Glenda CHIDRAWI Margaret ROBSON

with Stephanie Hollis

HSC course

BIOLOGY
IN FOCUS

Prelims.indd i 28/5/08 11:27:13 AM

 First published 2008
Text © 2008 Glenda Chidrawi and Margaret Robson
Illustrations and design © 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
Additional owners of copyright are acknowledged on the acknowledgments page

Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyrighted material. The authors and publishers tender their apologies
should any infringement have occurred.

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever
is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that
the institution (or the body that administers it) has sent a Statutory Educational notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL)
and been granted a licence. For details of statutory educational and other copyright licences contact: Copyright Agency
Limited, Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street, Sydney NSW 2000. Telephone: (02) 9394 7600. Website: www.copyright.com.au

Reproduction and communication for other purposes

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Act, no part
of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or
retrieval system, without the written permission of McGraw-Hill Australia including, but not limited to, any network or other
electronic storage.

Enquiries should be made to the publisher via www.mcgraw-hill.com.au or marked for the attention of the Rights and
Permissions Manager at the address below.

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Chidrawi, Glenda.
Biology in focus: HSC course.

Includes index.
For secondary students doing the NSW stage 6 biology
syllabus.

ISBN 9780074717882.

1. Biology – Textbooks. I. Robson, Marg. II.

Title. (Series: Biology in focus).

570

Published in Australia by
McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
Level 2, 82 Waterloo Road, North Ryde NSW 2113
Acquisitions Editor: Libby Houston
Production Editors: Natalie Crouch and Martina Edwards
Editor: Joy Window
Designer (cover and interior): Jenny Pace Walter
Typesetter: Midland Typesetters, Australia
Illustrator: Alan Laver, Shelly Communications
Proofreaders: Catherine Page and Terry Townsend
Indexer: Russell Brooks
CD-ROM design and preparation: Nicole McKenzie
Typeset in ITC Garamond, Helvetica and Eurostile by Midland Typesetters, Australia
Printed in China on 95 gsm matt art by iBook Printing

Prelims.indd ii 28/5/08 11:27:14 AM

 Contents
To the student and acknowledgements vii
List of Board of Studies verbs viii
Prescribed Focus Areas—an introduction ix
Biology Skills—an introduction x
Domain: Knowledge—an introduction xii
Timeline: A short history of biology xiii

MAINTAINING A BALANCE 1
Chapter 1 Temperature regulation 2
Most organisms are active in a limited temperature range
1.1 Enzymes and metabolism 3
1.2 What is pH? 6
First-hand investigation: Investigating enzyme activity 8
1.3 Homeostasis and feedback mechanisms—maintaining a balance 10
1.4 The importance of a constant internal environment 11
1.5 Negative feedback—the mechanism of homeostasis 13
1.6 Temperature regulation and the nervous system 14
Secondary source investigation: Model of a feedback system 20
1.7 Temperature limits of living organisms 21
1.8 Temperature regulation in ectothermic and endothermic organisms 24
Secondary source investigation: Adaptations and responses of Australian organisms for temperature
regulation 26
1.9 Temperature changes and responses in plants 29
Revision questions 33
Chapter 2 Transport—dissolved nutrients and gases 34
Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium
2.1 Blood as a medium of transport 35
First-hand investigation: Estimating the size of red and white blood cells 37
2.2 Chemical substances and how they are transported in blood 40
2.3 The adaptive advantage of haemoglobin 43
2.4 Oxygen, carbon dioxide and cell functioning 44
First-hand investigation: The effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of water 45
Secondary source investigation: Technology—measuring blood gases 47
2.5 Structure and functioning of the circulatory system 50
2.6 Changes in chemical composition in blood during circulation 54
2.7 Blood replacement technologies—donated blood and artificial blood 58
Secondary source investigation: Donated blood and its products 58
Secondary source investigation: Artificial blood and its importance 61
2.8 Transport of nutrients in plants 64
First-hand investigation: Investigating xylem and phloem tissue in plants (using a light microscope) 67
Revision questions 69
Chapter 3 Excretion—wastes, water and salt balance 70
Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and waste products of
metabolism in cells and in interstitial fluid
3.1 The importance of excretion (and water and salt balance) in humans and other animals 70
3.2 The role of the kidney in excretion and osmoregulation 72
3.3 Active and passive transport (diffusion and osmosis) in kidney functioning 74
3.4 Why osmosis and diffusion may be inadequate for waste removal 76
First-hand investigation: Investigating the structure of a mammalian kidney 77
iii

