II MRBM- India- Range of 2,000- 3,500 km

33
  Agni- III IRBM-India- Range of 3,500-5,000km

 Agni-IV IRBM- India- Range of 4,000km

 Agni- V ICBM- India- Range of 5,000-8,000km

 Agni- VI Four stage ICBM- India- Range of 8,000-10,000km

 Dhanush-Naval variant of Prithvi II- India- Range of 350km

 Shaurya- Hypersonic, Canister launched- India- Range of 700-1900km

TYPES:

Surface-surface missiles are usually broken down into a number of categories:

 Ballistic missiles:- travel in a high trajectory, motor burns out partway

through flight

 Tactical ballistic missile:- Range between about 150km and 300km

 Battlefield range ballistic missile (BRBM):- Range less than 200 km

 Theatre ballistic missile (TBM):- range between 300 km and 3500 km

 Short-range ballistic missile (SRBM):- Range 1000km or less

 Medium –range ballistic missile (MRBM):- Range between 1000 km and

3500 km

 Intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) or Long-range ballistic missile

(LRBM):- Range between 3500 km and 5500 km

 Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): - Range greater than 5500km

 Submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM):- Launched from ballistic

missile submarines (SSBNs), all current designs have intercontinental range.

34
  Cruise missiles:- travel low to the ground ,motor burns during entire flight,
typical range 2,500km

 Anti-tank guided missiles:- travel low to the ground, may or may not burn
motor throughout flight typical range 5km (3mi)

 Anti-ship missiles:- travel low over the ground and sea, and often pop up or
link before striking the target ship: typical range 130km (80mi).

2.3.2 Air-to-surface missile:

An air-to-air missile (ASM) or air-to-ground missile (AGM or ATMG) is a
missile designed to be launched from military aircraft at targets on land or sea.
There are also unpowered guided glide bombs not considered missiles. The two
most common propulsion systems for air-to-surface missiles are rocket motors,
usually with shorter range, and slower, longer-range jet engines. Some Soviet-
designed air-to-surface missiles are powered by ramjets, giving them both long
range and high speed.

Guidance for air-to-surface missiles is typically via laser guidance, infrared

guidance, and optical guidance or via satellite guidance signals. The type of
guidance depends on the type of target. Ships, for example, may be detected via
passive radar or active radar homing, less effective against multiple, small, fast-
moving land targets.

There is some cross-over between air-to-surface missiles and surface-to-

surface missiles. For example, there was an air-launched version of the Tomahawk
missile, superseded by the AGM-86 ALCM. A major advantage of air-to-surface
missiles for ground attack by aircraft is the standoff distance they provide: missiles
can be launched from a distance without coming within range of the target’s air
defense.

35
 Figure 2.3 Air-to-Surface Missile- BrahMos- Range of 400km

Most air-to-surface missiles are fire-and-forget from a standoff distance,

allowing the attacker to withdraw without approaching further after launch. Some
missiles typically cruise missiles or anti-ship missiles have long enough range to
be launched over the horizon, finding the target autonomously. Few of the many
examples are listed below:

 Nag – India- Range of 7-10km

 Helina- India – Range of 7-8km

 BrahMos- India and Russia- Range of 400km

 AGM-114 Hellfire- USA – Range of 500-8km

 AGM- 84 Harpoon- USA- Range of 124m

 AGM -65 Maverick- USA- Range of 22km

36
TYPES:

Air-to-surface missiles are classified as follows;

 Ballistic missile (DF-26—China)

 Air-launched anti-tank guided missiles (AS-25k – Argentina)

 Air-launched cruise missiles (AGM-86 – USA)

 Air-launched anti-ship missiles (AGM-84 Harpoon – USA)

2.3.3 Surface-to-Air missile:

Figure 2.4 Surface-to-Air Missile- Akash- Range of 30 km

These are generally radar or infrared guided missiles fired from ground
position to destroy the aircrafts of the foes. SAMs were developed to defend the
ground positions from hostile air attacks especially from the high altitude bombers
flying beyond the range of the ‘anti-aircraft artillery’. These missiles are used to
demolish the enemy’s aircrafts as well as other missiles. It requires extreme
precision to hit the target accurately. Thus SAMs are still being developed to gain

37
high accuracy by using various guidance methods. The most common examples of
SAMs used by the Indian Defense are:

 Akash – India- Range of 30km

 Barak 8 – India- Range of 90km
 Maitri – India- Range of 25-30km (under development)
 Trishul- India- Range of 9km
 RIM-7 Sea Sparrow- USA- Range of 19km
 FIM- 92 Stinger- USA- Range of 8km
 RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile- USA- Range of 9km

2.3.4 Air-to-Air Missile:

Air- to- air missiles are powered by rocket motors to hit
the intended targets that are aircrafts or missiles in air. AAMs are broadly
classified into two types, SRAAMs or WVRAAMs i.e., short- range air-to-air
missiles or within visual range air-to-air missiles and MRAAMs or LRAAMs i.e.,
medium range missiles or long range missiles.

