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Summary
Vitamin B6 is an essential coenzyme for numerous metabolic enzymes and is a potent antioxidant. In plants,
very little is known about its contribution to viability, growth and development. The de novo pathway of
vitamin B6 biosynthesis has only been described recently and involves the protein PDX1 (pyridoxal phosphate
synthase protein). Arabidopsis thaliana has three homologs of PDX1, two of which, PDX1.1 and PDX1.3, have
been demonstrated as functional in vitamin B6 biosynthesis in vitro and by yeast complementation. In this
study, we show that the spatial and temporal expression patterns of PDX1.1 and PDX1.3, investigated at the
transcript and protein level, largely overlap, but PDX1.3 is more abundant than PDX1.1. Development of single
pdx1.1 and pdx1.3 mutants is partially affected, whereas disruption of both genes causes embryo lethality at
the globular stage. Detailed examination of the single mutants, in addition to those that only have a single
functional copy of either gene, indicates that although these genes are partially redundant in vitamin B6
synthesis, PDX1.3 is more requisite than PDX1.1. Developmental distinctions correlate with the vitamin B6
content. Furthermore, we provide evidence that in addition to being essential for plant growth and
development, vitamin B6 also plays a role in stress tolerance and photoprotection of plants.
Introduction
The term vitamin B6 collectively refers to the vitamers py- (Burns et al., 2005; Cane et al., 1998, 1999; Laber et al., 1999;
ridoxal, pyridoxine, pyridoxamine and their respective Lam and Winkler, 1990, 1992; Raschle et al., 2005; Tambasco-
phosphate esters (Rabinowitz and Snell, 1941). The vitamin Studart et al., 2005; Zhao and Winkler, 1996), which can be
is renowned in the medical field as being involved in more referred to as deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate (DXP)-dependent
bodily functions than any other single nutrient, being re- and DXP-independent (Tambasco-Studart et al., 2005). The
quired for the maintenance of physical as well as mental DXP-dependent pathway is found in Escherichia coli and
health (Gengenbacher et al., 2006). The phosphorylated other members of a small subset of the c division of
forms pyridoxal 5¢-phosphate (PLP) and pyridoxamine 5¢- proteobacteria (Ehrenshaft et al., 1999; Mittenhuber, 2001)
phosphate (PMP) are active as enzyme cofactors. Pyridoxal and has been studied for decades. This pathway involves six
5¢-phosphate in particular is well established as a cofactor steps, catalyzed by erythrose-4-phosphate dehydrogenase B
for enzymes involved in amino acid, lipid and carbohydrate (Gapß/Epd), erythronate-4-phosphate dehydrogenase
metabolism (John, 1995). (PdxB), phosphoserine aminotransferase (PdxF), deoxy-
Recently, the vitamers have been shown to be potent xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (Dxs), 4-hydroxythreonine-
antioxidants equivalent to vitamins C and E and are partic- 4-phosphate dehydrogenase (PdxA) and pyridoxine
ularly active in quenching singlet oxygen and the superox- 5¢-phosphate synthase (PdxJ), which result in the formation
ide anion (Ehrenshaft et al., 1999; Jain and Lim, 2001; of pyridoxine 5¢-phosphate (PNP) from intermediates of
Osmani et al., 1999). The de novo synthesis of the vitamin glucose metabolism (for reviews see Drewke and Leistner,
is now known to occur through either of two pathways 2001; Mittenhuber, 2001). The DXP-independent pathway, on
the other hand, was discovered only recently and appears to also required for plant tolerance to abiotic stress, while
be the predominant route being found in archaea, most loss of PDX1.1 does not have such drastic consequences.
bacteria, fungi and plants (Ehrenshaft et al., 1999; The absence of both proteins results in embryo lethality.
Mittenhuber, 2001; Osmani et al., 1999). It involves only two Plants that have only a single copy of either gene show a
enzymes, i.e. PDX1 and PDX2, which function as a glutamine severe delay in growth and development that is more
amidotransferase resulting in the direct formation of PLP pronounced in plants that do not carry a copy of PDX1.3.
from intermediates of glycolysis and the pentose phosphate Despite the growth retardation, plants that have a single
pathway (Burns et al., 2005; Raschle et al., 2005; Tambasco- copy of PDX1.3 perform the switch from vegetative to
Studart et al., 2005). Interestingly, it appears that either one reproductive growth at approximately the same time as
or the other pathway is present in any one organism but not wild type, whereas the switch in plants with a single copy
both (Ehrenshaft et al., 1999; Mittenhuber, 2001). of PDX1.1 is impeded. Finally, we show that the particular
By definition, animals must take the vitamin up in their role of PDX1.3 in stress tolerance appears to correlate with
diet. The different vitamers can be interconverted via the so- the vitamin B6 content of the plant, and we furthermore
called salvage pathway (Hill and Spenser, 1996; Yang et al., provide indirect evidence that vitamin B6 may play a role
1996, 1998). This pathway appears to exist in most organ- in the photoprotection of plants.