Prelims.indd iii 28/5/08 11:27:15 AM

 CONTENTS

3.5 Microscopic structure and the functioning of the mammalian kidney 78

3.6 Hormonal regulation of kidney functioning 83
3.7 Technology related to kidney functioning 84
Secondary source investigation: Technology 1—renal dialysis replaces lost kidney functioning 85
Secondary source investigation: Technology 2—aldosterone and hormone replacement therapy 87
3.8 Excretion of nitrogenous wastes and osmoregulation in animals 88
Secondary source investigation: Urine concentration and water balance in animal excretion
(mammals, marine and freshwater fish) 89
Secondary source investigation: Nitrogenous wastes and water conservation in animals
(Australian insects and terrestrial mammals) 92
3.9 Enantiostasis and estuarine organisms 94
Secondary source investigation: Salt balance in plants 96
3.10 Water conservation in plants—adaptations in Australian plants to minimise water loss 97
First-hand investigation: Structures in plants that assist the conservation of water 101
Revision questions 102

BLUEPRINT OF LIFE 103

Chapter 1 Evolution 104
Evidence of evolution suggests that the mechanisms of inheritance, accompanied by
selection, allow change over many generations
1.1 Evolution—selection, inheritance and change 105
1.2 Environmental changes 107
First-hand investigation: Modelling natural selection 110
Secondary source investigation: A modern example of ‘natural’ selection 112
Secondary source investigation: Case study—environmental change leads to changes in a species 113
1.3 The Darwin-Wallace theory accounts for divergent and convergent evolution 114
1.4 Evidence to support the theory of evolution 117
First-hand and secondary source investigation: Comparative anatomy investigation—vertebrate forelimbs 123
Secondary source investigation: Changed thinking about evolutionary relatedness—the impact
of technology 128
Secondary source investigation: Development of the theory of evolution—history and social and
political influences 130
1.5 Punctuated equilibrium 134
Revision questions 135
Chapter 2 Genetics 136
Gregor Mendel’s experiments helped advance our knowledge of the inheritance of
characteristics
2.1 Gregor Mendel and the birth of genetics 136
2.2 Mendel’s experiments 137
2.3 Linking Mendel’s findings to modern genetics 141
2.4 Mendel’s successful experimental technique 144
2.5 Mendel ignored? 145
2.6 Modern genetics 146
2.7 Variation 149
2.8 Genetics problems 149
Secondary source investigation: Techniques for solving genetics problems 150
2.9 Pedigrees (family trees) 153
First-hand investigation: Constructing pedigrees and tracing inheritance 155
Secondary source investigation: Hybridisation 159
Revision questions 160
Chapter 3 Chromosomes—the key to inheritance 161
Chromosomal structure provides the key to inheritance
3.1 Sutton and Boveri—the chromosome theory of inheritance 161
iv