38
 Figure 2.5 Air-to-Air Missile- Astra- Range of 80- 110 km

SRAAMs infrared guidance and are known by the name ‘heat seeking
missiles’ while MRAAMs and LRAAMs use the inertial guidance. Various other
guidance systems are used under these categories depending upon the requirement
and the accuracy is acquired accordingly. Since the First World War there have
been numerous developments in the AAMs. We have two Air-to-Air missiles
manufacture in India:

 Astra Mk.I- India- Range of 80-110km

 AIM-7 Sparrow- USA- Range of 11-70km

 AIM-9 Sidewinder- USA- Range of 1-35.4km

 AIM-120 AMRAAM- USA- Range of 55-180km

39
2.3.5 Anti Satellite Weapons:
In the recent past space has been highly used as a medium for war.
The military potential of the satellite is diverse, such as, signal intelligence, early-
warning systems, navigation and most importantly communication. The side which
gets the upper hand in dealing with the satellite defiantly has an advantage and will
dominate over the other side when it comes to war. Once the satellite is used in
war, everything that the enemies do is monitored and can even be controlled. The
Air Force describes space superiority as “the ability to maintain freedom of action
in, from, and to space, sufficient to sustain mission assurance.” Once the satellite is
detected, the missile is launched into orbit close to the targeted satellite. It takes 90
to 200 minutes (or one to two orbits) for the missile interceptor to get close enough
to its target. The missile is guided by onboard radar. The interceptor, which weighs
1400 kg, may be effective up to one kilometer from a target. Few examples of
Anti-Satellite are listed below:
 ASM-135 ASAT- USA- Range of 648 km
 SC-19 ASAT- China- Range of 865km
 RIM-161 (SM 3)- USA- Range of 700km

40
Figure 2.6 Anti- Satellite Missile – SM 3 ASAT Missile

41
Chapter 3
BALLISTIC MISSILE

3.1 Introduction:

In case of Ballistic Missiles, the targets are predetermined and the

missile follows a ballistic trajectory most of its flight path with the objective to hit
the intended target, for terminal stage ballistic missiles fall under the influence of
gravity and air resistance if in the atmosphere. Most of the modern ballistic
missiles have more than just one warhead thus making it more effective in
destroying the target. These are long range surface-to-surface missiles with a range
of over 5,500 km. The shorter ranged ballistic missiles do not leave the Earth’s
atmosphere. The path of motion of ballistic missiles is very similar to the motion of
a ball thrown in air; which to some extent travels in air due to the force with which
it was thrown and then falls down due to gravity. Ballistic missiles are categorized
according to their range, the maximum distance measured along the surface of the
Earth’s ellipsoid from the point of lunch of the ballistic missile to the point of
impact of the last elements of its payload. The course of the ballistic missiles are
pre-set, thus cannot be altered after the missile has burned its fuel unless a warhead
maneuvers independently or some form of terminal guidance is provided. They
also closely follow the a pre-established azimuth (the direction of a celestial object
from the observer, expressed as the angular distance from the north or south point
of the horizon to the point at which a vertical circle passing through the objects
intersects the horizon) from launch point to target. It is extremely difficult to

42
counter act Ballistic missiles because during impact they reach hypersonic speeds
of Mach 10 to Mach 30.

3.2 Components:

A ballistic Missile basically has two major components-

1. Payload
2. Booster
Ballistic missiles are extremely destructive and difficult to defend
against. They traverse distance rapidly; a long-range ballistic missile can travel to
the other side of the world in less than 30 minutes. Since they are extremely fast
and give less or no advance warning before delivering small but fast moving
payloads they have the potential to demolish entire cities together.

