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Acknowledgements
The beauty of practising architecture is that it is an inclusive
experience. an adventure enjoyed with others. I am in debt to many.
of whom I can mention only a few here:
To Pippa Lionn i and Bruno Cha rpentier of L design. who des igned the
book: to Magnum Photos and Greenpeace, who assisted us in ou r
picture research; and to Anthony Oenselow, BBC pro duce r of th e
Reith Lectures, and Steve Cox. Also to Andrew Wright. Robe rt Webb .
Jo Murtagh, Fiona Charlesworth, Em ma England, Martha Fay and al l
those whose contributions made this book .
For many people. Richard Rogers's 1995 Re ith adapt envlfonments for their own usc in ways 1I1at Ule'e ere more than 90 million new human beings gO~'ernnlent estimates. It is probably having a stili
Lectures came as something of a stlock. He made no ottler animal can l11a\ch. C~'ely year. or tile eQu va'ent Of a new Ctuna lat ..... orse eHect in Eastern Europe and in China.
them see Cities thelf past. ttl elf present and present 1.2 bliliont e~·ery twelve years.
It ,s an Ingramed beltel tha! human progress has By the mLddle of the ne~l century ple~sure on food
thelf future - in a new light. Thus the familiar
been. With Just one or two blips. upwardS and The steepest growth wte has been m Cities. In supp "es w,1I come from many quar ters: so far we
became the exotic. Under IllS tutelage tile dady
onwards. In fact few trends go m thiS fashion. All 195029 per cent of the world'S population was have been saved by the green reVO lution. but the
expenellCc of urban hVlng. or the movement in ;;md
previOUS urban soclctles have collapsed. Perhaps uman. In 1965 ·t was 36 per cent. In 1990 50 pel prospects for another are dim. \..nt ll recently the
Oul 01 CitieS ..... ,Ih Ihe mornmg and evening human
the earliest was that of the Harappa culture 'n the cent. and by 2025 it coutd be at least 60 per cent. maIO food probtem was d,str but on. That IS no
tides. seemed almost ha7.ardOus. At the same
Indus valley some 3500 to 4500 years ago. The The world annual growth rate of uman population longer so. With recent perturt.latlons 01 the
time he opened up prospects 01 chOice for the
destruction of forest COver and removal of topsoil between 1965 and 1980 was 2.6 per cent: but weather as well as constantly Increasing demand.
future. and thereby created a marvellous sense of
prevented IIle flSe of moisture. even In summer. between 1980 and 1990 It was 4.5 per cent. the wor'd may be entering a DefiOd 01 sc arCoty.
liberation.
Wil h sharply diminishing rainfall. declining fen, lit)· Nenrly ai' the curre nt increase is in poor countries.
,,'orld demand lor fresh water is at oresent
Th e !irst and Illost obvious til ing abo ut cit ies is of soi l and nsmg populati on . Harappa soc iety los t by definit ion 1110se wlttl the least resources and the
doubling every tw ent y yea rs. Yet eve n 11 we ca n
lila! they ore li Ke orgOlllsms . Suck ing in resources Its natu ra l reseurce oase . and sim ply co llapse d. lowes t capac ity to dispose of wils te .
husband and maKe bette r use of WJ1C r reso urces .
an d em itt ing was tes , Th e la rger and mo re cOlllp l e ~ The SiJ me COUI(1 well ha ve hnppened In til e viJ lleys
It SllOUld go Wlll10\lt saying 1I1at IIle more peor le the avallat)le supply 11 85 rema'ned broad ly the
they become. tile grea ter Th eir dependence on of the Ti gris and Euphra tes and in pre·Co lulllblon
Ulere are . Ule wo rse 1I1ese prOblems I'iill become . same slllce tile icc nge. Cities have 10 reach
s urrounding areas , and the grea ter the ir Mex iCO . as It IS happening in parts of the Sahel
Mos t resources ale renewable. and even those further and further for thell water sources. It is no
\/IJlncrabihty to change around them. They are both belt across Afrlco today.
that are non renewable - for e~amp le. fOSS Il fuels wonder that conflict over them IS one of the oldest
our gtory and our bane. We are no t atone in the
The pro~imate reasons for tllcse collapses are can usually be replaced. A pnme problem today in human history and could be Ulcrcasingly
natural world in making them. As LeWIS Thomas
variOUS. But all are subject to three vanables: 's that pressure of consumptLon can render dangerous In the future.
once wrote of ants. 'They arc so much like hum;;ln
population. environment and resources. renewable resoU/ces unrenewable. or renewable
bemgs as to be an embarrassment. They farm EV'dencc of the hmlts to SinKS for our pollu tants is
only ofter long stretches of time.
fungi. ra rse aphids IlS livestOCk. launch armies for There v.ere perhaps Clround 10 million humans <Ii all around us. Waste disposal may soon become
wars. use chemical sprays to Ill;;lnn and confuse the end of the Ice age some 12.000 ~ears ago. Envlronmenta degradation has anY'o",ay as big a problem as consumption of resources.
their enemlcs. capture slallCs ... They ellchange The introduction of agriculture. the speCialisation accelerated. TIl e most conspIcuous ;;Ispect IS land Bursting landfill sites across thc induStnal world.
information ceaseleSsly. They do everythmg but of human function and the grOwth of citlcs caused use. According to me United Nations transboum.lary stl1pment of hazDrdous wastes. and
yii
" watch television." rapid proliferation. By the time of Thomas Malthus. em'lronmental data report of :1993/94. 17 per the increaSing prevalence 01 contamination of the
when the Industrial Revolution had barely started . cenl of soils world-wide have been damaged to a groundwatc' we depend upon. are all reminders
Like other successful al1ll11;;1ls . the human species
our numbers stood at around 1 Olil ion. greater or lesser extent SLnce 1945. that the capacity of the land \0 absorb waste
has learned to adap t 10 new enVlronllwnts.
products is not unlimited .
In the atl110Spilere aCid prce,oitilt ion is a proble m the land iln 8rltD in stone. brick <lnd tarmac cove'
- on thC 1/(!SUpport system of the plane t ca nnot ye t re fugees . In 1978 the re were fewer than 6 n1illi on
for those down wind 01 Industry: but It '5 around 10 p€r cent of tile totoli, tlunwns tWI'e be rncasured. refugees , on a restflcte(1 definition of t~ose fleeing
essentially local In character and can be sot.'ed been changing the chemistry of the atmosphere 'rom poli tical, etnnic or religiouS persecution: by
So tllcre is an accumulation Dnd COmbl!l<J \.on of
ttlere IS POlltlcat ...1111 to so ve It. Depiction of tile ttlrough combustion of fossil fuels and living 1995 the figure had risen to o~'er 22 million. These
lormldab e t18Z1llds. e<lch driven to <J greater or
ozone la,'er IS more senous. Damage to the matter. In par tlcu!ar forest burnrng. f gures 00 not II1clude elwlrol'll1cnlDl refugees.
lesser degree by humon papulat on rncrease and
human metabolism may seem alarming 10 us. but some mo~ong across front'ers. other displaced
Although some sclenllflC uncerta nile:. remain. \\0 urtJan growth.
the more fundamental problem cO,Jld be the "',IUlln them. but depending on the r defll1itlon the
no\~' seem set on a course of global cllmatc
effects on other organ,sms. not least In the evolutIOn of human behaViour from hunter· number could be more than another 22 million.
change which Will ha~e two major effects. F'lst are
phytoplankton In the oceans. gatherers \0 farmers and eventuDlly Cltllens. cities Much of the Impact of Ihis flow of human berngs
charges which COuld cause ra'n 10 fall where II
'lave come to represent a speCialisation of human w be in and around cities.
Then there are the prospects of human·induced rarely fell before. or larn nol to fall where It had
funcllons. Richard Rogers Will Shaw how they
chmate change. Usually C!lange lakes place so previously been abundant. II may be warmer or it A nse In sea levels could d.srupt the lives of the
represent a value added to human life. Yet ctles
slowly that we do nol notice it. >\nlmals. plants and may De cf)oler. although the ",arid as a whole huge POpul<;ltlon!'. liVing on 01 near <;l coastline. or
brrng all the hazards logether In acute form .
other forms of life have Time to adapt or mlgrale . seems sci for a rise in avcrage temperatures, tllong an estuary. The effect would be
Humar'l existencc can be at liS mos t degraded in
1'Ile Thames valley IS an example. J.30.000 years Suctl changes have often happened in the past. compounded by Slorm surges and ti le e~ treme
cities and tllolr surr oumllr1g sha nt)' to wns Lntil the
ago it w"s \lle Ilabital of swamp-loving hippos : The seconel effec t is on sea leve ls. At presen t sea events - storms. drougn \s , ll urricD nes an d the rcs t
last ce ntury cit ies were gene rally se en as
18 ,000 years <lgo rc indee r an d mamm oth roamed levels are rising by IJc \w ee n 1. 5 and 2 rn ill ,me tres - wh ich we must e~ p cct 1'11111 c li matc cha nge .
domge rous places . Oealll rat es exceeded birth
th e tu ndra not far fronl tile icc sheet wll iell a year. Bu t if c urrent Illelt ing of land ICC were to
f<:l tes. and c iti es could msinta in thems elves on ly by We must also expect changes in pattern s of
weighed all the land to the nOrth: and o nly 000 acceler<J te , the rise in sea levels COuld DCCeler<lte
attrac ti ng peepl e from outsldt! . Cil ies and til elr disease. Temperatu re and moi stu re greatl y affe<:\
yeDrs ago the French 'A·ere trying to close down \'.' Ith an overall rise of half a metre before the cnd
support systems create Dn environment of the ir the life cyc les of micro-organiSI11S , from insects
viney.Jrds Ifl southern England which were too of the next century.
own. It is Increasmgly In peril. through bactena to VIruses. They therefore dlrccU)l
competilive.
Last there are the Issues arrSlng from tile affect human and other ammD he<:llth. We are
In t..... o of hiS chapters. Richard Rogers examines
The last 12.000 years have been a penod Of destrUCtion of other forms of hfe. Such destruction already seemg a remarkable return 0< cerIa n
the culture of cities and the r prospects for
lelatlvely stable climate. Even before the Industnal s of an order of magn Tude comparable to that diseases whose agents have become reSistant to
sustamabl ty. As collective orga'1isms. Uley are os
Revolut'on. and as far back as the Bronze Age. brought about by the impacts of objects from outer modern drugs. PopulatiOns debl ,tated for other
vulnelable as any Olher to change. There are
there were vanatlons ,n local cllmales due to space. The last major one ended the dominance of reasons \\,11 be particularly vulnerable. We mus,
certain obVIOus pressure points which we could
changes in land usc. In particular deforestation. the d.nosaur family 65 million years ago. V·men the a'so reckon wllh problems ans ng from drarnage and
feel very soon. for eK3mpie supplies of food. "'"ater
But since the Industrial Revolution began around archaeologists of the future look at the depOSits of sewage dl::;posal. Agall1. the crowded conditions 0'
and other ph~s,cal resOurces. But lurking behind
viii 250 years ago. we have through our activities the last quarter millenn um. they Will find a urban life make Cilies particularly vulnefi:lble.
them arc others. Here are one or 11'.'0 eKamples.
brougllt about the prospect of glob,,1 changes. or D ological disconllnuity as big as any in the past.