Prelims.indd iv 28/5/08 4:26:54 PM

 CONTENTS

3.2 Chromosomes, meiosis and gamete formation 164

Secondary source investigation: Modelling meiosis 166
3.3 Meiosis and gamete formation 167
3.4 Variability—gamete formation and sexual reproduction 168
3.5 Deviations from Mendelian inheritance and variations of Mendel’s ratios 172
3.6 Thomas Hunt Morgan and sex-linkage 173
3.7 Co-dominance 178
First-hand investigation: Problems—co-dominance and sex-linkage 181
3.8 Nature versus nurture—environmental effects on gene expression (phenotype) 183
First-hand investigation: Investigating the effects of environment on phenotype 185
3.9 The chemical nature of chromosomes and genes 186
3.10 The structure of DNA 187
Secondary source investigation—The discovery of DNA structure 190
Revision questions 195
Chapter 4 DNA functioning—changes in DNA structure are reflected in phenotype 196
The structure of DNA can be changed and such changes may be reflected in the phenotype
of the affected organism
Secondary source investigation: Beadle and Tatum: The ‘one gene—one polypeptide’ hypothesis 196
4.1 DNA functioning—replication and protein synthesis 200
4.2 Protein synthesis—making protein from a DNA message 203
4.3 The significance of protein synthesis 204
First-hand and secondary source investigation: Developing a model of protein synthesis 208
4.4 DNA functioning gone wrong—mutations 209
4.5 The mutagenic nature of radiation 210
4.6 Mutations may lead to new alleles 210
First-hand and secondary source investigation: Flow chart to show that changes in DNA activity
result in changes in cell activity 212
4.7 Darwin revisited 213
Revision questions 214
Chapter 5 Applications and implications of genetics 215
Current reproductive technologies and genetic engineering have the potential to alter the
path of evolution
Secondary source investigation: Investigating hybridisation and its genetic effects 216
5.1 Reproductive technologies and the gene pool 218
Secondary source investigation: Methodology of cloning 223
5.2 Biotechnology, genetic engineering and transgenic species 225
Secondary source investigation: Ethical issues arising from the use of transgenic species 230
5.3 Impacts of technologies on genetic diversity 232
Revision questions 235

THE SEARCH FOR BETTER HEALTH 237

Chapter 1 Health and disease 238
What is a healthy organism?
1.1 Health 238
1.2 Maintenance of health 239
Secondary source investigation: Maintenance and repair of body tissues 241
Revision questions 243
Chapter 2 The importance of hygiene 244
Over 3000 years ago the Chinese and Hebrews were advocating cleanliness in food, water
and personal hygiene
2.1 Hygiene 244
2.2 What is a pathogen? 245

Prelims.indd v 28/5/08 11:27:15 AM

 CONTENTS

First-hand investigation: Identifying microbes in food or water 246

2.3 Control of disease 249
Secondary source investigation: Treatment of drinking water 252
Revision questions 255
Chapter 3 Infectious disease 256
During the second half of the nineteenth century, the work of Pasteur and Koch and other
scientists stimulated the search for microbes as causes of disease
3.1 Historical perspectives—microbes as the cause of disease 256
First-hand investigation: Modelling Pasteur’s experiment 260
3.2 Causes of infectious disease 261
Secondary source investigation: Historical development—malaria 270
Secondary source investigation: Case study of one named infectious disease 274
3.3 Management of infectious disease 275
Secondary source investigation: Resistance to antibiotics 276
Revision questions 278
Chapter 4 Defence of the body I 279
Often we recognise an infection by the symptoms it causes. The immune response is not so
obvious, until we recover
4.1 First line of defence 280
Secondary source investigation: Microflora imbalance and disease 282
4.2 Second line of defence 283
4.3 Defence adaptations 284
Revision questions 288
Chapter 5 Defence of the body II 289
MacFarlane Burnet’s work in the middle of the twentieth century contributed to a better
understanding of the immune response and the effectiveness of immunisation programs
5.1 Third line of defence 289
5.2 The human body’s immune response 292
5.3 Suppression of the immune response 298
5.4 How vaccinations work 298
Secondary source investigation: Effectiveness of vaccination programs 300
Revision questions 305
Chapter 6 Non-infectious disease 307
Epidemiological studies involve the collection and careful statistical analysis of large
quantities of data. Such studies assist the causal identification of non-infectious diseases
6.1 Epidemiology 307
Secondary source investigation: Smoking and lung cancer 309
6.2 Non-infectious disease 312
First-hand and secondary source investigation: A non-infectious disease 318
Revision questions 319
Chapter 7 Prevention and control of disease 321
Increased understanding has led to the development of a wide range of strategies to prevent
and control disease
7.1 Strategies to prevent and control disease 321
First-hand investigation: Diseases of plants 326
Secondary source investigation: Effectiveness of quarantine 329
7.2 Other control strategies 332
Secondary source investigation: Changing methods of dealing with plant and animal diseases 335
Revision questions 337
Glossary 338
Credits 349
Index 350
vi