3.2.1 Payload:
Payload is basically a package in ballistic missile that contains the
guidance systems and the explosives which include one or many warheads and is
called MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle) system. The
missiles that bear MIRV are said to be MIRVed the first of which was developed in
USA in the year 1970. Generally only long-range ballistic missiles are MIRVed. It
may possess a low power propulsion system that enables it to impart slightly different
velocities to each of its warheads, which it releases at different times. The nuclear
warheads mounted on modern long-range ballistic missiles are usually thermonuclear
warheads having yields in several hundred kilotons to several megatons (one kilotons
is equal to the explosive power of one thousand tons of the chemical explosive TNT;
thus one megaton is equivalent to a million tons of TNT). The regional or
approximate targeting for each warhead is attained by bus maneuvering and release
43
timing during cruise phase. And during the descent phase the warhead may steer itself
towards the target by means of inertial guidance, radar guidance or a combination of
two. Inertial guidance can be best explained with the example of aiming a basket in
the game of basket ball; when a player releases the ball the intent is to give the ball the
trajectory that would make the ball fall straight into the basket. However once the ball
is released the shooter has no control over it. Sometimes when the aim is wrong or the
ball does not follow the trajectory due to some reason it is possible for some other
person to push it back to the right course so that it lands inside the basket. In this case,
the second person plays the role of providing the required guidance. Similarly, the
inertial guidance system supplies the intermediate push to get the missile back on the
proper trajectory. MARVs may also refine their final course by consulting the Global
Positioning System or by using radar to guide themselves during final approach.

3.2.2 Boosters:
Booster is the name used for the rocket inside the missile that lofts the
payload into the upper atmosphere or into space. In the earlier days, the booster
rockets were powered by liquid fuels. A liquid-fuel rocket consists of fuel
(hydrazine, liquid hydrogen, or other) and liquid oxygen in tanks. Pressurized
steams of fuel and oxygen are mixed and ignited at the top of a bell- shaped
chamber. The hot gases expand and rush out of the small opening in t he bell,
giving the required momentum to the rocket in the opposite direction. One major
disadvantage of liquid-fuel rocket is that they require frequent maintenance. Thus
since the late 1950’s solid- fuel boosters are used instead as they require less
maintenance, launch preparation time and are more reliable because they consist of
fewer moving parts. Solid-fuel rockets contain long, hollow –core casts of a fuel
mixture that, once ignited, burn from the inside out in an orderly way, forcing

44
gases out the rear of the rocket. There are various stages of solid-fuel booster.
Stages are independent rockets that are stacked to from a single, combined rocket.

Figure 3.1 Components of a ballistic missile

3.3 Types Of Ballistic Missiles:

Ballistic Missiles are generally categorized by their range. Different

countries use different schemes to categorize the range of ballistic missiles.

The United Sates divides missiles into four range classes

1. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile ICBM over 5500km

2. Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile IRBM 3000-5000km

45
 3. Medium-Range Ballistic Missile MRBM 1000-3000km

4. Short-Range Ballistic Missile SRBM up to 1000km

The Soviet and Russian Military developed a system of five range classes

1. Strategic over 1000km

2. Operational – Strategic 500-1000km

3. Operational 300-500km

4. Operational- Tactical up to 50km

3.3.1 Intercontinental Ballistic Missile:

Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles have a minimum range of 5,500
kilometers. Most of the modern missiles support MIVRs which enables it to carry
several warheads, each of which can strike different targets. ICBMs have three
different flight phases:

Boost phase- This phase lasts for around 3 to 5 minutes. It is actually shorter for a
solid-fuel rocket than for a liquid-propellant rocket. Depending upon the trajectory
chosen, the typical burnout speed varies between 4km/s to 7.8 km/s. at the end of
the phase the altitude reached by the missile is around 150 to 400 km.

Midcourse phase- This lasts for approximately 25 minutes. The

projectile of the flight path on the surface of the Earth is close to a big circle,
slightly displaced due to Earth’s rotation during the time of flight.

Reentry/Terminal phase- This phase starts at an altitude of 100km and

its impact is at a speed of up to 7km/s.

46
 Figure 3.2 A Soviet R-36M (SS-18 Satan)- Range of 10,200 – 16,000 km, the largest ICBM in
history.

After the launch of the ICBM, a booster pushes the missile and then falls away.
Most modern boosters are solid-fueled rocket motors, which can be stored easily
for long periods of time. Once the booster falls away, the remaining bus releases
several warheads each of which continues on its own unpowered ballistic
trajectory. The warhead is encased in a cone-shaped reentry vehicle and is difficult
to detect in this phase of flight as there is no rocket exhaust or other emissions to
mark its position to defenders. The high speeds of the warheads make them
difficult to intercept and allow for little warning, striking targets many thousands
of kilometers away from the launch within approximately 30 minutes. As the
nuclear warhead reenters the Earth's atmosphere its high speed causes compression
of the air, leading to a dramatic rise in temperature which would destroy it if it
47
were not shielded in some way. As a result, warhead components are contained
within an aluminum honeycomb substructure, sheathed in a pyrolytic carbon-
epoxy synthetic resin composite material heat shield. Warheads are also often
radiation-hardened (to protect against nuclear-tipped ABMs or the nearby
detonation of friendly warheads).