A less obvious pressure point IS the consequences
alterations in whole "'cather systems. Ever)1hing They Will expose a richness not of fossils but of More people. 111 or out of cities. metlns more
for cities of the destrucllon of olher forms of life.
is spee ding up. Aparlfrorn ",hal we have done to plastiC bags ,met o\ll er huma n refuse. The effec ts pressure on the environme nt . It al so means more
Reduction of tllelr diverS ity affccts food suppli es
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tlllllk I hat the good ment<J1 hellltil of Cltlwns Yet we ~t lll li ve in <I world in Wh ich governm en ts Of at least mitigating the seven ty of mos t of tile
!<Jlrcodji tlcavlly dCp(:ndent on a few genetic sugges ts that I'<e Should go back to the notion of problems that confront us. But I am peSSimist of
are tile c(l tlca factor. PubliC Clwareness of such <.l
stra nsl and medlClnC ihcllvlly dependent on plant City l'ia !s to preselve the coherence of urblln hfe the Will becausc I doubt wlle thcr merc reason IS
Issues has grCDtI~ IIlcreased over the last quarter
and animal sources). But more Importi.lnt ore tllC w tllln and prevent tile destruct,on of It (rom enough . Sometimes 'lte need a Jolt. even a
century. but few people t1l)ve yet drawn the kind of
ecological benefits: we rely on forcsts and WIt!lOUl. But tile gates II1U::;t always be kept open. catastrophe. to focus our minds and make us
radical conclUSions which Bre now needed. Most
\cgctat,on to prOduce SOIl. to hold it together and readlcr to accept change. Catastrophe IS not the
etlange comes tI1rough an accumulation of small
If these faclors arc not cnougtl. cities Bre now
to regulote wilter supplies by preservIng cllichment ideat precursor of wise pohcy makmg. But Without
steps. followed by an occaSional stumbling. Ulen a
suffering from the dagger wounds cDused by tllC
basms. rechargmg groundwatcr and buifenng it. it IS sometimes hard to sec whether we arc
Intrus ve. spliUlIlg effects of roads to carry big step. lollol',ed by more small steps. Progress IS
extreme conditions: we rely on Salls to be fertile capable of the changes m fundamenta l values and
therefore slow. As Lord Keynes once remarked. it
ever'fone's favourte and most convenient :oy. the
and to break down pollutants: and we rely on aspnatlons wtllch arc Indispensable.
motor CiJr. RIChaw Rogers eX811111leS the necessary is far easier to take III a new idea than to get rid of
nutr·ents for reqchng and disposal 01 waste. There
an old one. We have a lot of Old ones to get lid 01.
ba'ance between public and pnvalc transport. the Richard Rogers's book is a message of hope. He
IS no concelva!)le substitute lor Ihese natural
corrosive effects of the pnooty we hove given tll C Certain. mostly economic. pflneiples ha\'c become shows how the eQuitablc - aDove BII , com pacl -
services. and all of them constitute parts 01 the
ca r over the last fifly yea rs, and the nature and common currency. 1\ is for exampl e agreed at least city is pluralist and integrated. dlverSC and
urban support system. If we tamper with 1Il(,In, tllC
vallcty of our dependcnce on it. Governme nt in theory \11I)t 1110 polluter should pay. There is colleren t. All of us know \111)1 there is some thing
cos t could bO Immea surable .
rescalch has sho wn that 1.9 mil lion people a year likeWise agree ment on tile precautionary prinCi ple , wrong whlcl1 could become more \'I rong if we do
Cit'os <lIsa face prOb lc ms from Within the mselves in Bri ta in are expose d to oir pol lution le vels III not look to\'l ards <I different kind of city In the
Wll ich 11l eallS th at we shoul d not only ta ke ca re but
Richard Rogers well brmgs out tllC ma in facto rs . exce ss of in ternati onal gUldc lines as a res ult of future . If the ants ca n wor k out tile right SIlO.
<l lso not allo w uncerta inty to obstruct preve ntive
r-.; early all cities were once to wn s. and nearly " II the grol'ith in tr affi c and industr y. ch arac ter and fU llctlon fo r the ir cities. we should
action when it sccms necess.J ry. TI1ere is also a
towns wcrc once vi llages . The bigger commu ni t es be abl e to do 1I1e same for ours. The res ult Should
kind of woolly agwe l11 ent on a third pnnciple : that
ThiS iJcculll ulation of ISSUCS raises huge problems
become, the greater their loss of social COherence . be, in Rlctlard Rogers's words. a dense and many-
en~ironmcn tll l cons'dcra tl ons should be at the
for govern<:l!lce. "Ve arc alrelldy undergOing II kind
Such Cities as Lor'don. WhlCtl IS stili in many wa,'s centred city. a cl ly of overlapping ac tivity. an
of crisis of authority. Incrcasingly we twvc to ask heart of deciSion makmg at what ever level.
a combination of Vi llages With a grand centre. arc ecological city. a city of easy contact. an cqultable
ourselves. can governments cope? Ccr\lllnly Application of theSe prinCiples should persuade
better to live In than the aggiomerat'ons diVided by city. an open city. and not ICBSt a beauti ful city III
nalionai sovereignty is not what 1\ was. WOrld-Wide governments to do what makes sense for reasons
function and lack,ng human dimenSion. Los whiCh art. architecture and landscape can move
there IS a SWitch In auUlOflty: upwards to other tIlan any slllgie factor. leadership in th is
Angeles has been flghtly ca;led the I\owhere City. and satisfy Ule humiln spmt. Richard Rogers
International institutions to cope With global respect IS essential. But so also is pressure from
Clusters of huge concrete stalagmites are deeply StlOWS how It can be done.
problcms (even f most rClllaill poorly eqUipped to below from a pubhc educated in the issues and
oppressive to Ihe sPirt. Some planners Stili long
do SOl: downwards to local authorities, loea; Intolerant of shabby comprom ises.
to create ghettos in the shape 01 commerCial
orgalllzations and comnlUnilles: and Sideways to
d.SIIICIS. Industrial diStricts. dOrmitory districts.
Sometimes I am asked whel her I am an OptimISt
ci\llens III direct communication With each other
sllOPPlng districts and tho rest without real:Slng
through the marvelS of information technology or a pessimist. My reply is that I am an opti mist of
Ihe SOCial COSI for the individual, I some tim es
ony-where In tile world. the lol ellect bec ause 1I1ere <lrc ways of managing
1 In 1957 the fi rst satel lite was launched into orbit. It gave us a
vantage po int from which we could look at ourselves and signalled
To begin our position-fixing aboard
the beginning of a new global consciousness. a, dramatic change in
our Spaceship Earth we must first our relationship with the planet. Seen from space. the beauty of the
earth's biosphere is striking - but so also is its fragility. The plumes
acknowledge that the abundance of
of pollution. the wounds of deforestation. the scars of
immediately consumable, obviously industrialisation and the sprawl of our cities are all evidence that in
our quest for wealth we are systematically plundering every aspect
desirable or utterly essential
of our life-support system.
resources have been sufficient until
The survival of society has always depended on safeguarding the
now to allow us to carryon despite equilibrium between the variables of population, resources and
environment. The neglect of this principle had disastrous and fatal
our ignorance_ Being eventually
consequences for civil isations of the past. We too are subject to the
exhaustible and spoilable, they have controll ing laws of su rviva l, but unlike the m we are the first to be a
globa l civi lisation and th erefore the first to have eve r face d a
been adequate only up to this critical
simulta neous and world·wide expans ion of population, depletion of
moment_ This cushion-for-error of natu ral resou rces and erosion of the envi ron ment.
humanity's survival and growth up to Above us as I write, 400 or so satel lites, equipped with weather
instrument s, study coastal. ocean and polar processes, constantly
now was apparently provided just as
beaming back scans of vegetation and atmosphere, plotting the
a bird inside of the egg is provided effects of pollution and erosion. Their data plays a crucial role
providing insights into changing geological patterns, global warming
with liquid nutriment to develop it to Evidence from SpaI)\! 01 man's
p/ly5lcal Impact on Ine
planer, $udace. We are now and the depletion of the ozone layer. They are witnessing the
a certain point. htllrally SNlpong the lilICiI 01
the planet With 20 m,lIion creation of an environmental catastrophe of a magnitude never
reSIdents. the nteHopohlan
area ot TokyO forms the before faced by humankind. The exact long·term results of current
world'S Iar&nl cny.
~nce Photo Llo,lfq levels of consumption are not yet clear, but given the scientific
Buckminster Fuller, uncertainty concerning their precise effects my contention is that we
must apply the ·precautionary prinCiple' and ensure that action be
Operation Manual for Planet Earth 1
3
taken to safeguard the survival of our species on this planet.
•
Popu lation
civilisation'S self-<lestruction. I passionate ly believe that the arts of more beneficial than in the city. In fact. the benefits to be derived
Urban
architecture and city planning could be evo lved to provide cruc ial Populnl ion from this approach are potentially so great that environmental
tools for safeguard ing our future, creati ng cit ies that provide sustainabil ity shou ld become the guiding principle of modern urban
World popul . Uon "owtll
sustainable and civil ising environments. This book will attempt to design,
demonstrate that future cities could provide the springboard for
If cities are undermining the ecological balance of the planet. it is our
1 restoring humanity'S harmony with its environment. 1
patterns of social and economic behaviour that are the root cause of 5
4
My cause for optimism is derived from three factors: the spread of their development in ways that produce environmental imbalance. In
ecological awareness, of communications technology and of both developed and developing worlds the 'carrying' capacity of
citi es is being stretched to their limit. Cities are increasing in size
and at such a rate that conventiona l patterns of accommodating
urban growth have become obsolete. In the developed world the
migration of people and activities from city centres to the dream
world of suburbia has led to massive suburban development. wide·
spread road·building, increased car use, congestion and pollution -
best exemplified in the cities of the Western USA like Phoenix and
Las Vegas. Meanwhile, in the fast-growing economies of the
... PhoenI •. A/lzona. now developing world. new cities are being built at a phenomenal rate and
OCCuPIeS., Utffn0<1 as "lIS~ ~S
~hat ot Spr&whns LOS AngelU. density with little thought for future environmental or social impact.
nS pOOul.,Uon I, JUSt one-thlfa
as great. World-wide. there is a mass migration of the rural poor to these new
DiMd Hum - MIISoum
consumerist cities. Everywhere the situation of the poor is largely
overlooked. In the developed world the poor fall out of the consumer
soc iety and are abandoned and isolated in th e inner-city ghettos .
whi le in the develop ing citi es the poor are re legated to the squa lor of
the swelling shanty towns . ' Unofficia l· or il lega l residents regu larly
outnumbe r the official ones.
minded' places give us somet hing in co mmon: they bring diverse market becomes less attractive than the secured shopping mall , the
sections of society together and breed a sense of tolerance, university district becomes the closed campus; and as th is process
awareness, identity and mutua l respect. spreads th rough the city the open-m inded public doma in retreat s.
People with wea lth ba r t hemselves in or move out of the city. In these
My point . however, is t hat in the process of des igning cities to meet closed, privat ised spaces, t he poor are forbidden to enter, guards
the inexo rabl e patterns of private demand we have seen the former st and at the gate. Those wit hout money are equ ivalent to those
cat ego ry ec lipsing the latte r. Open-mindedness has given way to withou t a passport. a class to be ban ished. Citizensh ip - the notion
single·m indedness and in its wake we are witness ing the destruction of shared respo nsibi lity for one's envi ro nment - disappea rs, and city
of the very idea of the inclus ive city. life becomes a two-tier structu re, with the rich in prot ected enclaves
The emphas is is now on se lfishness and sepa ration rather than and the poor trapped in inner·city ghettos or, as in the developing
contact and com munity. In the new kinds of urban develo pment, t he world. squa lid shanty towns. We created citi es to celebrat e what we
activit ies that trad itiona lly overlapped are organised for the pu rpose have in co mmon . Now they are des igned to keep us apart.
of max im ising profit fo r deve lopers or retailers. Businesses are The sp raw ling cities of the USA, with the ir inner-city ghettos, heavi ly
iso lated and grouped into bus iness parks; shops are grouped in policed m idd le-class do rm itories, shopping cent res and business
shopping centres with theatre-set 'streets' bu ilt into th em; homes parks, show th is divisive tendency most clea rl y. The Cal iforn ian write r
are grouped int o res identi al suburbs and housing estates . Inevitab ly, Mike Davis describes how Los Angeles. t he scene of repeated riots
the streets and squares of this counte rfe it pub lic domain lac k the in recent decades, has grown more and more segregated. even
diversity, vita lity and human it y of everyday city life. Worse still. t he mil itarised.
existing street s of the city are drained of commercia l life and become
little more than a no-man's-land for scurrying pedestrians or sealed St arti ng at the outsk irts there is the Toxic Rim, a circ le of giant
private cars. People today do value conven ience but they also long ga rb age landfil l. rad ioact ive waste dumps and pol luting industries .
for genuine public life, and the crowds tha t pack city centres on Moving inwards yo u pass so·ca lled gated or private ly patro lled
weekends testify to th is. residential subu rbs and a zone of se lf-policing lower middle-class
ho mes, until you reach a free-fire downtown area of ghettos and
The disappearance of 'open-minded' pub lic space is not simply a gangs. Here, the Ra mparts Division of the Los Angeles police
cause for regret: it can gene rate dire socia l consequences launch ing regula rly investigate more murders than any other loca l police
a spira l of decl ine. As the vibrancy of pub lic spaces dim inishes we department in the country. Finally, beyond th is no-go area lies the
,.
1
lose the hab it of pa rticipat ing in street life . The natural policing of
streets tha t comes from the presence of people needs to be
rep laced by 'secu rity' and the city itse lf becomes less hospitable and
business district itself. In pa rts of th is area, TV cameras and security
devices screen al most every passing pedestrian.
1
IT
more alienating. Soon our publ ic spaces are perceived as down right
dangerous, and fear ente rs the scene.
.. S~ u "ty ~,se$ S8 in
access !() Dr1 a ir-<:()nd itoc>r'>C(I
subt crranca n wa lkw.". lor
H()US\on '$ (Iow ntown oWoo
wor ~o rs mid SlIOP I)<)" , !(laving
the POOl to in ll ab it tile
po ll uted streots abovo,
Sml(}n N<.Jrfolk ,
Tile IfldepeMenr
,.