Prelims.indd vi 28/5/08 11:27:15 AM

 To the student
Biology in Focus: HSC Course is written specifically to address the rigorous content of the New South Wales
Stage 6 Biology syllabus. This book follows the syllabus in a logical order to ensure that all dot points are
covered completely. The first-hand and secondary source investigations from column 3 of the syllabus are dealt
with at appropriate points in the text.
One of the features of modern biology is the rate at which new terminology is created. Knowledge of some
of these terms is essential to understand the subject. Throughout the text, when important terms are introduced
they are in bold type and are defined in the glossary at the back of the book. Other key terms are also
highlighted in bold type to assist learning.
A major feature of the New South Wales Biology syllabus is the use of keywords (see the list of definitions of
verbs on page viii) in constructing examination questions. An understanding of how to use these key words is
essential for success in the HSC. The revision questions in each chapter are designed to test your command of
the keywords as well as your understanding of the content of the course.
There is an emphasis in the text on Prescribed Focus Areas (PFAs) and Biology Skills. For more information
on how they are dealt with in the text please refer to pages ix–xii. The text is also supported by a Student
Resource CD-ROM that contains lists of relevant website references; student worksheets; extension and classroom
activities; and sample answers to end of chapter revision questions.

Acknowledgements
The writing of this textbook is the culmination of many hours of research, creative thinking and classroom
teaching and would not have been possible without the encouragement and commitment shown by a great
support team.
We extend special thanks and appreciation to our Acquisitions Editor Libby Houston for her professional
guidance, invaluable support and friendship. We would also like to acknowledge the efforts of Natalie Crouch,
Martina Edwards and the many people who read the manuscript, edited material and sourced and produced
illustrations—we thank them for their tireless work and helpful suggestions. Our gratitude goes to all at
McGraw-Hill Education involved in the production, distribution and sale of our book and CD-ROMs. We would
also like to thank Robert Farr for his professional input and assistance.
I, Glenda, acknowledge with gratitude my teacher, friend and mentor Joyce Austoker-Smith, who
encouraged me so many years ago to embark on writing textbooks. I am also grateful to my enthusiastic
research assistants Fiona Caithness and Paul Chidrawi for their interesting and well-documented research,
and wish to express my appreciation to Paul for his amazing attention to detail in cross-referencing the textbook
material with that of the Student Resource and Teacher Resource CD-ROMs. Special thanks go to my family
Allan, Bianca and Paul for their immeasurable patience, support and good humour while I have been writing
this book. Finally, I thank all of my colleagues and friends at Brigidine College St Ives for their cheerfulness,
encouragement and support.
I am indebted to the many students that I have taught over the years. It has been their interest in biology and
desire to learn, their idealism and optimism in an ever-changing world, that has inspired me to try to capture
biology in an exciting, meaningful and up-to-date context, presenting applications that challenge thinking and
involve the setting of high ethical standards in today’s society.
I, Margaret, would like to thank the amazing Stephanie Hollis for providing me with this opportunity. Her
unfailing enthusiasm, constant encouragement and support, detailed research, advice and feedback, humour and
friendship have been of immeasurable value. Thank you also to my dear friend Kerrie Wood, for her constant
support, encouragement and expert input, offered willingly at any time, day or night. Finally, this would not
have been possible without the patience, support and thoughtfulness of my wonderful family and friends, and
my colleagues at Brisbane Water Secondary College—thank you.
vii

Prelims.indd vii 28/5/08 11:27:16 AM

 When preparing for exams, remember that the syllabus is the ultimate guide to what you need to know. But you
List of Board of Studies verbs
can be reassured that Biology In Focus: HSC Course contains the information you need to complete the course work.

Account Account for: state reasons for, report on

Give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions
Analyse Identify components and the relationship among them; draw out and relate implications
Apply Use, utilise, employ to a particular situation
Appreciate Make a judgement about the value of
Assess Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size
Calculate Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information
Clarify Make clear or plain
Classify Arrange or include in classes/categories
Compare Show how things are similar or different
Construct Make; build, put together items or arguments
Contrast Show how things are different or opposite
Critically Add a degree or level of accuracy depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning,
(analyse/evaluate) reflection and quality to (analysis/evaluation)
Deduce Draw conclusions
Define State meaning and identify essential qualities
Demonstrate Show by example
Describe Provide characteristics and features
Discuss Identify issues and provide points for and/or against
Distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences between
Evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of
Examine Inquire into
Explain Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how
Extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details
Extrapolate Infer what is known
Identify Recognise and name
Interpret Draw meaning from
Investigate Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about
Justify Support an argument or conclusion
Outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of
Predict Suggest what may happen based on available information
Propose Put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration and action
Recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences
Recommend Provide reasons in favour
Recount Retell a series of events
Summarise Express concisely the relevant details