Figure 3.3 A pictorial representation of a three stage ICBM

Listed below are the two specific ICBMs:

Land-Based ICBMs-

Russia, the United States, China, North Korea and India are the only
countries currently known to possess land-based ICBMs, Israel has also tested
ICBMs but is not open about actual deployment. As the name suggests these
missiles are launched from the land. Currently the United States operates around
405 ICMs in three USAF bases, the Russians Strategic Rocket Forces have 286
ICMBs able to deliver 958 nuclear warheads, China on the other hand has
developed various long-range ICMBs over the years and even has a mysterious
underground ICMS carrier system called the “Underground Great Wall Project”
and India has a series of ballistic missiles called Agni. On 19 April 2012, India
successfully test fired its first Agni-V, a three-stage solid fueled missile, with a

48
strike range of more than 7,500 km (4,700 mi). The missile was test-fired for the
second time on 15 September 2013.[13] On 31 January 2015, India conducted a
third successful test flight of the Agni-V from the Wheeler Island facility. The test
used a canisterised version of the missile, mounted over a Tatra truck.

Figure 3.4 A U.S. Peacemaker missile- Range of 14,000 km launched from a silo

A few examples of Land-Based Ballistic Missiles are listed below:

 DF-5 – China—Range of 12,000-15,000 km

 DF-41—China—Range of 12,000-15,000 km
 Hwasong-14 – North Korean – Range of 6,700- 10,000 km
 Hwasong-15 – North Korean – Range of up to 13,000 km
 LGM-30 Minuteman III—USA—Range of 13,000 km
 RT-2UTTH “Topol M” – Russia – Range up to 11,000 km

49
  R-36 – Soviet Union—Range of 10,200- 16,000 km
 Agni V—India—Range of 5,000-8,000 km

Submarine-Based ICBMs-

A Submarine based ICBM is a ballistic missile capable of being launched

from submarines. Modern day submarine-launched ballistic missiles have a range
of over 5,500 km.

Figure 3.5 A UGM-96 Trident I – Range of 7,400 km clears the water after launch from a US Navy
submarine

Listed below are a few examples of Submarine-launched ICBMs:

50
  UGM-133 Trident II (D5LE)—USA—Range of 12,000 km

 RSM-54 R-29RMU2 “Layner”—USA—Range of 8,300-12,000 km

 M51—France—Range of 8,000-10,000 km

 JL-2—China—Range of 7,400- 8,000 km

 K-5 – India—Range up to 6,000 km

 Pukkuksong-1/KN-11—North Korean – Range of 500- 6,700 km

3.3.2 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile:

Figure 3.6 Successful test fire of Agni-IV- Range of 4,000 km

51
 Intermediate -range ballistic missile can also be called strategic weapon,
which has a range of 3,000-5,000 km. As intermediate-range ballistic missile’s
range is lesser than Intercontinental ballistic missile, it can hit the target more
accurately compared to Intercontinental ballistic missile. At present Intermediate –
range ballistic missile are operated by only few country namely China, India,
Israel, North Korea, United States, USSR, United Kingdom, and France were
former operators of this missile.

A few specific IRBMS examples are listed below:

 PGM-17 Thor – United states, United Kingdom – Range of 1,850-3,700 km

 DF-3A –China –Range of 4,000-5,000 km

 Agni-III –India –Range of 3,500-5,000 km

 Agni-IV –India –Range of 4,000 km

 Hwasong-12/KN-17 –North Korea –Range of 3,700-6,000 km

3.3.3 Medium-Range Ballistic Missile:

Figure 3.7 Shaheen- III- Range of 2750 km

52
 A Medium-Range ballistic missile is a part of theatre ballistic missile ,
having a range between 1,000-3,000km.

A few example of specific Medium-Range ballistic missiles are listed below:

 Agni II –India –Range of 2,200 km

 Ashoura –Iran –Range of 2,000-3,000 km

 Blue Streak –Range of 3,700km

 Hwagson-10/RD-B Musudan –North Korea –Range of 2,500-4,000

km

 Shaheen-III –Pakistan –Range of 2,750 km

 Shaheen-II –Pakistan –Range of 2,500km

3.3.4 Short-Range Ballistic Missile:

Figure 3.8 Redstone No. CC-56- Range of 92.5- 323 km

53
 A Short –Range ballistic missile has a range of about 1,000 km or
less. Mainly these kinds of ballistic missiles carry nuclear weapons. Its relative low
cost and ease of configuration makes it suitable for using whenever there is a need
to hit a nearby opponent country in short distances. Like the above two types this
ballistic missile is also a part of theatre ballistic missile.

