AE 231 Thermodynamics

Week 4
Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sinan Eyi
Specifc Heats at Constant Pressure and
Volume

2
 Energy Balance for a Constant-volume Process
From the definition of specific heat

Q = mCv ∆T

Combine the first law and the definition of specific heat

From the first law of thermodynamics

∆U = mCv ∆T
Q − W = ∆U ∆U ∆u
Cv = =
m∆T ∆T
W =0
 ∂u 
Cv =  
Q = ∆U  ∂T v
3
 Energy Balance for a Constant-pressure Process

From the definition of specific heat

Q = mC p ∆T

Combine the first law and the definition of specific heat

From the first law of thermodynamics ∆H = mC p ∆T
Q − Wb − Wother = ∆U
∆H ∆h
Cp = =
Wother = 0 m∆T ∆T
Wb = P∆V  ∂h 
Cp =  
Q = ∆U + P∆V = ∆H  ∂T p
4
Internal Energy, Enthalpy and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases

Joule showed
using this
experimental Internal energy and
apparatus that For ideal gases, u,
enthalpy change of an
u=u(T) h, cv, and cp vary
ideal gas
with temperature
only. 5
• At low pressures, all real gases approach ideal- • u and h data for a number of gases
gas behavior, and therefore their specific heats have been tabulated.
depend on temperature only. • These tables are obtained by
• The specific heats of real gases at low pressures choosing an arbitrary reference
are called ideal-gas specific heats, or zero- point and performing the
pressure specific heats, and are often denoted integrations by treating state 1 as
cp0 and cv0. the reference state.

In the preparation of ideal-gas tables, 0 K

is chosen as the reference temperature.

6
Internal energy and enthalpy change when
specific heat is taken constant at an average
value

(kJ/kg)

For small temperature intervals, the specific

heats may be assumed to vary linearly with
temperature.

The relation ∆ u = cv ∆T is valid for any

kind of process, constant-volume or not.
7
Three ways of calculating ∆u and ∆h
1. By using the tabulated u and h data.
This is the easiest and most
accurate way when tables are
readily available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table
A-2c) as a function of temperature
and performing the integrations.
This is very inconvenient for hand
calculations but quite desirable for
computerized calculations. The
results obtained are very accurate.
3. By using average specific heats. This
is very simple and certainly very
convenient when property tables
are not available. The results
obtained are reasonably accurate if
the temperature interval is not very
large. Three ways of calculating ∆u.

8
9
 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between c , c and R p v

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

Specific heat
ratio

• The specific ratio varies with

The cp of an ideal gas can be
determined from a knowledge of cv
and R.
temperature, but this variation is very
mild.
• For monatomic gases (helium, argon,
etc.), its value is essentially constant at
1.667.
• Many diatomic gases, including air,
have a specific heat ratio of about 1.4
at room temperature.
10
 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, And
Specific Heats Of Solids And Liquids
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume (or
density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible substances.

The specific volumes of The cv and cp values of incompressible

incompressible substances substances are identical and are
remain constant during a denoted by c.
process.
11
Internal Energy Changes in Solids and Liquids

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a
compressed liquid
A more accurate relation than 12
 Chapter 6
ENERGY EQUATION FOR A
CONTROL VOLUME

13
 Conservation of Mass
• Conservation of mass: Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it
cannot be created or destroyed during a process.
• Closed systems: The mass of the system remain constant during a
process.
• Control volumes: Mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must keep
track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.

14
 Conservation Laws for Closed Sytems
• Conservation of mass
dmsys
=0
dt

• Conservation of Energy
dEsys
= Qɺ − Wɺ
dt
15
Conservation Laws for Control Volume
• Reynolds transport theorem can be used to
derive equations in control volume approach.

• Reynolds transport equations can be used for:

• Conservation of mass
• Conservation of momentum
• Conservation of energy

16
Reynolds Transport Theorem

17
 Reynolds Transport Theorem

For an extensive propery: B

Bsys ( t ) = Bcv ( t )

Bsys ( t + ∆t ) = Bcv ( t + ∆t ) − BI ( t + ∆t ) + BII ( t + ∆t )

∆Bsys Bsys ( t + ∆t ) − Bsys ( t )

=
∆t ∆t
∆Bsys BCV ( t + ∆t ) − BCV ( t ) BI ( t + ∆t ) BII ( t + ∆t )
= − +
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
18
 Reynolds Transport Theorem

∆Bsys dBsys
lim∆t →0 =
∆t dt

BCV ( t + ∆t ) − BCV ( t ) dBCV

lim∆t →0 =
∆t dt

for ∆t → 0 BII ( t + ∆t ) = ρ 2b2 ( ∆V )2 = ρ 2b2 L2 A2 = ρ 2b2 (U ∆t )2 A2 = ρ 2b2 A2U 2 ∆t