1 leave this city not less but greater, bett er and more beautiful than it ~f education_, and 9. QJaJor co_mponent of ou r Nati onal Cu rriculum. 1
-
was left to us.', Qual it y of urban environment defines quality of life for
citi zens. The relation between city and civic harmony is we ll
Jeaching chi ldren about their eve ryday urban environ ment equips
th em to partic ipat e in the process of respecting and improvi ng the
17
establiShedj city. Cit ies themse lves can be a great too l, a live labo ratory for
ed ucation. Environmental sustainability shou ld be at the co re of who almost without exception have received no pub lic comm issions
subjects taught - a theme linking phys ics, biology, art and history. in this country. It is madden ing to watch real talent being squandered
We must make funds available to interest and inform the public. We today and a mediocre architectural heritage left for tomorrow.
must teach good citizenship to young and old, and listen to citizens.
Curitiba, a rapidly expanding city in Brazil, succeeded, thanks to far-
Much of our future 'quality of life' depends on getting this right.
sighted leadership and public participation. in tackling its problems
Should people be demoralised by the apparently insurmountable of growth and consolidation. As I will describe later, they have
task of gaining democratic control of t heir cities. there are pursued myriad policies aimed at increasing environmental and
encouraging examples from around the world. In many places. the social awareness, covering everything from education to commerce,
city, in its many aspects from ecology to architecture, is an transport to pl anning. As a result. citizens feel that they own their
established issue of public debate and electioneering. a sharp city and are responsibl e for its future.
contrast to its neglect in Britain.
RotterdalTl..iltovide.s an example of concerted government-sponsored
President Fran~ois Mitterrand stated that 'culture', and in particular but community-oriented development. A strategic plan for the entire
architecture, was the fourth most im portant voti ng issue in France (I city defines the principle directions in which the com munity wish to
dread to th ink how high British po liticians wou ld rank cultu re) . In see the ir city grow. The convers ion of the ir docklands is the subject
Britai n we are perhaps aware on ly of major initi atives such as the of continuous study, debate and collaboration . )he majpoty of land
Grand Projects of Pari s, but these are Just the t ip of the iceberg. In in and aro.UDd the city is publicly owned and can be given to the
France th ere is a com petition for each and every government com munity irllen and where the need arises rather than when
building, be it a public housing project. a school, a post office. a someooe3ao afford to buy a site . The city aims to grow like a cell
local square, a park or an entire new town. All local competitions of structure, splitting and replicating into mixed neighbourhoods of
any significance are decided by a jury comprised of t he mayor, a three to five thousand people with workplaces, schools, shops and
representative of the users, members of the local community, housing. At least a third of each new community consists of overflow
technical experts and architects. There are small competitions from neighbouring communities, which ensures the social coherence
designed to encourage young talent as well as major international of the whole. In this way. Rotterdam avoids dividing itself into
competitions (often involving the President himself) designed to segregated zones and isolated communities.
ensure that France is home to the best of international architecture.
In Spain, the end of Franco's rule was followed by the election of city
Contrast this with the situation in Britain. where taxpayers spend £4 mayors, and in Barcelona strong mayoral leadership backed by
billion annually on their public buildings and yet central government popular support totally transformed the city. The Mayor. Pascal
1 has had no architectural policy. In 1992 we held ten public design Maragal, and his Minister of Culture. the architect Oriel Bohigas . 1
18 19
competitions to France's 2,000. Britons complain about their used the hosting of the 1992 Olympics as a catalyst for visionary
architecture, yet they have a generation of talented young architects re form that went much fur t her t han the provision of Olympic
fa cil iti es . It included the establishment of a strategic masterplan for
the entire city, the refurbish ment of streets and, significantly, the dec isively the development of techno logies and innovations that
creation of 150 new public squares . They called upon some of the protect ou r ecology and human ise our cities .
world's lead ing architects to implement the most ambitious of all th e
Humankind's capacity to transmit accu mulated knowledge from
city"s redeve lopment plans : the conversion of its defunct industrial
gene ration to generation, t o anticipate and to solve prob lems, has
dock area tha t had separated the city from the sea, a wat erside area
been its greatest asset. I find it amazing and tremendously inspiring
typica l of coastal industrial citi es thro ughout the world . The resu lt is
that on ly a hundred typica ll ifespans sepa rate our present age, which
that the city has been reconnec ted to the sea along a huge stretch
can bu il d a city in space. from the age wh ich saw the first ci t ies bu ilt
of coast. Beyond specific projects. Maraga l has created an
along the Eup hrates and th e Tigris.
atmos phere in wh ich the private sector is wi ll ing to con form to
popular public leadersh ip, because developers can both see the Technology and our abil it y to pred ict have transformed our world . and
overall benefit of the long·term improvement of the cit y and often in the face of appall ing odds. In 1798 the economist Malthus
recognise the importance of public interest. By these de mocratic warned that. accord ing to his ca lcu latio ns. the rat e of increase in the
processes Ba rc elona has been transform ed into a world·c lass city, a world population was exceeding the capacity of the ea rth to feed
place where people long to visit, work and live. future generat ions. He was proved wrong because he had reckoned
without th e remarkab le pot entia l of t echnology. In t he hundred years
The cities of San Francisco, Seattle and Portland have integra ted
followi ng his om ino us predict ion, the popu lat ion of Brit ain
publ ic pa rticipat ion in urban plann ing into their elect oral system. In
quadrupled, but tech nological advance s brought a fourteen-fold
loca l elections, you don't j ust choose a candid ate. you have the
increase in agricu ltural pro ducti on. Nowadays techno logy deve lops
oppor tunity to make decisions about your own su rroundings: How
ever faster and offe rs even greater oppo rtun iti es. There were on ly
much offic e space shou ld be allowed? Which regenerat ion plan is
two lifespans between the invention of the bicyc le and th at of space
best ? What transportation strat egy to adopt? The inhabita nts of
travel; and less tha n half a lifespan between the invention of the firs t
these cit ies the refore feel they have involvement and control ove r
electronic com puter and t he deve lo pment of the info rmation
their city"s dest iny.
supe rh ighway.
The above approaches il lustrate how urban societies are evo lving
In his com pell ing analysis of modern ity in the nineteenth and
strategies tailored to th ei r spec ific culture and needs. In each of
twent ieth centuries, Ma rshall Berman reminds us of the cha llenge to
these cities there is a fundamental assum pti on that citi zens have a
traditional soc ial. economic and re ligious val ues that acco mpanies
say in the shaping of th ei r ci ties. They emphatically prove tha t publ ic
t his t ec hnological evo lution. He quote s from Marx's vivid description
pa rtiCipati on and genuine government commitment can transform
of the modern condition :
1 ~y_sical and soc ial f abric of ou r cities. 1
2. All fixed, fast·frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable 21
I have touched upon some of the proble ms fac ing conte mporary
prejudices and opinions, are swept away. all new-formed ones become
cit ies and have il lustrated how citizens' co mmitment can contribute
antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, aI/ that
to im proving the situation . In parallel we must pu rsue ever more
is holy is profaned, and men at last are forced to face the real The chal lenge we fa ce is to move fro m a system that exp loits
conditions of their lives and their relations with their fellow men. technological deve lopment for pu re profit to one that has sustainable
object ives. Mak ing cities sustai nable demands fu nda m_eotal chang~s
~bracing char:!g~ ca![ies uncertainty and risk. The power to
in human behaviour, in the practice of go\{.ern~!lL commer.ce ,
transform and change both ourse lves and the the world defines our
~tecture aod city planning. The developer who bu ilds for pure ly
modern condition. The thi rst for what we can achieve is ba lanced by
commercial ret urns, with no commitment to t he cit y's envi ron ment
the awa reness of our abil ity to destroy. To be rl"!..o.gern, the refore , is
no r to the qua lity of life of its citizens, is m isus ing technology. So too
~ live this life of pa radox - th is is the Faustian bargain that Berman
is the planne r who drives a mot orway through the middle of a city
so brilliant ly exposes.
withou t regard f or the broader environmenta l or social iss ues .
In th is maelstro m, the laws of the ma rk et have taken hold. But the
I am wi ld about t echno logy but not about techno logy run wild.
'invisible hand' of the market is a force of ne it her nat ure nor man.
Technolo~y m ~st be focused by the citizen for the benefit of the
1"'- Soc iety, in the form of it s governments and other instit ut ions, has
~itizen; it .?houlQ. seek.. to secure un iversal human rights and provide
the responsib ility to focus the dynamic of modern life. to di rect the
shelter, wate r, food, hea lth, education, hope and freedom for all. It
application of new technology. to confront old va lues with new. The
is my be lief that t he susta inab le city could provide the fram~work for
city is the embod iment of society; its form must be continuously
t~e ful filment of these basic human rights. That idea l underpins my
viewed aga inst our soc ial object ives. The problems of today's cit ies
approach to sustainab il ity: mobilising c reative tbinking and
are not the result of rampant technological development, but of its
techno logy to secure hu man ity's future on this sma ll planet of finite
rampa nt misapplication.
resou..r:ces. It is an innovation that would have an impact on the cit y
The speed of technological change and above all the speed and of the twenty-first centu ry as radical as that of t he industria l
breadth of it s dissem ination provides modern soc iety with its revo lut ion on the city of t he nineteenth century.
greatest potential powe r. The United Nations Deve lopment Agency
estimates that in the next thi rty years as many people wi ll be seeking
a fo rma l education qual ification as have done so since the beginning
of civi lisation. Robotics place our gene ration in a posit ion to reap the
benefit of more wea lt h per capita with less labour. For the fi rst time
since the industria l revo lution, work is taking up les s of our lives.
Robot ics. educatio n. medicine, globa l co mmun ications - all
manifestations of our techno logica l development - provide the
1 conditions for th e development of a new fo rm of creative citizenship 1
22 23
that generates wea lth for soc iety without breaching the li mits of our
environment's sustainabi lity.
2 Cities have neve r conta ined so many. nor so large a proportion of the
human race. Between 1950 and 1990 the population of the world's
cities increased ten-fold. soaring from 200 million to more than 2
billion . The future of civilisation will be determined by its cities and
in its cities .
As long ago as 1966, the econom ist ~en.neth Bou ld int argued tha t
we must cease to be have as if we lived in a 'cowboy economy" with
Fo ssil fuels
unl imited new territory to be conquered and resources to be
Evaporation
consumed. Instead we must begin to think of our planet as a
Tapping Into renewa ble
'spaceshi p' - a closed syste m with fin ite resources . In fact life on energies
earth is en tire ly derived from a closed system into which nothing ... Har>cst'ng so lar eoo rgy.
Ode,lIe . Fra nce.
enters except energy from the sun. The sun through photosynthesis Leona rd Freed _ Magf)(1m
gives life to vegetation and crea tes oxygen. Over thousands of ... Ka"'estl ng wind powe r.
Tarifac. Spain .
millennia, decaying vegetation forms stocks of so lar energy: foss il Bruno Barney - MagMm
2 fue ls li ke coal and oil. The re lease of th ese stocks of sola r energy ... Win d. Wayes and
vegelatio n: t he planet is not
28 through their consumptio n causes a cocktail of po ll ution that creates ina ni mat e. II is a living
organ,sm every clement
acid rain and tha t is deemed by many to produce global warming. But 01 th e pla net's biospllerc is a Plant growth
constantly "'''''wed reSOUrCe .
the sun is the daily re ple nishing energy sou rce that creates wind and
rain, and these constantly 'renewed' energies can be harvested and
.
, . Linear metabolism c ities consume and pollute at a high rate
consumed without polluting the environment.
cities' resources and provide sites for the disposal of their waste
and pollution. The ecological footprints of existing cities already Outputs . . . Inorganic
Inputs • Wastes
virtually cover the entire globe. As the new consumerist cities expand Goods (Landfill)
so competition for these resource foot prints grow. The expansion of
urban ecological footprin ts is taking place simultaneously with the
erosion of fertile lands, living seas and virgin rain forests. Given this
simple supply constraint, urban ecological footprints must be
dramatically reduced and circu mscribed. Circular m et abo lism citi es minimi se new inputs and m axim ise recycling
The urban ecologist Herbert Girardet has argued that the key lies in
cities aiming at a circular 'me~bolism' L wtJ~re consJ.IDlp.tioo i~
2
32
Today, by contrast, dirty industry is disappearing from cities of the
developed world. In theory at least, with the availability of 'green'
manufacturing. virtually clean power generation and public transport
! which studios sit over family homes, which sit over offices, which sit
over shops, bring life to the street and reduce the need for citizens
to get into their cars to meet everyday needs. But these mixed-use
2
33
systems, and advanced sewerage and waste systems, the dense city buildings create complex tenancies which local authorities find hard
to manage and develope rs find hard to finance and sel l. In stead,
public and private developers prefer single-function bu ild ings. And
when embarking on major projects they prefer large open sites or
cheap ·green·field' ones which offer the possibility of constructing
whole housing estates or business parks with minimal leasehold
complications. Furthermore , these sites facilitate maximum
standardisation of design and construction. thus furthering cost-
effectiveness and the argument against mixed·use. The search for
short-term profit and quick results continues to turn investment away
from complex mixed·use urban development and its inherent social
and environmental benefits.