viii

Prelims.indd viii 28/5/08 11:27:16 AM

 Prescribed Focus Areas—an introduction
Many areas of the HSC Biology course lend themselves to the study of the process of
science by focussing on five Prescribed Focus Areas (PFAs), as outlined in the table
below. The application of these PFAs has become an important part of the New South
Wales Board of Studies Biology Syllabus. PFAs are targeted for examination questions
in both the Preliminary and HSC Biology courses.
Examples of how to apply each of the PFAs 1–5 have been provided in this PFA
textbook. Wherever an icon appears in the textbook, it signals that a PFA is being
addressed and provides the opportunity for students to analyse course content in
relation to a particular PFA and to become skilled at applying their area of learning
to the particular PFA.
On the Teacher Resource CD special reference has been given to ‘unpacking’ each
PFA (breaking the ‘dot point’ down into its component parts) and to assisting teachers
to facilitate students in developing the skills needed to address PFAs. Templates or
‘scaffolds’ have been provided that simplify the process of applying each PFA and
these may be used by teachers and/or students in conjunction with any module SR TR
of work.
In addition to this, the Teacher Resource CD contains a table which links specific
syllabus areas (‘dot points’) throughout the HSC course with each PFA.
Linking syllabus
Table of objectives and outcomes—Prescribed Focus Areas ‘dot points’ to PFAs

Objectives HSC Course outcomes

Students will develop knowledge and understanding of: A student:

1 the history of biology H1 evaluates how major advances in scientific understanding and
technology have changed the direction or nature of scientific
thinking

2 the nature of biology H2 analyses the ways in which models, theories and laws in biology
have been tested and validated

3 applications and uses of biology H3 assesses the impact of particular advances in biology on the
development of technologies

4 implications of biology for society and the environment H4 assesses the impacts of applications of biology on society and
the environment

5 current issues, research and developments in biology H5 identifies possible future directions of biological research

ix

Prelims.indd ix 28/5/08 11:27:16 AM

 Biology Skills—an introduction
During the Preliminary Course, it is expected that students will further develop skills in planning and
conducting investigations, communicating information and understanding, scientific thinking and
problem-solving and working individually and in teams. Each module specifies content through which
skill outcomes can be achieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content to provide
students with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.

HSC Course outcomes Content

A student: Students will learn to:

H11 11.1 identify data sources to:

justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation
plan
a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which
each aspect may be researched
b) determine the type of data that needs to be collected and explain
the qualitative or quantitative analysis that will be required for this
data to be useful
c) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and
uncertainty that may be present in the measurement of data
d) identify and use correct units for data that will be collected
e) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for
data collection or gathering information that will assist efficient
future analysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:

a) demonstrate the use of the terms ’dependent’ and ‘independent’
to describe variables involved in the investigation
b) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies
to ensure that these variables are kept constant and demonstrate
the use of a control
c) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data and
information to be collected
d) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations and
explain why a procedure, a sequence of procedures or repetition
of procedures is appropriate
e) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of an
investigation and identify strategies to address these issues
if necessary

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:

a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or
combination of equipment needed to undertake the investigation
b) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental
procedures and identifying and addressing potential hazards
c) identifying technology that could be used during investigations and
determining its suitability and effectiveness for its potential role in
the procedure or investigations
d) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructive
testing of material and analysing potentially different results of
these two procedures

Prelims.indd x 28/5/08 11:27:17 AM

 BIOLOGY SKILLS—AN INTRODUCTION

HSC Course outcomes Content

A student: Students will learn to:

H12 12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:

evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be
improved in investigations
a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and
when modifications are needed and analysing the effect of these
adjustments
b) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise hazards
and wastage of resources
c) disposing carefully and safely of any waste materials produced
during the investigation
d) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations

12.2 gather first-hand information by:

a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing
appropriate technologies, including data loggers and sensors
b) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and
recognisable forms, carrying out repeat trials as appropriate