Bout = ρ 2b2 A2U 2 ∆t

for ∆t → 0 BI ( t + ∆t ) = ρ1b1 ( ∆V )1 = ρ1b1 L1 A1 = ρ1b1 (U ∆t )1 A1 = ρ1b1 AU

1 1 ∆t

Bin = ρ1b1 AU
1 1∆t

19
 Reynolds Transport Theorem

BII ( t + ∆t ) ρ 2b2 A2U 2 ∆t

lim∆t →0 = = ρ 2b2 A2U 2 = Bɺout
∆t ∆t

BI ( t + ∆t ) ρ1b1 AU
1 1∆ t
lim∆t →0 = = ρ1b1 AU
1 1 = Bin
ɺ
∆t ∆t

dBsys dBCV ɺ
= + Bout − Bɺin
dt dt

20
Reynolds Transport Theorem for
General Control Volume

dBsys ∂
= ∫ ρ bd ∀ + ∫ ρ bdV idA
dt ∂t CV CS

B
where b=
m

∀ : volume

21
 Reynolds Transport Theorem
for Conservation of Mass
Reynolds Transport Theorem for any extensive propery B :

dBsys dBCV ɺ
= + Bout − Bɺin
dt dt
Conservation of Mass for a closed system

dmsys
=0 For conservation of mass : B=m
dt

dmsys dmCV
= + mɺ out − mɺ in = 0
dt dt

dmCV
= mɺ in − mɺ out
dt

22
 Reynolds Transport Theorem
for Conservation of Energy
Reynolds Transport Theorem for any extensive propery B :
dBsys dBCV ɺ
= + Bout − Bɺin
dt dt
Conservation of Energy for a closed system
dEsys
= Qɺ − Wɺ
dt
dEsys dECV ɺ
= + Eout − Eɺ in For conservation of energy : B=E
dt dt
dECV ɺ
+ Eout − Eɺ in = Qɺ − Wɺ
dt
dECV
= Qɺ − Wɺ + Eɺ in − Eɺ out
dt
23
 Mass Rate Balance

time rate of change of time rate of flow of time rate of flow

mass contained within the mass in across of mass out across
control volume at time t inlet i at time t exit e at time t

dmcv
= mɺ i − mɺ e
dt
 Mass Flow Rate
(One-Dimensional Flow)
►Flow is normal to the boundary at locations where
mass enters or exits the control volume.
►All intensive properties are uniform with position
over each inlet or exit area (A) through which
matter flows.
AV
mɺ =
v
where
V is velocity
v is specific volume
 Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Definition of
average velocity
Volume flow rate

Mass flow rate

The average velocity Vavg is defined as The volume flow rate is the volume
the average speed through a cross of fluid flowing through a cross
section. section per unit time. 26
 Conservation of Mass Principle
The conservation of mass principle for a control volume: The net mass transfer to or from
a control volume during a time interval ∆t is equal to the net change (increase or decrease)
in the total mass within the control volume during ∆t.

General conservation of mass

General conservation of mass in rate form

Conservation of mass principle for or

an ordinary bathtub. 27
 Mass Rate Balance
In practice there may be several locations on
the boundary through which mass enters or exits.
Multiple inlets and exits are accounted for by
introducing summations:
dmcv
= ∑ mɺ i − ∑ mɺ e
dt i e
Above equation is the mass rate balance for
control volumes with several inlets and exits.
 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow
Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control
volume does not change with time (mCV = constant).
Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total amount of mass
entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.
For steady-flow processes, we are interested in
the amount of mass flowing per unit time, that
is, the mass flow rate.

Multiple inlets
and exits
Single
stream
Many engineering devices such as nozzles,
diffusers, turbines, compressors, and pumps
involve a single stream (only one inlet and one
outlet).
Conservation of mass principle for a two-
inlet–one-outlet steady-flow system.
29
 Mass Rate Balance
(Steady-State Form)
►Steady-state: all properties are unchanging in
time.
►For steady-state control volume, dmcv/dt = 0.

∑ mɺ i = ∑ mɺ e
i e
(mass rate in) (mass rate out)
Special Case: Incompressible Flow
The conservation of mass relations can be simplified even further when the
fluid is incompressible, which is usually the case for liquids.

Steady,
incompressible
Steady,
incompressible flow
(single stream)
There is no such thing as a “conservation of volume”
principle.
However, for steady flow of liquids, the volume flow
rates, as well as the mass flow rates, remain constant
since liquids are essentially incompressible substances.