isms and comprises pyridoxine-5¢-phosphate oxidase
(PdxH), which is active on both PMP and PNP converting
Results
them to PLP (Zhao and Winkler, 1995); pyridoxal kinase
(PdxK), which catalyses the conversion of pyridoxine (PN),
Expression analysis reveals that PDX1.3 is more abundant
pyridoxal (PL) or pyridoxamine (PM) to the respective 5¢-
than PDX1.1
phosphate ester (Yang et al., 1996), and an apparently
specific pyridoxal kinase (PdxY) (Yang et al., 1998). Expression of PDX1.1 (At2g38230), PDX1.2 (At3g16050) and
Somewhat surprisingly, plants defective in vitamin B6 PDX1.3 (At5g01410) was analyzed in various organs of the
biosynthesis have been described only recently (Chen and plant, i.e. roots, stem, cauline leaves, rosette leaves, flowers,
Xiong, 2005; Shi and Zhu, 2002; Shi et al., 2002; Tambasco- siliques and cotyledons, at the RNA level using quantitative
Studart et al., 2005). The first to be reported was that of the RT-PCR, and at the protein level using specific antibodies.
salt-sensitive mutant sos4, which carries a mutation in PdxK Both PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 transcripts could be detected in all
resulting in impaired root hair development and increased organs examined (Figure 1a, upper panel). Notably, the
sensitivity to Naþ, Kþ and Liþ ions. However, despite much lowest level of both PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 transcript was
research (Drewke and Leistner, 2001; Fiehe et al., 2000), very detected in the root, whereas the highest levels were found
little information was available on the de novo pathway of in cotyledons and siliques, respectively. This is in direct
vitamin B6 biosynthesis in plants until recently (Tambasco- contrast to the PDX1.2 transcript, which is predominantly
Studart et al., 2005). It was only with the discovery of the found in the root and shows a relatively low abundance in
DXP-independent pathway (Burns et al., 2005; Ehrenshaft the above-ground organs, being found mainly in flowers
and Daub, 2001; Ehrenshaft et al., 1999; Osmani et al., 1999; and siliques (Figure 1a, lower panel). The PDX1.3 transcript
Raschle et al., 2005; Tambasco-Studart et al., 2005) and the appeared to be present at a generally higher level than that
characterization of this pathway in Arabidopsis that we of PDX1.1, as confirmed by the relative abundances of ex-
could show that knocking out the single PDX2 homolog is pressed sequence tags (ESTs) found in databases (103 and
lethal for the plant, resulting in the arrest of embryo 37, respectively), as well as the averages of the signal
development at the globular stage (Tambasco-Studart et al., intensity values from publicly available microarray data
2005). More recently, a pdx1 mutant was shown to be (7761 and 3658, respectively) (Zimmermann et al., 2004).
affected in root and leaf development and to have an Expression of PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 was also assessed at
increased sensitivity to salt, osmotic and oxidative stress the protein level using an antibody directed against the
(Chen and Xiong, 2005). However, there are three homologs homologous Bacillus subtilis Pdx1 protein (64% identity),
of PDX1 in Arabidopsis (PDX1.1, PDX1.2 and PDX1.3). Two which had been affinity purified against both the PDX1.1 and
of these (PDX1.1 and PDX1.3) have been shown to be PDX1.3 recombinant proteins. This antibody has similar
functional in vitamin B6 biosynthesis (Tambasco-Studart affinity for all three PDX1 homologs, but they can be
et al., 2005). distinguished by their mobility during SDS-PAGE (data not
Here we provide a more detailed analysis of the shown). The proteins migrate with mobility from lowest to
functional PDX1 genes in Arabidopsis by comparing their highest in the order PDX1.2 <<< PDX1.1 < PDX1.3. The
expression patterns at both the RNA and protein level. We PDX1.2 protein is much less abundant than either PDX1.1
report on the characteristics of the individual and double or PDX1.3, such that only the two latter proteins are
knockouts of the genes. We show that PDX1.3 is necessary observable in plant protein extracts under the conditions
for post-embryonic root and shoot development and is used. Both proteins could be detected in most of the above-