12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:

a) accessing information from a range of resources, including
popular scientific journals, digital technologies and the Internet
b) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful
information in secondary sources
c) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables
as well as from written and spoken material in all its forms
d) summarising and collating information from a range or resources
e) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the
areas in which they are currently working and information about
their research

12.4 process information to:

a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and
the relative importance of the data and information gathered
b) identify and apply appropriate mathematical formulae and concepts
c) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using
appropriate methods, including computer-assisted analysis
d) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information
and data in relation to the area of investigation
e) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and
data by considering information from various sources
f) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass
media by comparison with similar information presented in
scientific journals

H13 13.1 present information by:

uses terminology and reporting styles to appropriately and
successfully communicate information and understanding
a) selecting and using appropriate text types, or combinations
thereof, for oral and written presentations
b) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and
information
c) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge sources
of information
d) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using
appropriate units for physical quantities
e) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships
and present information clearly and succinctly
f) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information
and relationships clearly and accurately
g) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate
to present graphical information

xi

Prelims.indd xi 28/5/08 11:27:17 AM

 BIOLOGY SKILLS—AN INTRODUCTION

HSC Course outcomes Content

A student: Students will learn to:

H14 14.1 analyse information to:

assesses the validity of conclusions from gathered data and
information
a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions
in data and information
b) justify inferences and conclusions
c) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis,
a prediction or a proposed solution to a problem
d) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to
the observations
e) make and justify generalisations
f) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena
and/or make predictions
g) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomena
h) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific
principles

14.2 solve problems by:

a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problem
b) describing and selecting from different strategies those which
could be used to solve a problem
c) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions
to a particular problem
d) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving
an identified problem

14.3 use available evidence to:

a) design and produce creative solutions to problems
b) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression
and include correct use of scientific principles and ideas
c) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions,
hypotheses and the results of investigations
d) formulate cause and effect relationships

Domain: Knowledge—an introduction

Objectives HSC Course outcomes

Students will develop knowledge and understanding of: A student:

6 cell infrastructure and process H6 explains why the biochemical processes that occur in cells are
related to macroscopic changes in the organism

7 biological diversity H7 analyses the impact of natural and human processes on

biodiversity

8 environmental interactions H8 evaluates the impact of human activity on the interactions of

organisms and their environment

9 mechanisms of inheritance H9 describes the mechanisms of inheritance in molecular terms

10 biological evolution H10 describes the mechanisms of evolution and assesses the
impact of human activity on evolution

xii

Prelims.indd xii 28/5/08 11:27:17 AM

 TIMELINE: a short history of biology

1590 Hans and Zacharias Jansen made the first compound microscope by placing two convex lenses
MICROSCOPE BEGINNINGS

in a tube.

1663 Robert Hooke introduced the term ‘cell’ while observing cork under a light microscope. He also
worked at improving a number of scientific devices, including the microscope, telescope and
barometer.

1668 Francesco Redi conducted an experiment to challenge the theory of ‘spontaneous generation’.

1674–1683 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch lens maker:

■ produced lenses of higher quality, which allowed for greater magnification
(up to 200 times).
■ described ‘animacules’ (unicells)
■ discovered bacteria.

1758 John and Peter Dollard (father and son), spectacle makers, produced the first achromatic
(colour-free) lenses, making microscopes superior to hand lenses.

1796 Edward Jenner used cowpox in the first successful vaccine against the disease smallpox.

1801 Robert Brown a botanist and naturalist, first described the cell nucleus while observing plant cells
in an orchid. He also noticed the random movement of pollen grains (Brownian motion).
the cell theory

1836 Charles Darwin arrived in Sydney Harbour aboard HMS Beagle.

1838 Matthias Schleiden, a botanist, stated that parts of plants are made of cells (not visible to the
unaided eye).

1839 Theodor Schwann, a zoologist, stated that parts of animals are made of cells; agreed with
Schleiden and they published the cell theory in a book, stating that the cell is the basis of the
structure of all living things.
T H E SC I E NT I F I C REVOL U TION

1843 Robert Koch studied the cause of the disease anthrax.

1855 Rudolph Virchow introduced the idea that cells reproduce by dividing, stating that all living cells
can only arise from other living cells, further challenging the theory of ‘spontaneous generation’.