During a steady-flow process, volume flow

rates are not necessarily conserved although
mass flow rates are.
31
 Energy Rate Balance

time rate of change net rate at which net rate at which net rate of energy
of the energy energy is being energy is being transfer into the
contained within transferred in transferred out control volume
the control volume by heat transfer by work at accompanying
at time t at time t time t mass flow

2 2
dEcv V V
= Qɺ − Wɺ + mɺ i (ui + i + gzi ) − mɺ e (u e + e + gz e )
dt 2 2
 Evaluating Work for a Control Volume

The expression for work is

Wɺ = Wɺcv + mɺ e ( peve ) − mɺ i ( pi vi )
where
► Wɺcv accounts for work associated with rotating shafts,
displacement of the boundary, and electrical effects.

► mɺ e ( pe ve ) is the flow work at exit e.

► mɺ i ( pi vi ) is the flow work at inlet i.
 FLOW WORK AND THE ENERGY OF A
FLOWING FLUID
Flow work, or flow energy: The work (or energy)
required to push the mass into or out of the control
volume. This work is necessary for maintaining a
continuous flow through a control volume.

In the absence of acceleration, the force

applied on a fluid by a piston is equal to the
Schematic for flow work. force applied on the piston by the fluid. 34
 Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid
The flow energy is
automatically taken
care of by enthalpy.
h = u + Pv In fact, this is the
main reason for
defining the property
enthalpy.

The total energy consists of three parts for a nonflowing fluid and four parts for a flowing
fluid. 35
 Energy Transport by Mass

When the kinetic and potential energies of

a fluid stream are negligible

When the properties of the mass at

each inlet or exit change with time as
well as over the cross section

The product m ɺ iθi is the energy

transported into control volume by
mass per unit time.
36
 Control Volume Energy Rate Balance
(One-Dimensional Flow Form)

2 2
dEcv ɺ V V
= Qcv − Wɺcv + mɺ i (ui + pi vi + i + gzi ) − mɺ e (ue + peve + e + gze )
dt 2 2

2 2
dEcv ɺ V V
= Qcv − Wɺcv + mɺ i (hi + i + gzi ) − mɺ e (he + e + gze )
dt 2 2

dEcv ɺ
= Qcv − Wɺcv + mɺ i ( θi ) − mɺ e ( θ e )
dt
 Control Volume Energy Rate Balance
(One-Dimensional Flow Form)
In practice there may be several locations on
the boundary through which mass enters or exits.
Multiple inlets and exits are accounted for by
introducing summations:
2 2
dEcv ɺ V V
= Qcv − Wɺcv + ∑ mɺ i (hi + i + gzi ) − ∑ mɺ e (he + e + gze )
dt i 2 e 2

dEcv ɺ
= Qcv − Wɺcv + ∑ mɺ i ( θi ) − ∑ mɺ e ( θ e )
dt i e
 Control Volume Energy Rate Balance
(Steady-State Form)
►Steady-state: all properties are unchanging in
time.
►For steady-state control volume, dEcv/dt = 0.

2 2
V V
0 = Qɺ cv − Wɺcv + ∑ mɺ i (hi + i + gzi ) − ∑ mɺ e (he + e + gze )
i 2 e 2

0 = Qɺ cv − Wɺcv + ∑ mɺ i ( θi ) − ∑ mɺ e ( θ e )
i e
 ENERGY ANALYSIS OF STEADY-FLOW SYSTEMS

Under steady-flow conditions, the mass and

energy contents of a control volume remain
constant.

Many engineering systems such as

power plants operate under steady
conditions.

Under steady-flow conditions, the

fluid properties at an inlet or exit
remain constant (do not change
with time).
40
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Many engineering devices operate essentially under the same conditions
for long periods of time. The components of a steam power plant (turbines,
compressors, heat exchangers, and pumps), for example, operate nonstop for
months before the system is shut down for maintenance. Therefore, these devices can
be conveniently analyzed as steady-flow devices.