ground tissues examined, with PDX1.3 being more abun- post-transcriptional or post-translational regulation during
dant in general than PDX1.1 (Figure 1a, centre panel). development. At the protein level, the expression appears to
Immunodecoration of the proteins was barely detectable in be strongest at younger stages, followed by a gradual
the roots under the conditions used, most likely due to their decline until senescence (Figure 1b, centre panel). This
lower abundance in this organ. In most cases it appears that pattern is most pronounced in the case of PDX1.3, as is its
there is a reasonable correlation between the level of protein predominance compared to PDX1.1, throughout the life
and of transcript. cycle. In contrast, the PDX1.2 transcript accumulates during
We also analyzed expression of the genes in the rosette senescence (Figure 1b, lower panel). We also observed that
leaves of developing plants (Figure 1b). In this case, we the level of PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 is dramatically reduced in
noted that the correlation between transcript and protein of etiolated seedlings compared with those grown under
PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 is reduced, which may be indicative of continuous light (Figure 1c, upper and centre panel). Upon
Table 1 Segregation ratio of the BAR gene conferring phosphino- Table 2 Analysis of the fertility of pdx1.1 and pdx1.3
thricin herbicide resistance in transposant SM_3_22656 (pdx1.1-1)
Normal Non-fertilized Seeds
Line Bastar Bastas Total P value seeds ovules scored P value
The progeny of selfed heterozygous line SM_3_22656 were analyzed Fertility was assessed by counting the number of aborted seeds in
for resistance and sensitivity to Basta. The P value calculated is mature siliques. This evaluation was performed in 10, 10 and 7 plants
based on a 3:1 Bastar:Bastas segregation ratio. for pdx1.1-1, pdx1.3 and wild type, respectively. No significant
difference was observed for pdx1.1-1 (P > 0.05) when compared with
wild-type plants. In contrast, a significant reduction in the number of
fertilized seeds was observed in pdx1.3 (P < 0.01).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a) (a)
(b) (d)
(b)
(c)
evident when plants are grown in the absence of a vitamin (PSII) photochemistry (Fv/Fm) was reduced from 0.86 in wild
B6 supplement (Figure 5b,c). type to 0.72 in pdx1.3 plants (Student’s t-test P
value < 0.0001) indicating a significant photoinhibition of
PSII in pdx1.3 (Figure 9a). Conversely, when the plants were
PDX1.3 deficiency increases salt sensitivity and photo-
grown under low light (10 lmol photons m)2 sec)1), there
oxidative stress
was no significant effect on PSII photochemistry (Fv/Fm
It has recently been shown that PDX1.3 is required for equal to 0.84 in wild-type and 0.83 in pdx1.3, Student’s t-test
adaptation of plants to salt, osmotic and oxidative stress P value ¼ 0.37). Furthermore, under these conditions, chlo-
(Chen and Xiong, 2005). In this context and with both pdx1.1 rosis of pdx1.3 was no longer observed in sterile culture, and
and pdx1.3 knockout plants at hand, an analogous investi- pdx1 mutants were indistinguishable from wild type (com-
gation was performed to assess whether there is a distinc- pare Figure 9c with Figure 4). To further assess the light
tion between the absence of either PDX1.1 or PDX1.3 in the sensitivity of pdx1 mutants, plants grown in low light were
response to stress. Seeds of wild-type and mutant lines were exposed to photoinhibitory conditions. Nine-day-old seed-
germinated and grown for 7 days on sterile medium sup- lings were exposed to high light (1100 lmol pho-
plemented with vitamin B6, such that they were virtually tons m)2 sec)1) over a period of several hours. This
indistinguishable from each other (Chen and Xiong, 2005). treatment caused a rapid inhibition of PSII photochemistry,
The seedlings were then transferred to medium without with the Fv/Fm decreasing by 20% after 1 h in wild type
vitamin B6 supplementation and in the presence of either
sodium chloride or mannitol. We observed that while pdx1.3
(a) (b)
was hypersensitive to both salt and osmotic stress, pdx1.1
sensitivity appeared to be similar to that of the wild
type (Figure 8).