A few examples of SRBM are listed below:

 Al- Hussein—Iraq—Range up to 400 km

 Hwasong-7—North Korea—Range of 700-995 km

 PGM-11 Redstone—U.S—Range of 92-323 km

 Hyunmoo-2—South Korea—Range of 300-800 km

 Sky Spear – Taiwan—Range of 120-300 km

3.4 Ballistic Coefficient:

Ballistic Coefficient of a body is a measure of its ability to overcome
air resistance in flight. It is inversely proportional to the negative acceleration; a
high number indicates a low negative acceleration that is the drag on the projectile
is small in proportion to its mass. In simple words it is often put as “the ability of
the body (here missile) to maintain velocity, in comparison to a standard
projectile”. By definition it is the weight of the object divided by the product of the
coefficient of drag and the projected area, in kilograms per square meter.

Ballistic coefficient enables the trajectory of the missile to be easily

figured out even before the missile is launched. This aids in resolving the
necessary amendments required which prevents various defaults from affecting the
missile path of motion when in air.

54
General formula-

BC= M/(Cd * A)

Where,

M- Mass

A- Area

Cd- Drag coefficient

Ballistics Formula-

BC= m/(d2 * i)

Where,

m- mass of the missile

d- measured cross section (diameter)

i- Coefficient of form

i= (2/n)* √((4n-1)/n)

n- number of calibers of the projectile’s ogine. In ballistics or aerodynamics,

an ogive is a pointed, curved surface mainly used to form the approximately
streamlined nose of a missile, reducing air resistance or the drag of air.

n= ((4*l2 +1)/4)

l- length of the head in number of calibers

Cd= 8/ (p*v2**d2)

v- projectile velocity at range

Satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) with high ballistic coefficients experience
smaller perturbations to their orbits due to atmospheric drag. The ballistic

55
coefficient of an atmospheric reentry vehicle has a significant effect on its
behavior. A very high ballistic coefficient vehicle would lose velocity very slowly
and would impact the Earth's surface at higher speeds. In contrast a low ballistic
coefficient would reach subsonic speeds before reaching the ground. In general,
reentry vehicles that carry human beings back to Earth from space have high drag
and a correspondingly low ballistic coefficient. Vehicles that carry nuclear
weapons launched by an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), by contrast,
have a high ballistic coefficient, which enables them to travel rapidly from space to
a target on land. That makes the weapon less affected by crosswinds or other
weather phenomena, and harder to track, intercept, or otherwise defend against.

3.5 Standard Atmospheric Model:

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is an atmospheric
model of how the pressure, temperature, viscosity and density of the Earth’s
atmosphere vary over a wide range of altitudes or elevations. The ISA aids in
providing a common reference for temperature and pressure at various altitudes
and also has a set of formulae to derive these values. The defense operations i.e.,
detection, discrimination and interception of ballistic missiles take place within the
atmosphere t rather high altitudes. Interception takes place at altitude ranging
above 20-30 km sometimes reaching up to a 100 km. Analyses normally require
one to use a model of the atmosphere that gives the atmospheric density and
temperature as a function of altitude, with emphasis on altitudes above 100 km
where the density is low and the principal variation is solar activity rather than
latitude and season. Currently over 30 different model atmospheres are in use, each
model atmosphere depicts the atmospheric density and temperature at some
specific time and place. The availability of so many model atmospheres can make

56
inter-comparison between simulation analyses difficult and can obscure instances
where real atmospheric effects are critical. For instance, for ICBM targeting the
difference between summer and winter atmospheres on a given path can amount to
a 40-km difference in range, which is obviously critical. Comparable effects arise
due to varying winds, day/night density variation, short-time dynamic
perturbations, and the effects of a non-spherical earth.

Winds and densities--in particular in the lower atmosphere--affect ballistic

missile accuracy significantly. For a high-performance ICBM the most important
effects come from low-altitude variations in wind and density. His calculations
show that for 5-km layers centered at 5 and 10 km, a 1-percent change in density or
0.3-m/sec change in wind speed leads to perhaps a 200-m target error. This is a
basic analysis that ought to underlie any of the more sophisticated treatments that
can be employed nowadays. (In fact, newer and more sophisticated calculations of
density effects frequently do not include the effects of winds.)

Figure 3.8 gives a frequency distribution of (scalar) winds with altitude at a

specific location. It is presented here to point out that the effects of wind and of its
variability must be considered, to be sure that they are not significant for a
particular application. As one example, the difference between the 50th and the
75th percentile of wind speed at 6 km is 9 r/sec. In the following Table the ballistic
missile range error due to a 9-m/sec wind and a 15-percent change in density, both
in the 5-10 km altitude range, for various values of missile ballistic coefficient
= W/CD*A, for both ICBM and IRBM conditions is shown. The range error is
proportional to the wind speed as well as to the transit time through the region in
which the wind is blowing. The table shows that the effect of wind speed can be
significant for some applications. Ballistic missile targeting is affected both by
details of the atmosphere and by the precise shape of the earth. The effective range

57
of an ICBM varies by some 20-40 km with season, purely as a consequence of the
different atmosphere. The large ICBM used in this analysis travels farther in
summer and winter than in spring or fall.