But it is the car which has played the critical role in undermining the
cohes ive social structure of the city. There are an estimated 500
million cars in the world today. They have eroded the quality of public
spaces and have encouraged subu rban sprawl. Ju st as the elevator
made the skyscraper possible, so the ca r has enabled citi zens to live
away from city centres. 12Je car has made viable the whole concept
of divid ing eve ryday activities into co mpartments . segregat ing
Ca •• , ca •• , car, offices. sho ps and homes. And the wider cities spread out. the more
Oy tMe mlOdte 01 1M twentieth uneconomic it becomes to expand their public transport systems.
century. there were 2.6 bollion
people on ear Ih and 50 and the more car-dependent citizens become. Cities around the
millIOn cars, In the last ntty
years the etobal POI)U18t"'" world are being transformed to facilitate the car even though it is
has do\II)tr!<:l ...n,le \he numoe.
of cars has Increased tenfold. cars rather than industry that are now generating the largest amount
In 1M next tW(!ntr-f!Yo years
the world pOpulation ot cars IS of air pollution. the very same pollution that the suburban dwellers
expeclr!<:llo reach 11 bliloon
Mass motOtlSaloon has 9rllvcd are fleeing. In all, 2 trillion cubic metres of exhaust fumes per year
and Is sel \0 spread 10 c_y
CJly In lhe world. are created, and the number of cars is likely to rise by 50 per cent
... Trattic '" the centre 01 by 2010 and to double by 2030. Paradoxically, from the perspective
Buenos AI.es. ArgentIne.
MorfIN! - Grecnpe"", of the individual. the car remains the century's most liberating and
2
most desired technological product. It is cheap because it is 35
manufactured in volume and is subsidised; iUs practical because
.f it ies have not been planned to rely on public transport; and it is an
irresisti ble cu ltural icon t hat delivers glamour and status.
"
Simple logistics show how damage is caused by increasing car
•
•
ownership. First the street. once the local playground and general
meeting place. is taken over by parked cars. An efficient parking Light Traffic
standard requires 20 square metres for a single car. Even supposing 3.0 friends per person
6.3 acquaintances
that only one in five inhabitants owns a car. then. a city of 10 million Friend. Of Ir. flle ?
(roughly that of London) needs an area about ten times the size of
the City of London ('the square mile'). just to park cars. But start up Re5earch in San FrancISCO
confirnlS \he simple reality
those 2 million cars and drive off. and you saturate the city with Ihill _ V.Wc undermrnes
II SVee1 ' S sense 01
pollution and congestion that harass and divide communities. As comnlun~V·
transport by car becomes integral to city planning. the street corners In. slnile nel(hbourhOO<l
three sVee,s wltn d,lferent
and the shapes and surfaces of public spaces are all determined for imen$IIIt!S 0' traffoc lire
compared. A.s tr.nic increases
the benefit of the motorist. Eventually the entire city, from its overall so casual ";Slts to neighbours
d<!(:hne.
shape and spacing of new buildings to the design of its curbs. lamp
posts and railings, is designed according to th is one criterion.
Tratloc i. 8 Sign"leant ca use of
urban alieflst lOn. Moderate Traffic
1.3 friends per pe rson
Car ownersh ip more t han doubled in Europe between 1970 and
4. 1 acq uaintances
1995, and is about to soar in developi ng cities . It cont inues to be
encou raged by those supporting both national ised and privatised ca r
industries. And the anticipation of astronomically high levels of car
use in the future has led planners to design cities around road
specifications. effectively encouraging ever-increasing car use .
allowing the car to undermine communal life, how to design for and
......""' . ,,"""'.
accelerate the use of clean transport systems and re-balance the Dono ..... _ .
1 use of our streets in favour of the pedestrian and the community. hmu ...... """, •
The Co mpact City add resses these issues. 11-grow~ a~n~tres . . , t~, ~ ,1 1 ,y
of soc ial and commercial activity located at public transport nOdes / I
•
These provide the fQcal points around_ wllich .neighbourhoods
d!.velop. The Compact City is a network of these neighbourhoods. - .
2
38
each with its own parks and public spaces and accommodating a
dlversity of overlapping private and public activities. London's
.\
historic structure of towns, villages, squares and parks is typical of
\
Open Linear ~ Closed loop
a polycentric pattern of development. Most importantly, these System System
ne ighbourhoods bring work and facil it ies within convenient reach of In 1991 the Mayor of Shanghai invited my practice to propose a
the co mm unity. and th is ..eroximity means less driving for eve ryday strategic framework for a new district of his cit y. Th is offered us the
~eds . In large cities. Mass---.:!ransit Systems can provide high-speed chance t o explore and apply the princip les of the sustainab le
cross-town trave l by link ing one neighbourhood centre with another. Compact City.
leaving local distribution to loca l systems. This reduces the volume
The context of the comm ission is revealing. China has 1.5 billion
and impact of through traffic, which can be calmed and controlled.
peo ple and makes up about one quarter of the world's population .
pa rticularly around the pub lic heart of neighbourhoods. Local trams,
Thei r nation is undergoing th e largest migration in its history from
light railway systems and electric buses become more effective, and
COuntr y to city, a journey that has seen at least 80 million people
cycling and walking mo re pleasant. Congestion and pol lution in the
moving int o shanties around China's main cit ies in less t han a
streets are drastical ly red uced and the sense of security and
gene ration, Traditiona ll y, the Chinese viewed cit ies and thei r
convivia lity of public space is increased.
agricultu ral hint erland as a total it y. Even today, t he Shanghai
Sustainable Compact Cities could. I contend. re inst at e the city as metropolitan area is nea rly self-suffic ient in vegetables and grain.
the ideal habitat for a com munity-based soc iety. It is an estab li shed But in t he rush to industrialise and urbanise. the ecology has
type of urban structure that can be interpreted in all manner of ways suffered . Of the ten cities suffering the worst air pollution in the
in response to all manner of cu lt ures. Cities shou ld be about the world, five are in China, Four of China's seven most important river
people they shelte r, _about face-to-face contact, about condensing systems are cont aminat ed, and acid rain affects al most a thi rd of
the ferment of human activit y. about g?nerating _and expressing loca l China's te rritory, Cities like Shenzhen, Dongguan and Zhuhai are
cultu re. Whethe r in a temperate or an extreme climate. in a rich or flattening colossa l tracts of countryside eithe r to supp ly construction
poor soc iety, the long-term aim of sustainab le development is to mate rials or to pave the way for future development. Cities like
create a flexib le structure fo r a vigo rous com mun ity within a healthy Sbenzhen have grown fro m 100,000 to 3 mil lion in 15 years .
and non:pollut ing environment. Urbanisation is t he first phase in the t ransformati on of a communa l
rura l societ y into a consumerist urban one. China's new ci t ies are
Proximity, the provision of good pub lic space, t he presence of
planned around motor ways rathe r than pub lic transpor t. Ownership
natura l landscape and the explo it ation of new urban technologies
of ca rs is therefore expected to grow from 1.8 mill ion today to reac h
c3l1 radically improve the qual ity of air and of life in the dense city.
20 m illion by 2010. As th e populations of t he new cities swell, a
Another benefit of co mpactness is t hat t he countrys ide itself is
process of industrialisation wi ll foll ow t o provide t he cl ass ic menu of
protected from the encroac hment of urban development. I wi ll show
consume rist goods, guaranteeing the huge economic growth th at is
how the concentration of diverse activities, rather than th e grouping
t he basis of the Chinese economic 'mirac le'.
2 of sim il ar act iviti es, can make fo r more effic ient use of energy. T~e 2
40 ~o m pact Cit y can provide an envi ronment as beautifu l as that of the In 1990 Shanghai, the wo rld 's fifth largest city, had a population of 41
countrys ide, 13 m ill ion. In five years it is planned to have more than 17 mill ion.
Shanghai's amb it ion is t o consolidate its status as t he commerc ial
Chln"'s ur..... miracle?
to be purely for international office use rs, and des igned primari ly to mBr ~e t and transportat ion c, iteria had streets, cycle paths. ma rket places and avenues, and made room for
dete rmi ned th e form of the new area
2 be accessed by ca r. Traffic engineers planned for the predicted huge _ a grid 01 in dividua l startd alone a substantia l par~ . !his network of publ ic spaces sought to enable 2
bUIld ings ringed by heavily congested
44 rush-hou r traffic by designing massive road systems - sometimes streets . the 'open-minded' cultura l activities of the city. It was ca refu lly 45
doub le· and triple-decked - and a counter-net work of pedestrian interwoven with the public transport system to make a single,
underpasses and fo otbridges. Road coverage on the site was three inlerconn~cted web of pub lic space and movement that started at
:
\\ ..
.
:
i
; .. .. '
'
.. ..'
'
'
=
......
---
--
-'-. ,
::: ....~
'. .
. '\-..,
..'('. j . /\ ~ .
•..•••• - '=
" -">-·X-
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,
c· 2
-/ 47
At the heart of the Lu Zia Sui was the central park, from which
radiating boulevards linked three concentric avenues . ..!he outer
avenue carried pedestrians and cyClists only: the second. trams and
buses: and the inner. partially sunken, the main car routes. The
overall aim was to locate the community's everyday needs , including
:. : .
public transport. within comfortable walking distance and away from
" through traffic.
energy used for transportation - usua lly a quarter of a city's ove rall
energy consumption. Fewe r cars mean less congestion and bette r ai r
qual ity. which in turn enco urages cycling and wal king rather than 1 Unit de livered
as electric ity
driving. Better air qual it y makes open ing windows to fresh air more
attractive t han turn ing on filte red air-conditioners.
Distance prOh ibits using waste heat
There are other important environmental advantages to a compact LEI SURE
form of city that has fewer roads but more landscaped pub lic
~aces. Parks, ga rd ens, trees and other landscaping provide 3
o---()-( ;
/r1
vegetat ion that shades and cools streets . courtyards and bui ldings
3 units olluel
in summer. Cities are gene rally 1_2°C wa rm er than the ir hinterland .
The overall effect of rich urban landscaping is to reduce the heat
'b]Qom' of cities, measurably reduc ing the need for air'-Conditioning.
Plants da mpen noise leve ls and fi lter pollution, absorb ca rbon
Certain North Ame. lca n
diox ide and produce oxygen - further factors that re duce the need cities have achi .. v .. d 70 The compact model - local power generati on and waste recycling
per " .. nt .. ffici .. ncy in
f.9r air-condit ion ing to supply cooled fresh air to build ings in what r .. cy cling city waat e. Thia
com par ... with
would othe rwise be hot and polluted urban areas . Urban landscape Cope nhag .. n at 55 pe r Pollution re duce d
cent and Lond,m at 5 p.., • b y 70%
§lbsorb s rain, red ucing the discha rge of urb an rainfall and sto rm c ent. City waste s hou l d \,,-,-', •
be s ....n a s a resourea t o \
water. Landscape plays an important psychologica l role in the city be mi ned. • •
and can sustain a wide dive rsity of urban wildl ife. xow~rout (n
A Compact City reduces the waste of energy. Generating electric
power produces hot wa ter as a by-product, which in convent iona l ~f--L\~1 un it of fuel
power plants is si mp ly wasted . Local Combined Heat and Powe r
plants (C HPs) c~ be used both to distri bute electricity and, due to
2 the ir proxi mity, to pipe hot wate r directly into buildings. This can
50 Compact mixed use development Loca l Combined Hila! Jnd Local waste can be burnt in CHP's
more th an doub le the efficiency of conventional urban power furt her reduc ing en ergy input
allows energy to be sha red Power s taMns (C HP' s) are twice
dist ribution . City rubb ish, which is usually either dumped as landfill between actioities as ettect ive because they
distrubute e lectnci!y and heat
or incinerated , both with polluting effects, can be burned by local
CHPs and supply up to 30 per cent of a commun ity'S energy needs. energy around the clock and through the seasons. The mode l also
In a city that combines a variety of activities, it is easier to transfer enabled the public investments likely to be needed for roads, publ ic
waste heat from one activity to another. Excess heat generated by transport and power infrastructure to be treated as variables. and to
offices, for example, is usually dissipated into the environment. but be gauged against each other in terms of monetary and environmental
it can be reused in hospitals, homes, hotels or schools if they are cost. Highly articulated computer modelling helped all those involved
reasonably close. to co-ordinate activities and to assess the overall implications of every
decision. It is also our best tool to communicate the complex issues
Human waste that is rich in nutrients is currently discharged in such
of urban planning to the city official, the investor and the citizen.
