Appendix A

Matrices

Computer modeling of flight dynamics makes extensive use of matrices. You

should already be familiar with the basic concepts of matrix algebra. To refresh
your memory, the essential facts are summarized here. For practice you can do the
exercises at the end of this section.

A.l Matrix Definitions

An in x n matrix is a rectangular array of nz x n elements arranged in rn rows
and n columns. For rn = 3 and n = 4 we have the 3 x 4 matrix

"41
3x4 = ["'
a31
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
a14

a34

In general, the subscript notation defines an rn x IZ matrix as

ui,, i = 1 . 2 . 3 , . . . rn; j = 1 . 2 , 3 , . . . iz
The determinant 1 A1 of a matrix [ A ] is a scalar, obtained from the determinants of
the minors M,j of the matrix [A]:

IA( =(-l)'+jqjMjj fori = l . o r 2 . o r 3 . . . . . rn

The transpose [ B ] of a matrix [A] is obtained by swapping out the rows and
columns [ E l = [A]; bi = a J i . A vector is always portrayed as a column matrix.
For a 3 x 1 vector

[a] = [;:I ai, i = 1 , 2 . 3

The null matrix consists of zero element [O]; Og = 0;for all i and j . The square
matrix has the same number of rows and columns
tixn
[A]; a ~i ,= 1 , . . . , n ; j = 1,. ..,I?

A matrix is symmetric if it equals its transposed

[A] = [A]; ajl = aij
A matrix is skew symmetric if it equals its negative transposed

[A] = -[A]; a JC, . = - a ,IJ. ' j # j ., a , . = a , . -

J/ -0 i
IJ 1
=j

51 3
514 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF AEROSPACE VEHICLE DYNAMICS

The skew-symmetric 3 x 3 matrix is

0 -a3
0a3
-a2al 0
The off-diagonal elements of a diagonal matrix are zero. For a 3 x 3 matrix

0 d33
The unit matrix is a diagonal matrix with unit elements. For a 3 x 3 matrix

The Kronecker delta is

[El =

6ij =
[s
{ 0,
1, i = j
e]
i i j
The adjoint of a matrix [A] is obtained by adj[A] = transposed of ((-1)"JM,},
where M , is the minor determinant of a,.
The inverse of a matrix [A] is calculated from its adjoint and determinant:
[A]-' = adj[A]/IAl; IAl # 0.
A matrix [A] is orthogonal if its inverse equals its transposed: [A]-' = [A].
Other properties are [A][ A] = [ E l ;1 A 1 = & 1.
The rank of a matrix is the largest number r such that at least one rth-order
determinant formed from the matrix by deleting rows and/or columns is different
from zero. The trace of a matrix is the sum of its diagonal elements.
A matrix [A] can be partitioned into submatrices. For example,

where A I I , A 12, A21, and A22 are submatrices.

A.2 Matrix Operations

Two matrices [A] and [ B ] of dimension m , n are equal if all corresponding
elements are equal:

if for alli, j
The sum of two matrices [A] and [B] with the same dimension m , n is obtained
by adding corresponding elements:
rnxn mxn rnxn
c I = [ A I + [ B 1, +
or cij = nu bij, for alli, j
+ +
Addition is associative: ([A] [ B ] ) [C] = [A] ([B] [c+l). + +
Addition is
+
commutative: [A] [BI = [BI [A]. +
 APPENDIX A: MATRICES 515

The product of the m x n matrix [A] and the n x r matrix [B] is the m x r
matrix [C]:
mxr mxn nxr n
[ C ] = [A][ B]; or cik = xugbjk; i = 1 , .. ., m; k = 1 , .. . , r
j=1

where [A] and [ B ]must be conformable: m x r = ( m x $) ($ x r ) .

The pi.,duct of the m x n matrix [A] by the scalar a is
mxn mxn
[Cl=a[A], or cy=aay, foralli,j
Multiplication is associative: [A]([B][C]) = ([A][B])[C]. Multiplication is dis-
+
tributive: [A]([B] [C]) = [A][B] +
[A][C] but not commutative [A][B] #
[B][A]. Important rules are the following:

([A]-') = ( [ A ] ) - ' , if /A1 # 0

Differentiation operates on every element of a matrix [A]:
d d
-[A] G - a i j , for all i, j and a~ must be differentiable
dt dt
Integration operates on every element of a matrix [A]

s s[A] dt = aij dt, for all i, j

Any square matrix [A] can be decomposed as the sum of a symmetric and skew-
symmetric matrix:

A.3 Matrix Eigenvalues

The similarity transformation is formed from a square, nonsingular matrix [TI
operating on a square matrix [A]:

[A]* = [TI[AI[T]-'
Two similar matrices [A]* and [A] have the same rank, trace, determinant, and
eigenvalues; if [A] is symmetric, so is [A]*. If [TI is orthogonal, the similarity
transformation is [A]* = [T][A][T].
Orthogonal transformations preserve scalar multiplication of vectors, vector
addition, multiplication by scalars, absolute values and distances, orthogonality
and orthonormality, and value of trace of a matrix. The eigenvalues of an n x n
matrix [A] are the roots of the characteristic equation
l[Al - UEll = 0
516 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF AEROSPACE VEHICLE DYNAMICS

An n x n matrix has n eigenvalues. A real symmetric matrix has only real eigenval-
ues. An orthogonal matrix [TI has one real eigenvalue 4 1 and a pair of conjugate
complex poles e*f@.Given a square matrix [ A ]with eigenvalues h , , then a [ A ]
has the eigenvalues a & , and ([A])Phas the eigenvalues hp. A square matrix is
nonsingular if and only if all its eigenvalues are nonzero.
A matrix [ A ]can be diagonalized by an orthogonal matrix [TI if [ A ]is sym-
metric. The determinant of a matrix [ A ] can be calculated from the product of its
eigenvalues 1 A 1 = n:=, A,.
The trace of a matrix [ A ]is the sum of all its eigenvalues Tr(A) = c:=, A,.
A real, symmetric quadratic form [ X ] [ A ] [ xis] symmetric if the matrix [ A ] is
real and symmetric. A real symmetric quadratic form is positive definite, if its
eigenvalues are positive.

Problems
A.l Partitioned matrices obey matrix operations just like regular matrices. Show
that the product of two matrices equals the product of their partitioned forms by
using the following example:

[d--L-;;]
1 1: 1 2 3 -1
[g;-9] ___- =?

[ ; ; -;I
A.2 What is the adjoint and the inverse of matrix [ A ] ?
-2 1
[A1 =

A.3 If [ A ]and [ B ] are symmetric matrices of the same dimension, prove that the
product [AI[BIis symmetric only if [AI[Bl = [BI[AI.

A.4 Prove that the square of a skew-symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix.

AS Determine the symmetric and skew-symmetric parts of the matrix [ A ] .

A.6 Determine the characteristic equation and the eigenvalues of the matrix [ A ] .

[ A ]= 0