Altitude Percentile (Wind Speed)

(km) 50 75 90 95 99

1 7 10 13 15 19

6 20 29 36 41 50

10 31 43 53 60 73

11 32 44 55 62 79

12 32 44 55 62 79

20 6 10 14 17 26

23 6 10 14 17 26

40 55 67 82 90 105

50 79 96 111 120 132

58 83 107 128 140 164

60 83 107 128 140 164

58
 75 50 65 87 98 118

Figure 3.9 Scalar Wind Speed Distribution

(Source: Turner and Hill, 1982)

Engagement models simulate the flight of a ballistic missile attack from

launch to interception. This engagement takes place in the earth's atmosphere and
requires the use of a unified description of atmospheric density and temperature as
a function of altitude, i.e., a model atmosphere. For BMD (Ballistic Missile
Defense) simulations it is important to use a single model atmosphere to minimize
confusion in the inter-comparison of different tactical schemes for system
applications. To determine how large the effects of atmospheric variability are on a
particular application, it is recommended to run the simulation using the US-62

59
model and then repeating the run with the US-76 model. The difference between
these two models is about as large a variability as one finds between any two
model atmospheres. If there is a difference in the output for the two models, this
indicates the need for closer examination of the physics of the particular problem.

The following points should be noted:

1. The most critical atmospheric parameter is normally density, which falls

off drastically with altitude; for targeting and other high-precision applications, a
non-zero density may need to be considered up to 150-180 km where the density is
on the order of 10-9 of its value at sea level.

2. It must be recognized that the atmosphere varies with latitude, season,

time of day, and solar activity. Above 100-200 km the variation of density with
solar activity is often the largest single effect, so that the difference between US-62
and US-76 models may well be the largest single measure of variability.

3. In addition to these effects, there are other factors, such as wind, the non-
spherical shape of the earth, and a variety of short-term phenomena, that may be
critical for specific BMD applications.

3.6 Projectile Motion:

Figure 3.10 Projectile motion

60
 Projectile motion is the term used to describe the form of motion that
an object when thrown in air experiences and moves along a curved path due to the
action of gravity on that object. Projectile motion is very closely related to ballistic
missile, as the study of this type of motion is called ballistics and such a trajectory
is known as ballistic trajectory. This curved path was given the name parabola by
Galileo. The only force of significance that acts on the object is gravity, which acts
downward, thus imparting to the object a downward acceleration. Because of the
object's inertia, no external horizontal force is needed to maintain the horizontal
velocity component of the object.
Objects that are projected from and land on the same horizontal
surface will have a vertically symmetrical path. The time it takes from an object to
be projected and land is called the time of flight. This depends on the initial
velocity of the projectile and the angle of projection. When the projectile reaches a
vertical velocity of zero, this is the maximum height of the projectile and then
gravity will take over and accelerate the object downward. The horizontal
displacement of the projectile is called the range of the projectile and depends on
the initial velocity of the object. When an object is in a projectile motion it moves
in a bilaterally symmetrical, parabolic path. Projectile motion only occurs when
there is one force applied at the beginning on the trajectory, after which the only
interference is from the gravity.

The behavior of projectile is greatly affected by air resistance and

analyzing this effect is extremely complex. In most of the instances on Earth, a
projectile motion is subjected to both the forces but in any case if an artificial
vacuum has been created then it will only be subjected to the force of gravity. The
acceleration due to gravity is 32 ft (9.8 m)/sec2, usually expressed as "per second
squared." This means that as every second passes, the speed of a falling object is

61
increasing by 32 ft/sec (9.8 m). Where there is no air resistance, a ball will drop at
a velocity of 32 feet per second after one second, 64 ft (19.5 m) per second after
two seconds, 96 ft (29.4 m) per second after three seconds, and so on. When an
object experiences the ordinary acceleration due to gravity, this figure is rendered
in shorthand as g. Actually, the figure of 32 ft (9.8 m) per second squared applies
at sea level, but since the value of g changes little with altitude (it only decreases
by 5% at a height of 16km) it is safe to use this number.

Missiles are as of now the most complex form of projectile. The

trajectories of the missile vary in accordance with the initial velocity and air
resistance, also known as drag. The figure 3.10 shows a graph of how it varies with
respect to these two factors.