Interestingly, as our expression analysis showed that both
PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 are regulated by light (Figure 1c), this
prompted us to investigate whether the observed pheno-
types would be affected by light. First, wild-type, pdx1.1 and
pdx1.3 plants were grown on MS medium without pyridox-
ine, under moderate light intensity (100 lmol photons
m)2 sec)1) and chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements (c)
were performed on 9-day-old seedlings. Under these condi-
tions, the maximum quantum efficiency of photosystem II
(d)
(Figure 9b). Photoinhibition of PSII was more rapid and Studart et al., 2005). In the de novo pathway, the two pro-
pronounced in pdx1.3; Fv/Fm decreased by 29% after 1 h teins PDX1 and PDX2 function together as a glutamine
(35% after 2 h, 27% in wild type). pdx1.1 seedlings showed a amidotransferase, with PDX2 as the glutaminase domain
similar decline of Fv/Fm to that of wild type, albeit slightly and PDX1 as the synthase domain, resulting in the direct
accelerated (Figure 9b). formation of the cofactor vitamer, pyridoxal 5¢-phosphate
During high light stress, 1O2 is produced from chlorophyll (Burns et al., 2005; Raschle et al., 2005). There are three
excitation in the light harvesting complexes (LHC) or the PSII PDX1 and one PDX2 homolog(s) in Arabidopsis. Here, we
reaction centers. Photoinhibition is related to the rapid have shown that disruption of the two functional PDX1
turnover of the D1 protein, and 1O2 produced within PSII is a paralogs, PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 in Arabidopsis, leads to an
probable intermediate in the triggering of the degradation of embryo-lethal phenotype. The arrest in embryo develop-
this protein. The steady state level of the D1 protein was ment is remarkably similar to what was observed by
analyzed in wild-type and pdx1 seedlings grown in the knocking out the single copy PDX2 (Tambasco-Studart et al.,
presence and absence of vitamin B6 under 10 and 2005). The fact that knocking out both PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 is
100 lmol photons m)2 sec)1 of light. While the D1 protein lethal for the plant supports our previous analyses indicating
could be detected under all conditions and in all seedlings that PDX1.2 does not catalyze biosynthesis of PLP in Ara-
examined (Figure 9d), it was substantially reduced in pdx1.3 bidopsis (Tambasco-Studart et al., 2005) and therefore
seedlings grown in the absence of vitamin B6 under cannot compensate for the absence of PDX1.1 and PDX1.3.
moderate light conditions. Growth of pdx1.3 seedlings in The role of the PDX1.2 protein has yet to be deciphered, and
the presence of 5 lM pyridoxine or under low light restored while it is more divergent than PDX1.1 and PDX1.3, our own
the D1 level to that approaching wild type (Figure 9d). In analysis (unpublished data) and that deciphered from
contrast, no significant difference in the levels of the LHC Genevestigator (Zimmermann et al., 2004) indicate a very
could be detected between the samples examined (Fig- different mode of regulation (Figure S1). Moreover, we have
ure 9d). observed that amino acids thought to be involved in cata-
lysis by PDX1 (Zhu et al., 2005) are not conserved in PDX1.2.
The failure to identify seedlings homozygous for either
Discussion
pdx1.1 pdx1.3 or pdx2 (Tambasco-Studart et al., 2005)
From this and other recent studies it is becoming increas- implies that the salvage pathway cannot compensate for
ingly apparent that vitamin B6 performs multiple roles in the loss of the de novo biosynthesis pathway. This further
plants. It is well established that the vitamin is required for implies that the de novo pathway is essential for plant
normal cellular functions, because in its cofactor form(s), viability and that it plays the dominant role in maintaining
PLP or PMP, it is necessary for numerous metabolic reac- vitamin B6 homeostasis. This is corroborated by the obser-
tions. However, the vitamin can also function as an anti- vations with the single and double homo/heterozygote
oxidant (Ehrenshaft et al., 1999; Jain and Lim, 2001), a role pdx1.1 pdx1.3 plants, because even when the de novo
which has recently been demonstrated in plants. For pathway is merely compromised, the plants show develop-
example, supplementation with the pyridoxine vitamer in mental impairments. Furthermore, it has been shown that
one case reduced singlet oxygen-induced cell death in Ara- the PL kinase, SOS4, is not essential for plant viability (Shi
bidopsis (Danon et al., 2005), and in another study it delayed and Zhu, 2002; Shi et al., 2002). This mutant is impaired in
ROS-dependent pathogen defense responses in Nicotiana root growth. Thus, we were somewhat surprised that in
tabacum (Denslow et al., 2005). This implies that a balance comparison with other organs, the PDX1.1 or PDX1.3 genes
has to be achieved in vivo where the functionality of the are not highly expressed in the root. This could be explained
vitamin within the cell, i.e. as a cofactor and/or antioxidant, if vitamin B6 is not directly involved in promoting root
is most likely fulfilled through maintenance of ‘vitamin B6 growth and development but rather has an indirect role,
homeostasis’. This could be facilitated by the de novo and/or affecting vitamin B6-dependent enzymes which control the
salvage pathways of biosynthesis, both of which are known synthesis of compounds known to regulate the process, e.g.