high concentrations that it poisons the environment. It can instead
be recycled to produce methane fuel pellets and fertilizers. Grey Whether Shanghai will pursue any of these sustainable strategies is
water can be filtered through natural systems on site and be re-used open to question. Political and commercial pressures have already
for irrigation of urban landscape or to restock local aquifers. led to the sale of isolated sites. Plots have been identified on a grid
Experimental sewerage treatment schemes that discharge their and the highest building in China is to be erected in the very centre
waste below industrial forestry have been shown both to increase of our unbuilt park. The current building process requires new roads
the growth rate of the forests, woods and parks and to restock local to service the plots already so ld, and so th e classic market-driven
aquifers with purified water. Clean water is recogn ised as t he critica l form of unsustainab le development will eme rge. Un less the
resource of the coming millennium, and we must develop syste ms govern ment of Ch ina shows rea l reso lve and comm it s itself to
that maxi mise tile efficiency of its use. planning fo r sustainable cities, it will soon be face d with mass ive
congestion, po llution and socia l dissatisfactio n on an even larger
At the outset of the Shangha i project we targeted a 50 per cent
scale than is endemic to t he cities it is using as role models.
overall reduction of energy use . We were amazed when we later
calculated that the 'circular" approach would have meant a 70 per The Lu Zia Sui project is not a model to be imposed, but ra ther a
cent saving. In commercial terms this implied a real downsizing of local illustration of an initial approach to planning for sustainable
demand requirements for new power stations - good news for the urban development. The distinction is crucial. All settlements, from
environment - and also a dramatic decrease in the long-term cost of rural hamlets to the largest metropolis, from those with vast
living for businesses and residents. resources to those with precious few, have something to gain from
sustainable thinking and planning. ~mall !9wns. for example, can
Sustainable urban planning is made possible by computer modelling
make idea~ainable developments as they offer the possibility of
that brings together the complex matrix of criteria that make up the
i~grating both urban and agricultural strategies. But in every case,
modern City. In the Shanghai project. our design team could measure
2 building a sustainable city requires a holistic discipline of planning 2
the impact of strategies on energy consumption, transport needs.
52 that considers all the factors which make up the physical, social and 53
pa!1<ing requirements, pedestrian movement and the optimising of
economic needs of a community and relates them to the greater
sunlight. The computer model was used to adjust the mixture of
environm ent. This type of plann ing necessitates the comparat ive
activities within neighbourhoods to produce t he most efficient use of
analysis of populat ion, energy, water, transpor t, topography,
employment and, most importantly, local technology and cu lture .
Our first ste p was to reso lve the most obvious problem: how to make eoor_...-gro,","
services such as drainage. electricity and clean water. Ala rmingly, ~ Port a u P,i rocc.
Jenny Mlltfhews -
2 pol it ica l instabi lity. persecution, famine, deforestation and other IoVRUjO, lam
56 such pressures continue to drive rural people to the cities even when
there is no commercial base to support them. In Bombay 5 million
people - roughly equivalent to the entire residential population of
•
inner London - live in shanties. It has been estimated that 30 to 60 Examples of susta inable development are appearing in the deve loping
per cent of the residents of most large cities in deve loping countries world. Curitiba, a Brazilian city of 1.5 million residents, once suffered
live in 'informal settlements' or shanty towns . The UNCHS Global from the usual problems of rapid expansion and desperate shanty
Report on Human Settlements (1986) states that in Sao Paulo 32
1 towns. but has now emerged as leader among sustainable cities. It
per cent of the total population live in shanty towns; in Mexico City has made sustainability and citizen participation the guiding principle
this proportion is 40 per cent. in Manila 47 per cent and in Bogota of its daily life and the environment its top priority. During his terms
59 per cent. In Argentina these districts are known as villas as Curitiba's mayor. architect Jamie Lerner tackled its problems with
miserias. townships of misery. These settlements tend to be broad policies. As the shanty towns were mostly contained on the
founded on marginal land. such as flood plains or unstable slopes, banks of the city's rivers and lacked formal roads, garbage remained
rendering them vulnerable to natural hazards such as flooding. uncollected and became enormous fetid piles on the river banks. The
landslides or earthquakes. They have no public utilities for water, rivers as a consequence were stripped of vegetation and
sewerage, rubbish collection and power, and as a consequence their contaminated by raw sewage. Lerner introduced a range of schemes
inhabitants suffer from the effects of polluted air, wa ter and streets. aimed at drawing in the participation of the shanty-dwellers to solve
They need safe energy sources for cooking and heating that reduce these problems. He offered transport tokens to adults, and books
air pollut ion and the risk of fire . san itati on systems to protect water and food to children, in exchange for bags of rubbish delive red to the
su ppl ies and reduce disease, drainage systems to reduce flooding local du mps . Soon t he fave las that had been strewn with festering
and publ ic transport to increase access . garbage were clea ned up and landscaped. The mostly unemployed
shanty·dwellers are now given opportunities to sell their own crafts
We need to find the techn ica l su pport and fund ing for affordable
and produce in spec ial ly built non·corporate shopping centres
infrastructures to service these areas, and to create partnerships to
introduced by the mayor. They can also obtain benefits such as food.
guide the improvement of their living condit ions . It is here that
rent. education and health care in exchange for their labour.
citizenship and participation can reap major rewards. Though only a
Production and the earnings from labour therefore stay within the
tiny proportion of the total. there are cases of shanty settlements
community. rather than chasing foreign goods.
that have displayed enough social cohesiveness and
resourcefulness to transform themselves into viable low-cost towns: Lerner's urban strategies are not limited to addressing the dire
laying their own drains, cables and water supplies and prioritising the problems of the shanty towns, but reach across the whole of Curitiba
order in which improvements are implemented. Most importantly, with a wide spectrum of initiatives. Twenty years ago. Curitiba had
this approach has allowed the individual communities to create the half a square metre of open space per citizen. TOday, after a
unique living conditions that respond to their particular cultural and systematic programme of landscaping. it has a hundred times more.
2 2
economic needs. In the absence of a fairer distribution of wealth. the as well as a network of pedestrian and cycle routes. Lerner has
58 59
best way of helping squatter settlements is to encourage self·help by sought to shape the rapid development of the city around its public
providing technical leadership. low·cost fund ing and po litical support. transport syste m. The contrast between Curitiba and Sao Paulo is
striking. Sao Paulo, the th ird largest and third most pol luted city in
.J.
th e world. is an unbroken mass of buildings punctuated in eve ry
direction by high-rise towers: it is constantly grid locked and pollution
levels are dramatic; and the city appears to have no centre, no
diversity and no urban coherence .
The e)(traord inary prob lems of the informal settle ments of the urban
poor should be tackled from with in the community and. as in
.... s
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,
;, .' ~
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... - ~ •
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3 Arch itecture emerged fr om mankind's need for she lter. It soon became
a funda mental expression of technological skill and of spiritual and
social objectives, The history of architecture documents humanity's
ingenuity. its sense of harmony and values: it is a profound reflection
of the complex motives of individuals and societies.
, to be both informed and prescriptive about quality. DOth spaMUy ona culturallv. each individual building that defines the public realm. a seamless
and constantly changing sequence of spaces - the city·s signature.
,
6. The profession too must define an ethical stance. The requirement 6.
We feel this in the compressed spaces of walled cities. where we are
for architecture to contribute to social and environmental
led through narrow alleys, then streets, eventually to emerge into the
sustainability now charges architects with responsibilities that go
drama of an expansive civic place: or in more open cities like Bath.
whose circuses. crescents and squares define more pure and
generous geometric volumes. Even across the grid of New York.
there is a chequerboard pattern of interconnected public spaces.
from the 'vest-pocket' Paley Park to Rockefeller Plaza and the
magn ificent Central Park.
Let me give some examples to illustrate how the public realm can
inform the shape and concept of a building. In 1984. we entered (and 3
71
lost) the competition to design an extension to the National Gallery in
London. We began by extending our survey well beyond the designated
site. which had lain derelict since the war. To our surprise. we found that
thi s small site he ld the key to un locking the isolation of Trafalgar Squa re
- once the heart of the Empire. now a polluted tourist trap encircled by
Natlon..1 G.. II.. " traffic. Isolated from the everyday public life of the city. it is only on the
competition
f/'C"imJ RI1jJ~'6 Panfoe<S"'p rare occasions when it hosts rallies, demonstrations or celebrations
.. The sm,,11 Site 51\5 IJetl\,<)CII that it regains its civic role. We proposed to reintegrate it by creating a
t.. o IrnPQft80t public places:
""lional Galle'y!'te
Tral~lgar and Le.cester pedestrian route from Trafalgar Square to Leicester Square. through the
SQUareS, Conoo,w.. tho S,tO
oJ ~ "' ~'su" and physrcal The linking of the two squares became the driving concept of the
CO<"Inoctron, The pUl)t>C route
l.r9Came an rnlPOrtBnt oel,n,"I project. We proposed an open flight of public stairs that descended
!!I~nt olt~e hnal des,,,,,
from Leicester Square. passing through our National Gallery
• .. TN> >'lew towardS NelloOn's
Co-urnn Irom beocath the lou, extension (taking up almost half of the ground floor) and connecting
st<)lcy.hilth u,·OO<c,o/t 01 thO
prOllOS<l<l Ga lle' y e. tens,on to Trafalgar Square through a generous galleria beneath the busy
)oM 00<1<11
roadway. To mark this new route and signal the public entrance of the
.. The proPOseo '. 1""",,*
tOl'oW· 5rgnllis tI, e l1 ew P\Jblic extens ion we proposed a view ing tower situated at the entrance of
,oute to Leicester Square al1 d
o. lances the fcloiLOnsh p 01 th e stai rs. The tower ba lanced the beautifu l spire of 5t Mar tin·s in
t~w e's around tI, e mo,n
ent,a nce to tl,e Natio nal th e Fie lds and created a symmetrica l composition of vert ica ls flank-
Ga ll ery.
.kJlmDO<1lJl ing the National Gal lery, reinforcing it s hOrizonta lity and it s focus on
Nelson·s co lumn. Thus t wo independent. but cruc ial. pub lic places
were physically woven together, a new route was created and a new
balanced composition established in the square, all by one relatively
small building .
down from the streellevel and ringed with cafes. exhibition spaces.
T""yo ForlOm comp. tttfon
restaurants. cinemas and shops. The project evoked Japan's RIc/lIlff' ROiefS PiKfrtCrsll,p
shipbu il ding trad ition and its rema rkable industrial ab ility. ~ ~ p,oposed r>ew !wcnf)'IOUf
hO ur meeting place 101 the
[)Cople 01 ToI<)'O 1\ majOf
These two very public projects show how bu ildings can interact with O<lel1$I('" 01 tlHl pub li c rcalrn
crcnt c'<l by susporxl lng tl'"
the publ ic domain. When bui ldings contribute to the pub lic rea lm, tn ree s,a nt haf ls ,n oroo , t o
gill(l tile eot lle Weet I ,-",~ I
they encou rage peo ple to meet and co nverse, They engage the O'>'er to PlJbtK: use,
Draw ing showing the ha ll s
passer-by. They st imulate rathe r than re press people ' s natura l suspcnOco li ke shIpS III dry
doc~, The mu n, Hlyel
human potential. They humanise the city. stre-etscapo provides occess
10 ,estuu,ur>IS, culh , , ,,lIerOes
u,1(! e .llIb~ lOn$,
As well as framing public life. buildings serve the specific needs of
the people who use them . This raises the practical Question of how
to design buildings to keep pace with people's requirements.
Modern life is changing much faster than the buildings that house it.
A building that is a financial market today may need to become an
office in five years and a university in ten. So buildings that are easy
to modify will have a longer useful life and represent a more efficient
use of resources. But designing flexibility of use into our buildings
3 inevitably moves architecture away from fixed and perfect forms.
74 Classical architecture. for e){ample. derives its beauty from its
harmonious composition: nothing can be added to it , nothing taken
away. But wil en society demands bu ild ings capab le of responding to
changing requ irements, then we must provide flexibil ity and sea rch
for new forms that express beauty within adaptabil ity.
The scale of a building is defined not by its size alone, but by the Peop4e draw people
articulation of its parts. To reduce the apparent bulk of this large • Putlhc spaces • • tend trom
the poau" <loCI;rO$& the t~_
building. we created a facade that would catch and sculpt the light. It I;real.rg a ""'ft, tIered pubhc
dOmaIn.
is a layered fal;ade, not a wall but a series of transparent screens R<C/IIJITJ f)ml6 - Arc~1d
and metal structures. with terraces and balconies, one behind the .. The putllic "'1I1~.."i!yS
and
escalators.;Yaw ""Sftors 10 lhe
other. In order to create a building that could be altered dramatically f,o"t door, of gallefies and
gove d, amaue vlIIWti of Pans
3 in unpredictable ways and still retain its coherence. we designed a kit and lha poSlla.
RiCIoarCl e,m" - Afcald
76 of parts that could be assembled in different patterns: a stacked and
ever-changing medieval village rather than a neo-class ical temple.