Figure 3.11 Trajectories of a projectile with air drag and varying initial velocities

62
 Some of the basic formulae used to analyze the various factor related
to the projectile motion of a body are listed below:

Initial Velocity

ux = ucos
uy = usin

Time Flight

T= (2uy)/g

Acceleration

ax= -g

Velocity

ux = usin - gt
u= ux2 + uy2

Displacement

x= utsin - 12gt2

Parabolic Trajectory Figure 3.12 The Parabolic trajectory of a projectile

y= xtan - x2g2u2cos2

Maximum Height

h= (u2sin2)/2g

Range

R= (u2sin2)/ g

63
 CONCLUSION

In this world where the strength of a nation is determined by the

strength of its defense forces, missiles play a prominent role. Ballistic missiles in
general are extremely hard to defend against. Ballistic missile attacks are
extremely deadly and destructive. Currently ballistic missiles are among the most
expensive of single –use weapons, up to several million dollars. The only
challenge faced while manufacturing ballistic missile is the high accuracy required
for intercepting the targets which demands proper guidance system. India began
the development of the ballistic missile defense system in 1999. The development
was planned in two stages. The first phase was challenging due to the complex
technologies and indigenous mission systems employed in the mission. After 8
years of development the first missile test was conducted in November 2006. The
Prithvi-II Missile was successfully intercepted by the PAD in the endo- atmosphere
at an altitude of 48 km. Today, India is one amongst the top few countries that own
the most effective ballistic missiles.

64
 APPENDIX

A. Numerical Integration:
In numerical analysis, numerical integration constitutes a broad family
of algorithms for calculating the numerical value of a definite integral, and by
extension, the term is also sometimes used to describe the numerical solution of
differential equations. There are several reasons for carrying out numerical
integration.

1. The integrand f(x) may be known only at certain points, such as obtained
by sampling. Some embedded systems and other computer applications may
need numerical integration for this reason.
2. A formula for the integrand may be known, but it may be difficult or
impossible to find an anti-derivative that is an elementary function. An
example of such an integrand is f(x) = exp(−x2), the anti-derivative of which
(the error function, times a constant) cannot be written in elementary form.
3. It may be possible to find an anti-derivative symbolically, but it may be
easier to compute a numerical approximation than to compute the anti-
derivative. That may be the case if the anti-derivative is given as an infinite
series or product, or if its evaluation requires a special function that is not
available.
In simple terms numerical integration is he total sum of smaller components
combined together to form a function. There are various mathematical methods
used to compute numerical integration, some of which are listed below:

Midpoint Rule

M ( x ) = ( b - a ) f ( (a + b) /2 )

65
Trapezoidal Rule

T(x)=(b–a)/2 (f(a)+f(b))

Simpson’s Rule
S ( x ) = ( ( b – a ) / 6 ) ( f ( a ) + 4f ( ( a + b ) / 2 ) + f ( b ) )

A.1 Midpoint Rule:

function [area]= midpt(f,x1,xu,dx)

num=(xu-x1)/dx;
a=x1;
x=x1:dx:xu;
for ii= 1:1:num
b= a+dx;
M(ii)= (b-a)*f((a+b))/2;
If(ii)= sum (M);
a=b;
end
plot(x,f(x),x,If)
area=sum(M);
end

then, to run the program give the input in the command box as,

Trial>> midpt (@ (x) 2*x-1,0,10,0.001)

The straight line depicts the f(x) and the curve depicts the integral in the plot
(figure A.1) shown below

66
 Figure A.1 Plot of Numerical Integration by midpoint rule

A.2 Trapezoidal Rule:

function numerical_integration()
close all
xplot= -1:0.001:1;
yplot= f(xplot);
figure()
plot(xplot, yplot)
Ir=0;
dx=0.5;
for x=-1:dx:1
Ir=Ir+f(x)+dx;
end
est_pi_R = Ir*4;
%%%use Trapzoidla Rule

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It=0;
for x=-1:dx:(1-dx)
It=It+0.5*(f(x)+f(x+dx))+dx;
xtrapezoid = [x x+dx x+dx x];
ytrapezoid = [0 0 f(x+dx) f(x)];
patch(xtrapezoid, ytrapezoid, 'r-')
drawnow
pause
end
est_pi_T =Ir*4;
function y= f(x)
y= sqrt (1-x.^2);

Figure A.2 Trapezoidal Rule of Numerical Integration

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 Figure A.3 The plot of Trapezoidal Rule

A.3 Simpson’s Rule:

function simpsons_rule(a,b)
f= @(x) exp(x) * x;
x0=a;
x1=(a+b)*0.5;
x2=b;
h= (b-a)*0.5;
integral = h*((f(x0)+4*f(x1)+f(x2))/3);
disp (integral);