At very high velocities,

even small changes in
A modern land-based gas turbine used for electric power velocities can cause
production. This is a General Electric LM5000 turbine. It has a significant changes in the
length of 6.2 m, it weighs 12.5 tons, and produces 55.2 MW at kinetic energy of the fluid.
3600 rpm with steam injection.
41
 Control Volume Energy Rate Balance
(Steady-State Form, One-Inlet, One-Exit)
►Many important applications involve one-inlet,
one-exit control volumes at steady state.
►The mass rate balance reduces to mɺ 1 = mɺ 2. = mɺ

 (V 2
− V 2
) 
0 = Qɺ cv − Wɺcv + mɺ (h1 − h2 ) + 1 2 + g ( z1 − z2 )
 2 
or dividing by mass flow rate

Qɺ cv Wɺcv (V12 − V22 )

0= − + (h1 − h2 ) + + g ( z1 − z2 )
mɺ mɺ 2
 Nozzles and Diffusers

►Nozzle: a flow passage of varying cross-sectional

area in which the velocity of a gas or liquid
increases in the direction of flow.
►Diffuser: a flow passage of varying cross-
sectional area in which the velocity of a gas or
liquid decreases in the direction of flow.
 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling
 (V 2
− V 2
) 
0 = Qɺ cv − Wɺcv + mɺ (h1 − h2 ) + 1 2 + g(z − z )
1 2 
 2 
► Wɺcv = 0.
►If the change in potential energy from inlet to exit is
negligible, g(z1 – z2) drops out.
►If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Qɺ cv drops out.
 V2 − V2 
0 = (h1 − h2 ) +  1 2 
 2 
 
Nozzles and Diffusers Nozzles and diffusers are commonly
utilized in jet engines, rockets,
spacecraft, and even garden hoses.
A nozzle is a device that increases the
velocity of a fluid at the expense of
pressure.
A diffuser is a device that increases the
pressure of a fluid by slowing it down.
The cross-sectional area of a nozzle
decreases in the flow direction for
subsonic flows and increases for
supersonic flows. The reverse is true for
diffusers.

Energy
Nozzles and diffusers are shaped so balance for a
that they cause large changes in nozzle or
fluid velocities and thus kinetic diffuser:
energies.
45
 Turbines

►Turbine: a device in which power is developed

as a result of a gas or liquid passing through a
set of blades attached to a shaft free to rotate.
 Turbine Modeling
 (V 2
− V 2
) 
0 = Qɺ cv − Wɺcv + mɺ (h1 − h2 ) + 1 2 + g ( z1 − z2 )
 2 
►If the change in kinetic energy of flowing matter is
negligible, ½(V12 – V22) drops out.
►If the change in potential energy of flowing matter is
negligible, g(z1 – z2) drops out.
►If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Qɺ cv drops out.
Wɺcv = mɺ (h1 − h2 )
Compressors and Pumps
►Compressors and Pumps: devices
in which work is done on the
substance flowing through them
to change the state of the
substance, typically to increase
the pressure and/or elevation.
►Compressor : substance is gas
►Pump: substance is liquid
 Compressor and Pump Modeling
 (V 2
− V 2
) 
0 = Qɺ cv − Wɺcv + mɺ (h1 − h2 ) + 1 2 + g ( z1 − z2 )
 2 

►If the change in kinetic energy of flowing matter is

negligible, ½(V12 – V22) drops out.
►If the change in potential energy of flowing matter is
negligible, g(z1 – z2) drops out.
►If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Qɺ cv drops out.

Wɺcv = mɺ (h1 − h2 )
Turbines and
Turbine drives the electric generator In steam,
Compressors gas, or hydroelectric power plants.
As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is
done against the blades, which are attached to
the shaft. As a result, the shaft rotates, and the
turbine produces work.
Compressors, as well as pumps and fans, are
devices used to increase the pressure of a
fluid. Work is supplied to these devices from
an external source through a rotating shaft.
A fan increases the pressure of a gas slightly
and is mainly used to mobilize a gas.
A compressor is capable of compressing the
Energy balance for the gas to very high pressures.
compressor in this figure: Pumps work very much like compressors
except that they handle liquids instead of
gases.

50
 Heat Exchangers

►Direct contact: A mixing chamber in which hot and cold

streams are mixed directly.
►Tube-within-a-tube counterflow: A gas or liquid stream
is separated from another gas or liquid by a wall through
which energy is conducted. Heat transfer occurs from
the hot stream to the cold stream as the streams flow in
opposite directions.
 Heat Exchanger Modeling
2 2
V V
0 = Qɺ cv − Wɺcv + ∑ mɺ i (hi + i + gzi ) − ∑ mɺ e (he + e + gze )
i 2 e 2

► Wɺcv = 0.
►If the kinetic energies of the flowing streams are
negligible, mɺ i (Vi2/2) and mɺ e (Ve2/2) drop out.
►If the potential energies of the flowing streams are
negligible, mɺ i gzi and mɺ e gze drop out.
►If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Qɺ cv drops out.
0 = ∑ mɺ i hi − ∑ mɺ e he
i e
Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are devices
where two moving fluid
streams exchange heat without
mixing. Heat exchangers are
widely used in various
industries, and they come in
various designs.
The heat transfer associated with a heat exchanger
may be zero or nonzero depending on how the control
volume is selected.