to exist in plants (Shi and Zhu, 2002; Tambasco-Studart tryptophan, auxin (Casimiro et al., 2003). It is interesting,
et al., 2005). that the phenotype of the mutant plants analyzed is much
less pronounced in soil as compared to sterile medium in the
absence of vitamin B6 (compare Figures 3, 4 and 7). In this
The de novo biosynthesis pathway is the predominant
context, it is perhaps significant that the pdx1 phenotype can
source of vitamin B6 in plants
be rescued in sterile medium by supplementation with
While the salvage pathway of vitamin B6 biosynthesis has pyridoxine as shown. This implies that in Arabidopsis there
been established in most organisms, the predominant de is an uptake system in place for the vitamin. Thus, one
novo biosynthesis pathway has only recently been deci- explanation for the less severe phenotype in soil might be
phered (Burns et al., 2005; Raschle et al., 2005; Tambasco- that there is a source of the vitamin within the soil, the nature
ª 2006 The Authors
Journal compilation ª 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, The Plant Journal, (2006), 48, 933–946
942 Olca Titiz et al.
of which is currently not known. We observed that in sterile cercosporin that kills plants primarily via 1O2-mediated
culture pyridoxal could also rescue the pdx1 phenotype peroxidation of membrane lipids (Daub, 1982; Daub and
(unpublished observations). Therefore, it is likely that in Ehrenshaft, 2000), and as mentioned above in the condi-
addition to the characterized PL kinase, SOS4 (Shi and Zhu, tional flu mutant of Arabidopsis (Danon et al., 2005). In
2002), there are presumably PN/PM oxidases and/or kinases plants, the quenching of 1O2 has been linked to the turnover
that are important components of the vitamin B6 salvage of the D1 protein so that decreased accumulation of the
pathway in Arabidopsis. protein in PSII is thought to be an indicator of photoinhibi-
tion due to 1O2 (Aro et al., 1993; Havaux et al., 2005;
Hideg et al., 1998). Therefore, in the absence of other
Evidence for redundancy between PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 1
O2-quenching mechanisms, the destruction of D1 is
The predominance of PDX1.3 expression compared with essential to detoxify 1O2 directly at the place of its generation
PDX1.1 can be correlated with the more severe phenotype in and prevent damage of PSII (Aro et al., 1993). Thus, the
pdx1.3 plants (particularly in sterile culture) and the corres- drastically reduced amount of D1 and apparent lack of effect
ponding reduced vitamin B6 content indicative of a dosage on the LHC observed with pdx1 suggests that in these
effect. Intriguingly then, a comparison of pdx1.1/pdx1.1 mutant plants the 1O2 concentration is increased in the PSII
PDX1.3/pdx1.3 with PDX1.1/pdx1.1 pdx1.3/pdx1.3 suggests reaction center and that vitamin B6 is important for con-
that there is a threshold, apparently mediated by the level of trolling D1 degradation and PSII integrity by detoxifying 1O2
PDX1.3, involved in the control of the switch from vegetative produced in PSII, as has been proposed for vitamin E
to reproductive (V–R) growth. While a delay in shoot growth (Havaux et al., 2005).
is observed in plants that carry only a single copy of PDX1.3, Damage of PSII was assessed in this study by measuring
the V–R switch occurs at a similar time to wild-type plants. the maximum quantum efficiency of PSII photochemistry
Thus, at the time of the switch the rosette leaves are at an (Fv/Fm). pdx1.3 and to a much lower extent pdx1.1 seedlings
intermediate stage where they have not yet fully expanded. grown under moderate light (100 lmol photons m)2 sec)1)
This is in contrast to single-copy PDX1.1 plants, i.e. those had a Fv/Fm lower than in wild-type seedlings, indicating a
that do not carry a functional copy of PDX1.3, where devel- considerable photoinhibition that correlates with the de-
opment is very severely delayed but proceeds through the creased amounts of D1 protein. However, under low light
growth phases until the mass of vegetative tissue reaches a both the Fv/Fm and the D1 level are very similar to wild-type
similar level to that observed in wild type. Only then does the values, suggesting that moderate light is already a constant
V–R switch occur. It is well documented that the plant swit- stress for pdx1 mutants. Therefore, vitamin B6 must have an
ches to flowering at a time when sufficient internal resources important photoprotective role even under moderate light.
have been accumulated (Simpson et al., 1999). In this con- This is corroborated by the ability of exogenous pyridoxine
text, it could be that the vitamin B6 content may be an to restore D1 accumulation. This implies that a fraction of the
important resource for reproductive development sensed by vitamin B6 pool must be located very close to PSII for
the plant. efficient quenching of 1O2 at its site of production and for
prevention of D1 oxidation, although the intracellular loca-
tion of vitamin B6 has not yet been examined. The more
Vitamin B6 plays a role in the oxidative stress response
sensitive response of pdx1.3 compared with pdx1.1 could be
In this study we show that plants with a reduced vitamin B6 explained by the higher concentration of vitamin B6 in the
content are hypersensitive to salt, osmotic and light stress. latter. However, vitamin B6 is also most likely required as a
High soil salinity and increased osmolarity can result in the cofactor for some of the enzymes involved in chlorophyll
accumulation of reactive oxygen species (Mazel et al., 2004; biosynthesis, notably glutamate 1-semialdehyde amino-
Xiong et al., 2002). In addition, photosynthesis continuously transferase and uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase. There-
produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) inside the chloro- fore, we cannot rule out the possibility that the
plast that are kept under control by both enzymatic and non- photosensitivity of the pdx1 mutants might originate from
enzymatic scavenging systems (for a recent review see Apel a deficiency in chlorophyll turnover as well as from a
and Hirt, 2004). During high light stress, the production of deficiency in 1O2 quenching.