1856–1858 Gregor Mendel began a series of controlled experiments with garden peas, to carry out
a statistical study of heredity.
evolution

1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace presented a paper ‘A Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection’.

1859 Charles Darwin’s book, On the Origin of Species, is published.

1860 The Huxley–Wilberforce debate takes place.

1861 Louis Pasteur published his experiments showing that fermentation was caused by something
in the air, finally disproving ‘spontaneous generation’.
germ theory of disease

1862 Louis Pasteur‘s experiments with bacteria showed that infectious diseases are caused by
micro-organisms, leading to the germ theory of disease.

1863 Louis Pasteur introduced pasteurisation, a practical application of what he had learnt through
his fermentation experiments.

1866 Gregor Mendel published his work on studying plant hybrids.

1867 Joseph Lister made the connection between Pasteur’s work on infection and introduced antiseptic
surgery (published paper).

1880 Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran first identified cause of malaria: a microscopic organism.

1881 Pasteur developed a vaccine against anthrax.

xiii

Prelims.indd xiii 28/5/08 11:27:18 AM

 1882 Walther Flemming discovered nuclear material—termed ‘chromatin material’.

1882–1893 Koch proposed postulates: ‘rules of engagement’ for bacteriologists.

disease
1885 Pasteur used a vaccine against rabies on humans for the first time, saving the life of a young boy
who had been bitten by a dog.

1891 Robert Koch concluded that malaria was transmitted by mosquitoes.

1897 Ronald Ross demonstrated that female Anopheles mosquitoes were the vectors (carriers) of
malaria, by showing that these mosquitoes carried malarial oocysts in their gut tissue.

1900 Significance of Mendel ’s experiments in terms of heredity is noticed after three other scientists
get similar results.
C L A S S ICA L S CIEN CE

genetics

1902 Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri independently proposed and demonstrated a connection
between chromosomes and inheritance. Sutton studied meiosis in grasshoppers. Boveri studied
chromosome behaviour and inheritance in sea urchins.

1911 Thomas Hunt Morgan studied sex-linked inheritance (Nobel Prize in 1933 for life’s work).

1909 Wilhelm Johannsen introduced the term ‘gene’.

1928 Alexander Fleming noticed that the mould Penicillium killed bacteria in a petri dish.
microscope advances, microbes

1933 Ernst Ruska built the first electron microscope.

1935 Howard Florey began to search for a useful medicine to kill germs.
and antibiotics

1938 Fritz Zernike invented the phase contrast microscope which can be used to observe living,
unstained cells.

1939 Howard Florey extracted stable penicillin (the first antibiotic).

1941 George Beadle and Edward Tatum published the results of their experiments with bread mould,
in which they proposed the one-gene-one-enzyme (protein) hypothesis.

1942 Viruses first seen under the electron microscope.

1945 Frank McFarlane Burnet isolated influenza A virus (in Australia) and developed a vaccine.

1945 Howard Florey and Alexander Fleming received the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine for
their work on penicillin.

1950 Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins made a crystal of DNA to study its structure.
C O NT E M PO R A RY S CI E N CE

1953 James Watson and Francis Crick put together a model of DNA.

1955 Marvin Minsky invented the scanning electron microscope.

biotechnology and health
molecular technology,

1960 Frank McFarlane Burnet and Peter Medawar received the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine
for their work in immunology and organ transplants.

1962 Vernon Ingram did further work on genes and proteins leading to the change to the one-gene-one-
polypeptide hypothesis.

1962 Watson, Crick and Wilkins received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their discovery of DNA.
(Rosalind Franklin died in 1958; her work was acknowledged, but Nobel prize nominations cannot
be awarded posthumously.)

1972 Niles Eldridge and Stephen Jay Gould put forward the theory of evolution by punctuated equilibrium.

1980 WHO declared the disease smallpox eradicated worldwide.

To present Genetic and reproductive revolution: in-vitro fertilisation, genetic engineering, cloning and advanced
biotechnology.

Note: Dates in many timelines show slight inconsistencies when compared. This is due to inconsistent record-keeping long ago.
It is the sequence of events that is more important in reflecting the historical developments in science, than the absolute dates.

xiv

Prelims.indd xiv 28/5/08 11:27:18 AM