Trial>> simpsons_rule(0,1)
1.0026

Trial>> simpsons_rule(0,3)

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 43.5734
Figure A.4 Simpson’s Rule

B. Differential Equation :
A differential equation is a mathematical equation that relates
some function with its derivatives. In applications, the functions usually represent
physical quantities, the derivatives represent their rates of change, and the equation
defines a relationship between the two. For solving various differential equations
in MATLAB, a few set of codes are used. some of the examples are listed below.

syms y(t) a
eqn = diff(y,t,2) == a*y;
ySol(t) = dsolve(eqn)

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ySol(t) =
C5*exp(a^(1/2)*t) + C6*exp(-a^(1/2)*t)

syms y(t) a
eqn = diff(y,t) == a*y;
cond = y(0) == 5;
ySol(t) = dsolve(eqn,cond)

ySol(t) =
5*exp(a*t)

Figure A. 5 Differential Equation

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C. ODE45 and ODE23:

The two functions ode23 and ode45 are single step ODE solvers.
They are also known as Runge-Kutta methods. Each step is almost independent of
the previous steps. Two important pieces of information are passed from one step
to the next. The step size h expected to achieve a desired accuracy is passed from
step to step. And, in a strategy known as FSAL, for First Same as Last, the final
function value at the end of a successful step is used at the initial function value at
the following step.

function dy_dt= myode45function(t,y)

dy_dt= [-2*y+3];

clear all;
clc
close all
time_period= [0 10];
initial = [21, 12];
[t,y]= ode45(@myode45function, time_period, initial);
plot(t,y(:,1)),title('y-distance')
figure
plot(t,y(:,2)),title('y-dot-velocity')

The plots obtained by the above code is shown in Figure A.6

The same set of plots is obtained when ode23 is used instead.

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 Figure A.6 ODE45

Given below is an example of evaluating the range and velocity of a missile by

using code ode45

function [xdot]= missile(t,x)

xdot(1,1)=x(3);
xdot(2,1)=x(4);
xdot(3,1)=0;
xdot(4,1)=-9.8;

close all;
clc;
v1=2000;
theta=85*pi/180;
vx= v*cos(theta);
vy= v*sin(theta);
t1=0:150;
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x0=[ 0; 0; vx; vy ];
[t1,x1] = ode45(@missile, [t1],[x0]);
v2=1000;
theta= 80*pi/180;
vx= v*cos(theta);
vy= v*sin(theta);
t2= 0:200;
xo= [0; 0; vx; vy];
[t2,x2]= ode45(@missile, [t2], [x0]);
v3= 3000;
theta= 75*pi/180;
vx= v*cos(theta);
vy= v*sin(theta);
t3= 0:180;
x0=[0; 0; vx; vy];
[t3,x3]= ode45(@missile, [t3],[x0]);
hold on
figure
plot(t1,x1(:,1),’y’);
plot(t1,x2(:,1),'m');
plot(t1,x3(:,1),'b');
grid
figure
plot(t1,x1(:,2));
grid
figure
plot(t1,x1(:,3));
grid
figure
plot(t1,x1(:,4));
grid
figure
hold on
plot(x1(:,1),x1(:,2),‘y’);
plot(x2(:,1),x2(:,2),'m');

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plot(x3(:,1),x3(:,2),'b');
grid
hold off

Figure A.7 A plot of velocity vs range

75
 REFERENCES
i. Bureau of naval personnel principal of guided missiles and Nuclear
Weapons. NAVPERS 10784-B,1st Rev.Washington,D.C.:Gpo,1972.
ii. Gulick,J.F., nad J.S. Miller, Missile Guidance :Interferometer having
using body fixed Antennas. Technical Memorandum TG1331(TSC-
W36-37),Laurel,Md.:Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory.
iii. The National Academics at science, Engineering, and Meicine 500
Fifth St,Nw Washington, Dc 20001,2018
iv. https://www.quora.com
v. P.Dodin, P. Minvielle and J.P Le Cadre, Estimating the ballistic
coefficient of a re-entry vehicle. IET Radar Sonar Navig., Vo1, No.3,
June 2017
vi. Randall K. Walters, “Numerical /integration methods for Ballistic
Rocket trajectory Simulation Programs.” Atmospheric Sciences
laboratory, White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico, ECOM- 5134,
June 1967
vii. http://www.bergerbullets.com/a-better-ballistic-coefficient/
viii. http://science.jrank.org/pages/725/Ballistic_Missiles.html
ix. http://www.encycolpedia.com/politics/encyclopedia_almanacs_transcr
ipts_and_maps/ballistic_missiles
x. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equal

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