ROS dramatically increases, in particular 1O2, which is gen- In this study, we have demonstrated that both PDX1.1 and
erated from chlorophyll excitation in either the light- PDX1.3 are necessary for plant viability. We have shown that
harvesting complexes and/or the PSII reaction centers. compromising the de novo pathway of vitamin B6 biosyn-
Some of the B6 vitamers have been shown to be potent thesis results in both a developmental and stress-sensitive
singlet oxygen quenchers in vitro (Bilski et al., 2000). This phenotype. The latter observation would appear to indicate
has also been demonstrated in vivo in the necrotrophic that PLP plays a protective role against reactive oxygen
fungus Cercospora nicotianae (Ehrenshaft et al., 1998), species in vivo, in addition to its function as a cofactor.
where it protects against the photosensitizer toxin However, it remains to be elucidated whether this is as a
ª 2006 The Authors
Journal compilation ª 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, The Plant Journal, (2006), 48, 933–946
PDX1 is vital for development and stress tolerance 943
prerequisite for another enzyme involved in regulation of ubiquitin (At5g25760) genes. The primers used for this quantifica-
oxidative stress or as a substrate for enzymes of the vitamin tion were: PDX1.1 forward, 5¢-GTGAGGAGTGTGAACGGAGC-3¢;
PDX1.1 reverse, 5¢-GCACAACCAAATCATACGGC-3¢; PDX1.2 for-
B6 salvage pathway. The availability of single and double
ward, 5¢-GATGCAGCTAGGTTGTGATGG-3¢; PDX1.2 reverse, 5¢-
mutations in the de novo pathway and the possibility of TCCATTGCATTCTCCAATCC-3¢; PDX1.3 forward, 5¢-ATAATTTC
identifying and characterizing further mutants in the salvage CGGATCCCGTTC3¢; PDX1.3 reverse, 5¢-CATCATCATCCATGTT
pathway provides the opportunity to test hypotheses pro- TCGC-3¢; Actin-2 forward, 5¢-ATTCTTGCTTCCCTCAGCAC-3¢; Actin-2
posed and to investigate the regulation of vitamin B6 reverse, 5¢-CCCCAGCTTTTTAAGCCTTT-3¢. The control primers for
the Arabidopsis ubiquitin gene were from Sigma-Aldrich (Buchs,
homoeostasis.
Switzerland).
Experimental procedures
Immunochemical analyses
Plant material and growth conditions For Western blot analysis, proteins were extracted from frozen plant
material by homogenization in liquid nitrogen using a mortar and
Arabidopsis thaliana (wild type, ecotype Col-2 or Col-0, depending pestle and 1 volume of 50 mM Tris–HCl, pH 7.5, containing 100 mM
on the experiment; SM_3_22664; GABI_423C02; SALK_086418 and NaCl, 0.5% Triton X-100, 0.5 mM EDTA and protease inhibitor
their progeny) were grown in soil under a 16-h day (100 lmol pho- cocktail. Debris was removed by centrifugation at 10 000 g for
tons m)2 sec)1 of light intensity) and 8-h night cycle at 22C/19C, 15 min at 4C. Total protein was quantified using a Coomassie
respectively. For the tissue expression analysis, roots, stems, flow- protein assay kit (Socochim, Lausanne, Switzerland) and was sep-
ers, siliques, rosette leaves and cauline leaves were collected from at arated by 11% SDS-PAGE (30 lg per lane). For immunodetection,
least 10 plants. Cotyledons were collected at 2 weeks from seedlings the protein was blotted onto a nitrocellulose membrane and
grown under the same conditions. For the developmental expres- blocked by incubation with Tris buffered saline (TBS; 10 mM Tris–
sion analysis, samples from rosette leaves were collected over a HCl, pH 7.5, 0.9% sodium chloride) containing 0.05% Tween-20 and
period of 2–11 weeks. When grown in sterile culture, Arabidopsis 5% milk powder. PDX1 was detected by incubating the blots for 3 h
seeds were first surface-sterilized, plated on Murashige and Skoog with an antibody raised against the homologous B. subtilis Pdx1
(MS) medium (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) containing 1% w/v su- protein in rabbit, and which had been affinity purified before use
crose and 0.9% w/v agar and kept for 4 days in the dark at 4C after against both PDX1.1 and PDX1.3 (1:1000 dilution). This was fol-
which the plates were transferred to continuous light (100 lmol lowed by incubation for 45 min with a 1:3000 dilution of a goat
photons m)2 sec)1 or 10 lmol photons m)2 sec)1 as specified) at anti-rabbit peroxidase conjugated secondary antibody (BioRad,
22C. In the case of the light induction analysis, plates were trans- Hercules, CA, USA) for chemiluminescent detection. The LHC was
ferred to continuous dark at 20C for 5 days. The etiolated seedlings detected in an analogous fashion using a 1:10 000 dilution of a
were then transferred to light at an intensity of 150 lmol pho- specific antibody (AgriSera, Vännäs, Sweden). The D1 protein was
tons m)2 sec)1 and whole plantlets were collected after 15 min, 1 h, observed using anti-PsbA Global (AgriSera) at a 1:1500 dilution for
5 h and 24 h of exposure to light. Complementation experiments 3 h followed by incubation with a 1:5000 dilution of anti-chicken IgG
were performed by growing seedlings on MS plates under the same peroxidase conjugate (Sigma-Aldrich) for 1 h.