Every gene ration needs to re invent its pub lic institutions and create
new ones. The Pompidou Centre was as mUCh an exploration of the
concept of an adaptable. pluralist institution as it was an architectural
exploration of fl exible space and fragmented arch itectural form. New
ideas require new forms, and this applies to buildings which house
our daily needs as well as our institutions, be they homes. offices.
universities. schools. hospitals or museums. Inflexible buildings
hinder the evolution of society by inhibiting new Ideas.
By contrast. history shows us that even our very best buildings can
be robustly modernised to respond to new needs. This can be done
by creating a dialogue between old and new; here I am thinking of
examples such as Scarpa's Castelvecchio in Verona or Norman 3
Foster's Sackler Gallery at the Royal Academy in London. When 7.
contemplating the history of a building such as the Louvre - which
has ex perie nced al mo st continuou s change for hu ndreds of yea rs yet
st ill reta ins its unity and speaks eloquent ly of every pass ing age - I
marvel at the continuum of cu lture that has produced its present
form, glass pyramid included. The work of I. M. Pei at the Louvre has
proved that the finer the building, the greater the need for high
quality response - quality of both thought and of execution.
In Britain. many of our cities revel in the contrast between med ieval,
Georgian and Gothic. There are subli me compositions, such as at
King'S Col lege. Cambridge. where the great Goth ic chape l th at once
stood alo ne in a meadow is now contrasted with classical bu ild ings:
bu ildings of one age proudly rising beside those of another. Superb
exa mples outside Brita in inc lude t he Piazza della Signoria in
Florence . where Vasari's classical Uffizi Gallery commun icates so
"'~~um .. l. tlon of c.. ltur.
power fully with the medieval splendour of the Palazzo Vecchio. Or in
Old anCI r"H!r,.,. 109<lU'-,er e rUH"i
Venice, where the effervescent Byzantine cathedral is framed by the a ~a.r monlou s C O mp')!~lOn of
complement ary archllO'Ctures
elegant classical arcades of the Piazza San Marco. All testify to the anCI Mld,"i new I fe 10 l he
CUltural heril age,
value of a courageous approach that embraces change.
... The pyramId al the Loo.Me.
I. M. Pe, lIIctr,U!CI.
Traditional aesthetics based on buildings conforming with their 5"'11"11 lIambourg
neighbours need to be challenged. In the disconnected forms of a "" KI ...·' Colle&e. Cambnd&e
street in Tokyo, where to a westerner the only apparent unifying visual
factors are the vertical sign age banners and electronic information
3
hoardings. which themselves are interrupted by the occasional
80
religious temple, a beauty emerges out of the apparent chaos. Is it a
sine qua non that we need protecting from the shock of the new?
TOday. we are letting our architectural heritage choke our future. The
departure of the British library from the famous Reading Room at
the British Museum. for example. offers an opportunity for
refocusing the entire institution on this beautiful domed room and
opening it up as a central public piazza. But scruples about changing
the use of an important heritage building threaten this obvious but
radical solution. We should not let the ghosts of the Reading Room
block the natural contact between people. and constrain the
reorganisation of our most prestigious cultural institution.
in the facto ry. The com pleted un it was t ransported by truck and " S,l. wo~ s ~ re rCd ucea to
asse mbl)' 01 preral>!lCated
erected by computer-controlled cranes . unl lS.
Shigeru Ban. using humble everyday materials and production .., 0118& let!
H&Wl& ,elected tne
techniques. The load-bearing systems of the walls, roofs and floors components of the aPllftmCflI.
II comPUH)' ITIOOeI c":'ales an
consisted of cardboard tubes made from layers of recycled paper. A Insl anl onSCfccn IliSU31,Sl1hon
10f the bUyer
house for four people can be erected in six hours. Since the
Each apannlefll 1$ labtocaled
successful application of this material in Kobe to provide housing kom a manulactUfed kn 01
N'lIe,ehlln&eatoie componentS
and a local church. UNHCR has funded further exploration of its use anemtoled on the h' Clo,y.
for refugee camps. In these situations basic machinery is flown in 1)'1>0::&1 ""en&ernem 01 unol~
8!OUrocl 8 eentfal lill co'e.
3 that can produce paper tubes in situ out of existing waste materials.
8.
I have been discussing how the public realm shou ld shape buildings
and how flexible bui ldings offer us new ways of organis ing our lives.
Emer''''''r h..... lnS projKt
w.ln, etanderG cerclboard
tu"-, , 11.0"-, Japan
Sh.'~'" BBtl, &rctmerJ
~ L,gh\w&lghl s\n.!C\", ai
oo mponc " ts "",,, "~St!)'
assemb le-d by uns.i lleU
wa ,kcrs . A sing le Tami ly
dwel ll" K lekes luSI sl. no urs
to COl1StruCI Rnd can
..... i lh51~nd hurrlca ne-Iorce
", i,, (l5.
/
HII O)'I'" Hlf o1l
The typical commercial office block, conce ived during an era when
the libe ral use of cheap ene rgy was th e accepted way of meeting
mode rn standards for work ing conditions. was des igned to create a
sealed interna l environment that operated despite, rathe r than in
conjunction with, the natura l environment. This high-energy approach
Working with na ture
led to t he creation of bu ildings with deep cross-sections and high ly
~ Au to nomo us house
artificia l inte rna l environments. T h~<se large, dense ly occup ied 'eS(!~rch rroje<:\
AsPO il. CorOiado . 1978.
floo rs . together with the inte ns ive use of computers and other Rogers Palsceill,e
machines , generate vast amounts of heat, requ iring powerfu l
equipment to extract the hot. stale ai r and pum p in fresh, chi ll ed,
filtered and hu m idified air. In addition , the windows are so fa r from
3 most peop le's desks that they need ar tificial lighti ng th roughout the
88 day. The result is an energy-guzzli ng environment tha t iso lates
peop le from nature. disconnects the m from the life of the city and
gro ss ly poll ut es the environ ment.
Changi ng our t echno logies and our expect ations can dramaticall y
red uce the ene rgy cons um pt ion of a bu ild ing - and ha lving the ene rgy
used by bu ildings wou ld reduce overa ll global energy consum pti on by
a qu arter. At home and in old bu ildings, f or example, we read ily
t olerat e se aso nal t emperat ure va riat ion s. If t oday's office users ,
instead of ins isti ng on a year-round temperature of 20°C, we re also
Inland Revenue competition t o accept m ild seasonal vari ations , the building cou ld be opened up
proposal, 199:
Ricn,,,d Rogv rs P,III[)NSnip to the out side environ ment and its reliance on ai r-cond ition ing
.. The rool prof ile ,s sign ificant ly red uced , The se practices can redu ce ene rgy
,lream lin M to er>:: our6ge
prev31 1" 'B w'ods to draw "i, consu mption yet sti ll provide a controlled environment. Arch itects
(}(It of the building. thus
r ed uc i n ~ t he need fo r are now relying less on 'active ' high-ene rgy tec hno logica l solutions
mech an ica l _ent,I"1<O n.
Landscaped enc losures f ilte r and are begi nning t o ex plore ' pass ive ' tech nologies wh ich use
arod hu midify f rDs ll air before it
ent ers the build irlt:. ren ewable energy harnesse d from natu ral reso urces SUCll as plant s,
EnmOHn O 'Mill>Olly
wind, sun, eart h and water,
.. Sect .on sllowin~ oir
movement dU ri ng Surnm er.
In a competiti on brief for an In land Revenue bu ilding in Nott ingham
a low-energy bu ilding was specified, We re sponded by investigati ng
all the means avail ab le in nature for producing a tempe rate
environment witll OUt reso rti ng to mechan ical syste ms and high-
energy consu mption, Two sides of the site were pol luted and no isy.
However, the other sides bordered a quiet canal. so we pushed the
bu ilding t o the edge of the ro ads and opened up a small public
garden beside the cana l. We placed the bas ic admini stration aga inst
the road. with soc ial funct ions and comm una l f acil it ies nest li ng
aro und th e new ga rd en at th e cana l fron t.
The adm inistration building was prot ected from the pollution and noise
of the road by a metre-wide double-glazed wa ll, into wh ich windows
could be opened for ventilation. Between the two buildings we created
a landscaped courtyard rather like a small ravine . The two rows of 3
buildings were linked across this gently curving landscape by glazed 91
bridges. This courtyard was not on ly the visual focu s of the buildings .
but also produced a micro-d ima!e that conditioned the ext ernal air
used to vent ilate the bu ildings. An average tree, for example, absorbs
ca rbon dioxide. gives off oxygen. transpires 380 litres of water a day
and purifies the air in its vicinity. In summer. trees give shade, limit
heat·gain from the sun and reduce glare into bu ildings. Trees together
with water. shrubs and plants compose a landscape that filters
pollution. humidifies and cools the air.
"' Wind 1..,,,,,,1Insl lngoT&If The roof profil e can be shaped to respond and in some cases trap
movc mcnl un(IQ' I)rO ~D i l l ng
""M cond itions . preva ili ng winds. In certain climates and cond it ions th is can increase
.. Rcnro P,ano is ~ulkll"i a the natu ral draw of air out of t he bu ild ing and produce comfortable
cu llu,e l centre 'n N",",'
Ca ledonia, Tho IOfms &ro environmental conditions without the need for high-energy
dest,ned to ,espond to Ihe
local Climatic cond lions of mechanical cooling systems.
1'>e81 and tnle<>SCI hum<d<lr 111<1
result is a SetM:!' 01 fool and
buiWj'n& p!ofilCS tNt arC Law courts that we are designing in the ci ty cen tre of Bordeaux apply
deSIgned 10 snade. cool and
enSOJ'f! 8 constant flow Of similar principles of natural ventilation in a hot European climate.
"",nldat'on In the pUllhc areas
M.~e The need for good circulation of fresh air in the courtrooms
influenced the design of their shape. They function and look rather
like oast-houses: letting air in from below and light but little heat
through a sma ll efficient skylight. Heat from the sun at the top of the
courts increases the stack effect and generates enough air
3
movement to dispense with mechanical fans. Before the air enters
93
the courtrooms it crosses an external pool and is cooled and
humidified . The public hall in wh ich the seven co urtrooms stand is
Law tou.t ., Bo.daaua,
F.anca, 1992-98
RIcMra Rosers Partr1(lrshlp
3
94
shaded but fully glazed. It ove rlooks the pool and beyond it th e great ,
medieva l cathedral. The hal l draws its air acro ss the poo l, but also
cool energy from constant-temperature groundwater which is
,
circulated through heat-exchangers. This nat ural air·condit ioning
system is part of an architectural composition that provides views
and reflections for those inside and that can also be seen and
enjoyed by those on the outside.
The 'cool energy' of night air can be stored in the internal structure
of a building. The lIoyd's of London Market building. for example.
has both a glazed triple skin for insulation and an exposed internal Lloyd '. of London
concrete ceiling that absorbs cool energy overnight and sheds it RlChar(l Ragers Paa""rship
R. .pon.i~ • ... In •
... Chameleon
Mel< M ..,;Cnoe
.. InsulatIon. IratlSparency
and shadIng _1 <occord,,,& 10
season. !lme lind U$eI ne<:ds.
hpetlOleOlal researCll.
M'~9 D;Mes ""'Neel
3
101
"
4 For fou r cent uries London has been one of the world's most powe rful
financial. commercial and cultural centres. The legacy of this power
and prosperity can be seen throughout the city: in Its architecture,
parks. squares, museums and public institutions. Even today London
is rivalled only by New York in terms of extent and diversity of
economic and cultural activity. But London since the early 1980s has
failed to convince even its own citizens that it can offer a healthy.
secure and humanising environment: a sobering contrast to the
London of the early 1930s that gave my Italian parents and many
others political refuge. and was universally respected for its civility.
This was a great achievement . considering that only fifty years earlier
... jXC\-iOOS o.1g<!
london ""0. London had been the worst slum city of the industrialised world :
LOndOt'l Q\Ie' whelnlod by 5l'f\08 overcrowded. polluted and ridden with disease, a city in which life
d ~r "i io IlUtlI,C u~nSPOn
s :~kc. l on(lOn II !\OW 'ce ularly expectancy was barely twenty-five years. In 1883 the clergyman
S/1,OUded In "'1)I"1e io" PQlIUhon
tnan belo,e me CleM AIr k1 Andrew Mearns gave a vivid account of the urban slums of Victorian
01 1956 banned coal fi'es
iJeClIU&e of trle IpnlOOS London: 'You grope your way along dark and filthy passages swarming
Lon(jQn folt-
S"an ~M"'S 1ndr!1X',1(lt~11 with vermin. Then. if you are not driven back by the intolerable stench.
you may gain admittance to the dens in which these thousands of
beings herd together often two families in each room.'