Mass and energy balances

for the adiabatic heat
exchanger in the figure is:

A heat exchanger can

be as simple as two
concentric pipes. 53
 Throttling Devices

►Throttling Device: a device that achieves a

significant reduction in pressure by introducing
a restriction into a line through which a gas or
liquid flows. Means to introduce the restriction
include a partially opened valve or a porous
plug.
 Throttling Device Modeling
 (V 2
− V 2
) 
0 = Qɺ cv − Wɺcv + mɺ (h1 − h2 ) + 1 2 + g(z − z )
1 2 
 2 
► Wɺcv = 0.
►If the change in kinetic energy of flowing matter
upstream and downstream of the restriction is negligible,
½(V12 – V22) drops out.
►If the change in potential energy of flowing matter is
negligible, g(z1 – z2) drops out.
►If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Qɺ cv drops out.
h2 = h1

Throttling valves
Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that
cause a significant pressure drop in the fluid.
What is the difference between a turbine and a throttling
valve?
The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large
drop in temperature, and for that reason throttling devices are
commonly used in refrigeration and air-conditioning
applications.

Energy
balance

During a throttling process, the enthalpy of a

The temperature of an ideal gas does not fluid remains constant. But internal and flow
change during a throttling (h = energies may be converted to each other.
constant) process since h = h(T).
56
 The Mass Balance
(Transient Analysis)
►Transient: state changes with time.
►Integrate mass rate balance equation from time 0 to
a final time t.
t  dm
 t  t 
∫  dt =
0  dt 
cv
∫ ∑

0
 i
mɺ i dt −


∫ ∑

0
 e
mɺ e dt



This becomes mcv (t ) − mcv (0) = ∑ mi − ∑ me

i e
where
•mi is amount of mass entering the control volume through
inlet i, from time 0 to t.
•me is amount of mass exiting the control volume through exit
e, from time 0 to t.
 The Energy Balance
(Transient Analysis)
►Integrate energy rate balance equation, ignoring the
effects of kinetic and potential energy, from time 0 to a
final time t.
t  dU t  t 
cv 
t t
∫ 
0  dt 
dt =
∫
0 ∫0 ∫ ∑
Qɺ cv dt − Wɺ cv dt + 
0
 i
mɺ i hi dt −


∫ ∑

0
 e
mɺ e he dt



When the specific enthalpies at inlets and exits are

constant with time, this becomes
Ucv(t) −Ucv(0) = Qcv −Wcv + ∑mihi − ∑mehe
i e
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF UNSTEADY-
FLOW PROCESSES
Many processes of interest,
Charging of a rigid
however, involve changes within the
tank from a supply
control volume with time. Such
line is an unsteady-
processes are called unsteady-flow,
flow process since it
or transient-flow, processes.
involves changes
Most unsteady-flow processes can within the control
be represented reasonably well by volume.
the uniform-flow process.
Uniform-flow process: The fluid
flow at any inlet or exit is uniform
and steady, and thus the fluid
properties do not change with time The shape and
or position over the cross section of size of a
an inlet or exit. If they do, they are control volume
averaged and treated as constants may change
for the entire process. during an
unsteady-flow
process.
59
Mass balance

Energy
balance

A uniform-
flow system
may involve
electrical,
shaft, and
boundary
work all at
once.

The energy equation of a uniform-flow system

reduces to that of a closed system when all the
inlets and exits are closed. 60
 Mass and Energy balances for a
steady-flow process

Mass A water
balance heater in
steady
operation.

Energy
balance

61
Energy balance relations with sign conventions (i.e.,
heat input and work output are positive)

when kinetic and potential energy

changes are negligible

Some energy unit equivalents

Under steady operation, shaft

work and electrical work are
the only forms of work a
simple compressible system
may involve. 62
Mixing chambers 60°C
In engineering applications, the section
where the mixing process takes place is
commonly referred to as a mixing chamber.

140 kPa

10°C 43°C

Energy balance for the adiabatic

mixing chamber in the figure is:

The T-elbow of an ordinary shower serves

as the mixing chamber for the hot- and
the cold-water streams.
63
Pipe and duct fow
The transport of liquids or gases in pipes
and ducts is of great importance in many
engineering applications. Flow through a
pipe or a duct usually satisfies
the steady-flow conditions.

Pipe or duct flow may involve more than one

form of work at the same time.

Energy balance
Heat losses from a for the pipe flow
hot fluid flowing shown in the
through an figure is
uninsulated pipe
or duct to the
cooler
environment may
be very
significant. 64