light and temperature conditions, either in the absence or presence
of pyridoxine or pyridoxal (5 lM). For the analysis of stress sensi-
tivity, seedlings were grown for 7 days after imbibition of the seeds Generation of pdx1.1 pdx1.3 mutant plants
on plates containing 100 lM pyridoxine, after which they were
transferred to plates lacking the vitamin, and either in the presence Plants homozygous for pdx1.1-1 were crossed with those homozy-
or absence of sodium chloride or mannitol (100 mM). In all cases, gous for pdx1.3 to generate the double pdx1.1 pdx1.3 insertion
samples of plant material collected were immediately frozen in mutants. The F1 progeny heterozygous for each of the pdx1 inser-
liquid nitrogen and maintained at )80C until further use. tions was allowed to self-fertilize to obtain the F2 population in
which plants homozygous for either one of the pdx1 insertions and
heterozygous for the other were identified. No seedlings homozy-
Isolation of RNA and quantitative RT-PCR gous for both pdx1.1 and pdx1.3 were identified. Progeny from the
F3 generation was used in the experiments described.
Total RNA was extracted using the RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen AG,
Basel, Switzerland) and treated with RNase-free DNase (Qiagen) to
remove traces of DNA, according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Analysis of mutants by PCR
First-strand cDNA synthesis was performed at 42C for 60 min in a
volume of 20 ll, containing 1 or 2 lg of total RNA, 20 pmol of Genomic DNA of the Arabidopsis T-DNA lines (GABI_423C02,
oligo(dT) and 200 units of reverse transcriptase from the Advantage SALK_086418), the SM_3_22664 transposant or the progeny of
RT-for-PCR kit (Clontech, Palo Alto, CA, USA). For transcript quan- crosses was extracted and screened for the T-DNA or Ds transposon
tification, the equivalent of 50 ng of total RNA was employed. insertions at the PDX1.1 or PDX1.3 loci. Forward and reverse
Quantification analyses were performed using an ABI Prism 7700 primers from the sequences of the PDX1.1 or PDX1.3 genes were
instrument (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA), by fluores- designed for PCR screening with a combination of T-DNA left or
cence-based real-time PCR with the fluorescent dye SYBR Green. right border-specific (Alonso et al., 2003) or Ds-5¢ or Ds-3¢ primers
The PCR conditions for all genes analyzed were as follows: an initial (Tissier et al., 1999). Flanking sequences of insertion loci were
denaturation at 95C for 15 min, followed by 45 cycles of 95C for confirmed by sequencing. Sequences of primers used are as fol-
15 sec, 60C for 30 sec and 72C for 30 sec. Relative mRNA abun- lows: PDX1.1-F, 5¢-CGGGACTATACATTTACAACAAAAAG-3¢ and
dance was calculated using the comparative DCt method and nor- PDX1.1-R 5¢-CCAAGTATTATCTGTTATTCCTATGTC-3¢; PDX1.3-F, 5¢-
malized against the constitutively expressed actin-2 (At3g18780) or CAAATTTCTCTTCAATCTCCGAT-3¢ or SORL1-F1, 5¢-GGTAACGG-
TGCGATAACGG-3¢ and PDX1.3-R, 5¢-GGATATCAGCAGGAACAC- )80C until analysis. The amount of vitamin B6 in the collected
GC-3¢; Ds-5¢, 5¢-CTTATTTCAGTAAGAGTGTGGGGTTTTGG-3¢; GABI samples was determined by employing the microbiological assay
T-DNA 8409 (Rosso et al., 2003), 5¢-ATATTGACCATCATACTCAT- as described in Tambasco-Studart et al. (2005). The vitamin was
TGC-3¢; SALK T-DNA LB primer (http://www.salk.edu/), 5¢-GCG- extracted from the plant material (2–5 mg) by homogenization with
TGGACCGCTTGCTGCAACT-3¢. Polymerase chain reaction a mortar and pestle in 0.02 M H2SO4, after which the sample was
conditions were as follows: denaturation at 94C for 2 min, then 35 autoclaved at 121C for at least 1 h. After extraction, the solution
cycles of 45 sec at 94C, 45 sec at 57C and 1 min at 72C, followed was neutralized to pH 5.2 using sodium acetate and centrifuged for
by 5 min at 72C. 15 min at 10 000 g to remove debris. Levels of vitamin B6 were
quantified by extrapolation to a standard curve obtained from
growth of the Saccharomyces carlsbergensis ATCC 9080 strain in
DNA gel blot analysis the presence of pyridoxine. All samples and standards were deter-
mined in triplicate.