4
105
Public outcry, campaigns in the press and irrepressible Victorian self.
con fid ence propelled the transformat ion of the ci ty. achieved thro ugh
inspi red plan ning legislation and til e creation in 1889 of the LCC.
This pionee rin g app roach to the management of London's ad ministration is in disarray. Tak ing contro l of th e city's destiny will
environment survived unti l 1985. when the Conservat ive requi re wides pread involve ment in the debate about London's fu ture .
government. rather than attempting to reform the Greater London An elected authority accountable to Londoners is essential : only
Council (GLC), successor to the Lee. abolished it in an act of such a body can provide an administrative framework capable of
politically motivated spite. The GLC's abolit ion meant that its implementing positive change, and enable all citizens to contribute
responsibilities, most crucially the overall strategic planning for to the development of an overall strategic plan for their city'S future.
London, was then divided between five government departments, A new London authority needs to learn from past experience. Much
thirty-two London boroughs. the City of London. and some sixty of the day-tcx1ay adm inistration should remain with the individual
committees and quangos. boroughs and under the scrutiny of local people, but decisions on
The first modern European capital with an elected authority is now such strategic issues as metropolitan transport, housing. the public
the only capital without one . Londoners have no elected realm. culture. education. waste and recycling. pollution and taxation
representation. no direct say in their city's affairs, no foil to counter should be made by the elected body representing the entire ci t y.
the development of the city for profit alone . London continues to be Ultimately. there should be a hierarChy of decision.making that
transform ed by urban policies designed to empower the ma rket progresses from the citizen to the neighbou rh ood, to the borough , to
rath er than its citizens . Wit h no ove rall co-ord ination, London is the city, to the regio n and final ly to the international scale.
fail ing to safeguard th e qua lity of life of its citizens and it s publiC I propose to use Londo n as a case study to demonstrate that the
transport system, and has shown itself incapable of even competing transformation of British cities is possible. London is at a turning point
with other British cities to host international event s. London lost its in its history, and our generation has the opportunity of transforming it
sense of unity, direction and pride. Rudderless and polluted. this into one of the most habitable and civilised cities in the world.
great city's futur e hangs in the balance.
As a society. we are shamefully ignorant of the positive impact that
Elsewhere. city authorities have sought to manage change for the architecture and the design of cities can have on our lives. We need
benefit of the citizen by vigorously investing in the future. by to make far-reaching changes in our approach to the built
strengthening the public domain and embarking on ambitious environment, and should be prepared to legislate for them.
programmes of urban regeneration. Th is has meant investment in Education is one important component in remedying this situation.
state-of-the-art public transport and new cultural institutions. and and a new system of participatory planning is essential. We need to
promoting the development of mixed-use neighbourhoods. establish new institutions where different interests involved in
Throughout Europe, in fact, there is an emphasis on renewing urban planning can meet. Just as the Victorians built public libraries to
4
culture and improving the quality of urban life. tackle illiteracy. so we should build Architecture Centres to involve 4
106 107
London's lacklustre attitude towards planning its future provides a and inform citizens , architects . planners and developers in deSigning
stark contrast. London con ti nues to develop without participation or the city to meet the needs of future generations.
guid ing vision, a situation worse ned by the fa ct that its civic
during the boom of the 1980s it was quite co mmon for companies
Arch itectu re Centres shou ld be the venue for public debates on
t o seek to recoup the ir investment in as littl e as fou r yea rs. Inevitably
st rategic plans. arc hi tect ural competit ions and p lanning
many comme rcia l planning app lications are for single-function
applications. These local centres shou ld exhib it adaptable worki ng
comp lexes such as retail, hous ing. offices or light ind ustry:
mode ls of the borough and its neighbo urh ood. they shou ld hold
deve lopment s that mere ly meet an immediate com mercial de mand.
lectures. exhibit ions and courses about the city. its architecture and
The comm unity's longe r-term need for pub lic space and mixed
its ecology. Plann ing comm ittees shou ld include ci tizens an d
funct ion is ign ored, and with it t he chance t o create living
spec ial ists in all fields of urban des ign, because we need to focus
neighbou rh oods, sust ainab le co mm un it ies.
the energy of all those with a stake in th e urb an environment on
j oint ly tac kli ng the problems of the city. At th ese centres the cit izen The resu lt of the market-l ed approach was most clearly illustrated by
co uld me et the deve lope rs and t he plann ing com m ittee its the re development of t he defunct dock lands on the Isle of Dogs,
electorat e. In effect they would need to be 'e lectron ic town ha lls', whe re an extrao rdinary act of central government inte rvention
both multi-med ia forum s and physica l meeting places, providing rem oved cont rol of t he area's deve lop ment fr om t he loca l
interaction and access to a broad range of informat ion - a veh icle for aut horit ies. In its place t he Lon don Docklands Deve lopment
the cit izen to learn and to ensu re that the planning profess ions serve Corporatio n (LDDC) was established, statuto ry pla nn ing regulations
the needs of the public, were suspended and tax incentives put in place to encou rage
deve lopment. Crucia ll y, t he nat ure of the deve lopment was
' Real ising the unt apped wealth of knowledge and ideas wh ich lie
encouraged t o respo nd sole ly t o market demand.
within th e citizenr y is the key to so lving urban problems A t apping of
th is wea lth not only pro pels the city designers into unthought·of The result is an over-abundance of office space, a haphazard mix of
regions of ideas but se rves the cru cial purpose of ass uring the commercial development, clumps of offices inte rmi xed with clusters
citi zens th at thei r ideas and knowledge are an integral part of the of ho using. It is unsust ainable development without rea l civic quality
sol ution. This approac h is more than pa rtici pati on and cons ultat ion; or lasting co mm una l benefit. The money centra l gove rnment spent
it is co-ope ratio n, and co-o pe ration reduces tension.' The architect indi rectl y to encourage th is development made it an extreme ly
Brian Anson writes he re from expe rience, havi ng champio ned expens ive fiasco fo r the taxpayer, who subs idised big business but
citizens' rights aga inst the prope rty develope rs in Covent Ga rd en in had no say in how the money was spent. Government gave mass ive
the 1960s . deve lopment t ax rel ief to big business and also had to pay the lion 's
sha re of infrastructu re costs. Instead of ga ining a vibrant and humane
From the early 1980s central gove rn ment effectively excluded this
new borough that wou ld have taken its place within the larger
type of par ticipatory. planned approach in favou r of a market-led
framewor k of the metropolis and enriched the poorer comm unities in 4
4 approach th at waits for develo pers to select sites and apply for
its Vicinity, Londoners acqui red a chaos of commerc ial buildings and 109
108 plan ning permission. The market drive is profit. Thi s app ro ach te nds
the City footed the bill for one of the most spect acular bankr uptcies
to favou r out-of-town sites or fie lds on the edge of t he green belt,
of the 1990s. Iron ical ly for the govern ment, ba nkers and Londoners,
where land is cheap and whe re investment can be written off quickly:
had there been a ba lance of offices, homes. schools, shops and
socia l amenities . the Isle of Dogs wou ld have been less affected by
the crash in the office market.
In tandem with planning for build ings and open spaces . an overall
strategic plan co-ord in ates envi ron mental po lic ies - po lic ies to he lp
stream li ne the ' metabol ism · of London by red uci ng its consu mption
O""m·llnd·bu st comme rci al
pl anning of energy and resources . recyc li ng its waste, reusing its spent
• C~ " "'Y W~ a1! , l onOOfl energy, reduci ng its po ll ution of ai r, land and wa ter. In environ ment al
London ~alll(!<.l 8 majO(
COf"Ce,,(ra!ion ot commc rC'DI terms London is one of the least sustainable cities in Europe. A
ottice space but coolQ hIM!
gajned a (hnv 'Ii mixed recent report carried out by Herber t Girardet , Professor of
commun(y
CC>'>lIJd Syl<cs /IIdcpc'''1cm Environmental Planning at Middlesex University, lists London ·s
.. L";5S<!,la"c l>arn"I1I!' massive consumption of resources, among them: in one year the
commetC,al ou,kI,ngs. '011(15
anti leh """', 5paces. equivalent of 110 supertanker loads of oil. 1.2 million tons of timber.
Pel'" Sa'5/0W
1.2 million tons of metal, 2 million tons each of food. plastics and
paper. and 1 billion tons of water: in return the clty's production of
waste in a year includes 15 million tons of rubbish. 7.5 million tons
of sewage and 60 million tons of carbon dioxide. In all. though
London covers just 400.000 acres it requires nearly 50 million acres 4
to provide it with resources and absorb its waste. Herbert Giradet 111
puts it very clearly: 'Although [London ] contains only 12 per cen t of
Britain's populat ion, it re quires an area equ iva lent to all the
country's productive land to service it - though th is extends to the the powde r keg of the city. Nearly all city planni ng of recent ti mes has
wheat pra iries of Kansas, the tea ga rd ens of Assam, the coppe r concentrat ed on the core. Th is is an eno rmous fallacy and possib ly
mines of Zambia and oth er far-flung places.' a recipe for disaste r. The t rickle-down theory simply does not work.'
Like all major cities, London presents an environment al th reat to the As Lon don has spread out and its industries have deserted the cit y.
ecology of the ea rth Reducing urba n consumption, waste and huge disparit ies of wealth have resu lted . In Britain til e gap between
po llution is centra l to combating the environmenta l crisis and rich and poor is the widest in Europe: the richest 1 per cent own 18
provides the basis for the creation of a healthy and efficient quality per cent of the nation 's wea lth. a situation t hat provokes both
of city life The importance of implementi ng an ove ra ll strat egic plan despa ir and crime Though London is one of the richest cities in the
for London wh ich incorporates architectu ral, env ironmenta l, world it has seven of th e ten most deprived boroughs in the country,
transport and social criteria cannot be overestimated. most of them in east London. Five per cent of inner London is
In the sho rt te rm London must consol idate rather tha n expand dere li ct: large stretc hes of Wandsworth, Vauxha ll , Greenwich,
furthe r. As in industrial ised cities al l over the world. London's Shepherd's Bush, Lambeth, Hoxton, Waterloo and King'S Cross.
industries have departed, its doc ks have been abandoned. many of These deso lat e, often contam inated wastelands are a social haza rd
its neighbourhood s have co ll apsed, and yet pollut ion and congestion as we ll as an environmen ta l blight. They are ugly and al ienating for
have increased, Over the last thirty years. ce ntral London has lost those who live on thei r peripheries , Though the remed iat ion costs
almost a th ird of its popu latio n and 20 per cent of its jobs, more than dissuade mark et·led redevelopment, t hey offer magnif icent
any other maj or capital in Europe. But wh ile the city popu lation has opportunity f or growth t hat would regenerate existing co mm un it ies
decli ned. the populat ion of outer London has inc reased, sprawli ng and underpin the futu re susta inabi lity of the capita l.
outwa rd s in an ever-wideni ng circle. London, some thi rty miles wide Hist orically, London. un li ke t he walled cit ies of it s Eu ropean
in 1945, is now served by a commute r be lt 200 miles wide counterparts, developed around a multitude of centres, and it is stil l
stretching from Cambridge to Southampton, and is the largest and a collection of distinct towns and vill ages - Hampstead to
most complex urban region in Europe, Westminster, Notting Hi ll to Li mehouse - eac h with its own loca l
Brian Anson has desc ribed London's pred icament: 'London like so cha ract er. visua l identity and history. Inst ead of al lowing London t o
many cities has an internat ional ly known core, an inner ring, and an sprawl, and this po lycentric pattern to erode, we should active ly
oute r ring tending t o a green belt. Whi lst the city's core suffers from re inforce these neighbourhoods as compact, susta inable nuc lei
problems of pol lutio n and congestion it is the inner ring in wh ich the John Gum mer, the Secreta ry of St at e for the Environment between
poor and disadvantaged are trappe d. They can 't escape to the oute r 1993 and 1997, introduc ed ra dica l new po licy guidel ines. In
4
ring no r afford the faci lit ies of the inner core. It is here that the poor part icula r Pub li c Po li cy Guidance 13 est ab li shes a strategic 4
112 113
have pus hed out by gentrification and it is here that socia l services prefe rence for increas ing inner·city development densities and
such as hospita ls, schools and transpo rt have been reduced. This is focusing deve lopment on ex isti ng, ofte n po lluted inner-city sites
before allow ing deve lopment of fur ther green fie ld sites. It also cal ls
for the co-ord ination of development with public transpo rt to reduce
Green bell
Urban renewal projects target London's areas of poverty
dependence on privat e ca r use . These pol icies wil l pot entia lly
reve rse the tide of sprawl and consolidate London·s po lycentric - -- -- .
structu re of co mpact neighbo urhoods They represen t a sea change
in Briti sh plann ing and need to be applied in the loca l authorities with
/
Epping Forest
conviction and fla ir.