Genomic DNA (4 lg) from individual plants was digested overnight
with the selected restriction enzymes. The resulting fragments were
separated on 0.8% agarose gels for 5 h at 80 V and transferred to
Measurements of maximum quantum efficiency of PSII
Hybond-N membrane (Amersham Biosciences, Little Chalfort,
Bucks, UK). DIG labeled probes were generated according to the photochemistry (Fv/Fm)
manufacturer’s instructions (Roche Diagnostics, Mannheim, Fv/Fm was measured after 15 min of dark adaptation with a Fluor-
Germany) using the following primers: BAR gene forward, Cam (Photon Systems Instruments, Brno, Czech Republic). Nine-
5¢-TCATCAGATCTCGGTGACGGGCAG-3¢ and reverse 5¢-CATGA day-old seedlings of wild-type and pdx1 mutant lines grown on MS
GCCCAGAACGACGCCCGG-3¢ using pSLJ 8313 as template (kindly medium without pyridoxine and under continuous light at either
provided by the SINS laboratory); NPTII gene forward, 5¢-GA 100 or 10 lmol photons m)2 sec)1, were exposed to either the same
CGACTCATTTTTTCTTGTCAA-3¢ and reverse 5¢-GGAGCATCTGAG light intensity or 1100 lmol photons m)2 sec)1 for one to 6 h prior
CCAAACCGACCT-3¢ using pROK2 as template. Membranes were to chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements.
pre-hybridized according to the manufacturer’s instructions
employing 3 ll of probe ml)1 of DIG Easy hybridization buffer.
Stringent washes were used to achieve an allele-specific hybrid- Acknowledgements
ization signal. For the chemiluminescent detection, the substrate
CDP-Star (Roche Diagnostics) was used. In all cases a consistent This work was supported by the ETH Zurich (grant number 0094/41-
number of bands was obtained between individual plants. 2703.5). The SALK Institute is greatly acknowledged for supplying
line 086418 for analysis and likewise the EXOn Trapping Insert
Consortium (EXOTIC) for providing line SM_3_22664; GABI_423C02
Measurement of chlorophyll content was from the collection of T-DNA mutants generated in the context
of the GABI-Kat program and was provided by Dr Bernd Weisshaar
Chlorophyll was extracted from individual rosette leaves with 100% (MPI for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany). We are
acetone. Chlorophyll content was determined spectrophotometri- indebted to Dr Dieter Rubli for taking the photographs and Dr Lukas
cally from the absorbance at 663 and 646 nm according to Bürkle for critical reading of the manuscript. Nadine Müller is
Lichtenthaler (1987). acknowledged for technical assistance with some of the molecular
analyses, as are Sabine Klarer and André Imboden for help with
cultivation of the plants.
Fertilization rate
The fertilization rate was calculated by analyzing dissected siliques
and scoring fertilized versus unfertilized embryos. Supplementary Material
The following supplementary material is available for this article
online:
Whole mount preparation of ovules
Figure S1. Relative expression of PDX1 genes at different develop-
Siliques at different developmental stages were harvested, dissec- mental stages, in various tissues and in response to various forms
ted under a stereoscope, and fixed overnight in an ethanol/acetic of stress.
acid (3:1 v/v) mixture at 4C followed by rehydration in ethanol and Figure S2. Southern blot analyses of pdx1.1-1 and pdx1.3.
water (3:1 v/v). Fixed siliques were cleared according to a protocol Figure S3. Development of roots in pdx1.3 versus wild type.
described by Tambasco-Studart et al. (2005) in cloral hydrate/gly- This material is available as part of the online article from http://
cerol/water (20:2:5 w/w/w) for 24 to 48 h at 4C. Cleared ovules were www.blackwell-synergy.com
further removed from their siliques in a drop of the same clearing
solution, whole-mounted, and observed using a Zeiss Axioplan
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