-- -. - -
Gre ater Londo n'
,
Along t he Thames. fro m Woo lwich in the east to Brentford in the west, •,
London has vast areas of dere lict industrial land th at cou ld help meet
the capita l's huge pred icted demand fo r hous ing. These abandoned
,
docklands and industrial sit es provide a new gene rat ion witll tile ideal , ,,
opportu nity to reinst ate the ri ver as the focus of London life.
Int ernational architects and - planners of th e highest ca libre shou ld ,
be invited to prep are flex ible mast erplans - incl uding envi ronmental
,-
im pac t ana lysis - that cover maj o r de re lict areas due fo r
redeve lopment. If, for exa mple, the large groups of empty sites
bordering the Thames were subject to flexible masterplann ing studies
A social plan of London
their eventua l re deve lopment would creat e import ant add itions to the
J. Diagram show,ng how
public realm. be it as esplanades, a series of distinct pa rk s along the poveny is con~c ntrcl1C d in the
inhe r ring between the niSlori c
river or s imply fine compoSitions of bu ild ings and s paces. The com and sub urban
du,,, 'opoT'{) nls .
coherence and beaut y of the whole wo uld be the object of the plan,
J. Lr>rxl r>r' has 14 ol lh e 20
without sacrifici ng th e flexibil ity of any pa rticu lar deve lopment. pooresl boroughs in Engl" ",)
.-
create long-term qu al ity in the city - wh ic h is why it is the pub lic·s
,
4
114 res ponsibility to ensu re coherent plann ing. Plann ing fo r the fu ture of
Londo n requi res govern ment d ire ction, the procu rement of the best
-,
-,, 1
des igne rs and th e active invo lvemen t of the c itizen.
o 10km
East London, which contai ns the greatest concentration of poverty
and dereliction, must be a particular subject of the strategic plan. It
is here that London will become inseparably linked to Europe through
the international rail network , and the commercial significance of this
link can hardly be exaggerated - think of the effect that Heathrow
airport has had on London's expansion to the west. Growth to the
east will inevitably take place, it is up to us to manage it for the long- " , u, t al ... b •• IM'y• •"".... nl
, . ..... wo.k . ppli... to
term needs of London, And when London needs to expand further, '.,. .....1' ' ndu . lrlal land
then this should be in large self-contained urban clusters connected G._ nwich ~ . nin "" a
loll_ I • • Pla n , 1996
to new public high-speed transport links , RICJI8ffJ Rogers Parfnetsh,p
sites, and making a conce rted renaissance of the city, Tile publ>c InlfaStllXtu rc wi l l
inelU<le <)\Ie r 50 IICre! of p ubt"
open spaoe, pa/l<.S, Squares
Peter Hall, Professor of Urban des ign at the London Schoo l of 000 . ivc.wnlk, roadS, Slfw t s
n~d))l.lbloc ut" ,MS. n l(! forst
Economics , presents sta rtl ing figures for housing demand in South- P!18$(!S Of devclop""m t 1'.'011
see 3,000 Mousi ~g units of
east England: 'Just under 7 million of us live in London now; another w!l4ch one qua.ter will be
'8nosted'.
11.5 million live in the South East beyond the M25: that is 18.5 Rrel1lJt'!1 08 .....5
ind ustry has now reached the point which the tobacco industry .. Cycl ing In Lond oo is fr augnt
l'ir l h d"n~er tro m congesti on
reached th irty years ago: 'The health dimension is now cha nging the and pol lution. Nor IS th is
he lped b~ th e f act th at
nature of the debat e.' London 's pub lic bu s system is
di e s~ l · fu e l · ed arl d contriootcs
si g ni f i ca n t l ~ t o t he poo r ai ,
But the mot or vehic le is not Just a problem because of the po lluti on qu ollty on its roods
I
chi ldren now cycle to school, compared 83 per cent in Holland . And,
as if pollution and congestion were not bad enough in th emse lves.
the Confederati on of British Ind ustry esti mates that in 1995 alon e
traffic congestion cost London £15 bil lio n in wasted ene rgy and time .
decrease in users from 404,000 in 1956 to 251.000 in 1996. The Qualify 01 hIe In the
nc~ Is directly
rele~ed 10 Ihe number and
Yet in recent years major public transport initiatives have been QUIII.ly 01 publIC: irnClvcnllons:
SQUares, par1\s. Ie.SUt8,
shunned. The Department of Transport's spending priorities have cu~ura. snooprng and publo:::
trlln$PQlt
illustrated this perfectly: 97 per cent of its budget has gone on road
.. Ovc~appr"" ten-mlniItC
transport and only 2 per cent on railways , Compare a 1930s Cili chmeni lon<:$ 10 IIIe
nearest ur'lde'8'ound Sl8toon.
4 underground map with one of the 1990s and you will see that they Arcas In block .nOo:::atc lack of
Q\I\lfl8l)l)in8 serYICe.
122 are basically the same: with the belated exception of the Jubilee Line
extension. new lines . such as the Chelsea line or Crossrail, continue
to be delayed or si mply abandoned. The London Transport cha irman
Peter Ford has recent ly stated that the 1997 budget cuts wil l have employers (with th e no rm al subs idies for senior citizens and people
the effect of increas ing the £1.2 bill ion back log by £300 m illion a who are unemployed or on low inco mes continu ing). Residents and
year for the next th ree years. Necessary upgrad ing of th e Northern, wo rkers who paid the tax wou ld receive a yea rly· travel card. whi le
District and Piccadil ly lines wil l be de layed, and modern isat ion visitors would st ill need to buy t ickets in the us ual way. As public
projects for st ati ons at Elephant & Castle, Oxford Circus or Notting trans por t would be effective ly free at the po int of use to all
Hill Gate are si mply be ing shelved. taxpayers, travelli ng by ca r would begin to be perce ived as a luxury.
This would enco urage people off th e roads. Even the 24 pe r cent
Ac ross the Channel, cities as diverse as Naples. Strasbourg and
decrease in fare prices in the 1983 GLC 'Fa re's Fai r' initiative
Athens are add ress ing congestion and pol lution with far more
inc reased pub lic transpor t"s passenge r m iles by 16 per ce nt and
courage and vis ion than London. Here, although we may have
reduced commuting by car. Reducing car traffic makes buses faste r
defined the prob lem accurat ely. t he government has been
and more efficient and encourages cyc lists. The sho rt -t erm increase
unaccountab ly re luctant to implement solutions that are well within
in demand co uld be eased by the pu rch ase of more buses wh ile long·
ou r tec hno logical and organisationa l co mpetence. Fo r example,
t erm public transport proj ects such as trams, light ra il and
Londone rs who buy small-engine ca rs with catalytic conve rters - or,
underground lines are bui lt.
better sti ll, electric cars - sho uld be given tax benefits. Road pricing
sho uld be introduced t o dete r cro ss-town t raffic; re search suggests The des ign of neighbourly cities star t s with integrated transport
that th is might bring about a 30 pe r cent reduction in traffic, but only syste ms . London needs a strategy that co-ordinates all
if the re were para lle l improvements to publ ic t ransport. transpor t ation syst ems: from th e private to th e pub lic. from the
riverbus to the tram and from new tube lines to bicycle paths. The
Increas ingly, London bo roughs are mak ing life harder for the motorist
viabil ity of the whole system and each component shou ld be
by ca lm ing traffic. enforc ing parking restrict ions and inc reas ing
evaluat ed in ecological and socia l term s, not j ust in terms of its
parking charges. Privatising th e t ask of enforce me nt has created a
profita bility. Trave l by ca r is currently cheap beca use it is subs idised
huge incre ase in revenue from fines. The City of Westminste r is
by the taxpaye r. The ind irect costs of motoring - the bu ild ing and
us ing these resources to finance improvements t o the publ ic real m.
maintenance of roads. the subs idies for company cars, th e long-term
But pol icies that Si mp ly restrict the use of private cars wi thout ta king
da mage caused by po llut ion, the disr uption to the local commun ity.
correspond ing action to improve pub lic transport merely increase th e
the ill hea lth - are si mply not reflected in the cost of ca rs or petro l.
cost of mob ility and reduce the efficiency of Londoners. The
govern ment must make mobi lity affordable: ave rage ticket prices on We are used to being told tha t large-scale expend itu re on public
London ·s pub lic transport are now 25 pe r cent more than th ose in transpo rt is unjust ifiable. But t here are econom ists of al l po litical
4 Paris and twice those in Madrid. persuas ions who reject th is notion. An effective publ ic transpor t 4
124 infrastructu re wil l be usefu l to soc iety fo r decades, poss ibly 125
Free publ ic transpo rt for al l Londoners - why not? Services could be
centuries t o come. Its cos t must be measured against the long·t erm
partia lly financed by a metropol itan tax levied on residents and
benefit to the city, it s workforce and its fam ilies. Good pub lic
transport wil l make London more compet it ive and energy effic ient.
and Londoners more mobile and healthier. And it can make our city
more neighbourly and more beautiful.
Cities are first and foremost the meeting-place of people. Yet a large
proportion of London's public domain, including almost all its streets
and squares, are now dominated by the motor vehicle: these are
places designed to respond to the needs of traffic and marred
visually by its signage. Grand spaces like Parliament Square.
Piccadilly Circus. Trafalgar Square, Hyde Park Corner and Marble
Arch have all been overwhelmed by cars. The situation is even worse
in local centres such as Hammersmith. Shepherd'S Bush, Brixton.
Dalston or the Elephant & Castle.
Central to the scheme was ou r propo sal to re-route tra ffic on the
Embankment in order to create a new rivers ide park stretch ing from
Parliament to Blackfriars where pedestrians cou ld fu lly enjoy the
Thames . Th is wou ld conso li date London's finest rive rside and its
exist ing mature gardens, creating a sweeping two·kilomet re li nea r
park - the first great park since the ninetee nth cen tu ry. The park
cou ld spill out ont o the ri ve r: moored sh ips, pontoons and
boardwalks cou ld link the many mon uments and sights of London,
extending the public domain onto t he rive r and creati ng new views.
London as it Co .. ld Be, 1986
This project remain s on the drawing board . Richard Rogers Partnership
which cuts it off the from t he Nationa l Ga ll ery. Thi s cou ld be done .. Aerial view of cent ral
Londo n.
to morrow by re direct ing th e traffic flow at the top of Wh itehal l. The Aerofilms
former ro ad cou ld become a new te rr ace for pub lic sculptu re, and the
square would be liberat ed for the rest of London. Trafalga r Square
itsel f cou ld be remode lled to accommodate cafes and activities in an
arcade tucked be low the existing t errace . The resu lt would be a
4
128 vibrant meeting place for Londoners and a place to enjoy outsta nding
views of t he tu rret s, domes and towers of White hall and th e Pa lace
of Westmin ster. Ten years after our original proposa ls, the idea was
it
Look at any satell ite image of the cap ital: it is the Thames th at
dominates . Historically, the river is the very reason for London's
existence . Once a thriving commercial highway serving the heart of
the city, today it lies deserted. its presence in the city insignificant.
The Thames. alongside which so many of Britain's greatest political,
.. rOfi'''i pe<JeStnM Md religious. commercial and cultural institutions grew up. is now merely
cychst links be!Ween exisung
cenues creales a coiIcren! a divisive element separating the poorer south of London from the
publ", realm u..... encourages
walkIng ami tyellng. more prosperous north. It is this beautiful waterway bordering
RJtnard Rogers Pllllneflih!P
nineteen of London·s boroughs which holds the key to revitalising the
spirit of the metropolis. If we redefine our use and perception of the
4
river it could once again link communities.
13S
The Thames is one of the broadest rivers to bisect a capital city. and
its broadness exaggerates its divisiveness. London needs many
more bridges if it is to brea k th is sense of se parat ion. Centra l Paris,
for examp le. has three times the numbe r of bridges. And yet a well·
designed single span bridge for pedestrians and cyclists cos ts only
around £7 million. The City of l ondon Corporation is proposing to
build a new footbridge linking St Paul"s to Bankside. Where the
pedestrian flow is likely to be substantial, inhabited bridges similar
o
to the old london Bridge could be constructed . o 0 The theatres
Pedestrian and public transport rou tes of all types are also needed
to connect the centres of boroughs to the river. A new tram route has
been proposed to link Waterloo Station across the Thames to the
new British library. The architects Michael and Patti Hopkins have
proposed a cable-car route that begins in Covent Garden, passes
over the linea r park described above, and terminates on the South
Bank. The architect Will Alsop has proposed a new Institute of
Contemporary Arts bu ild ing spann ing the river at Blac kfriars.
Thames crossed by a new bridge with restaurants and cafes. This '''''
Acro/llms
bridge would act as a square: suspended above the Thames, it would .. As II Is: the Rove' Thames
'rom WC$\mln5t cr 6rklge t o
enjoy the most spectacular views of the Palace of Westminster and Tower Brioge shOWoog Sfeas of
inl ense pUbiC lICIMty.
break the isolation of the south bank at this point.
~ 41t ",III be: ..Mn 1he new
loU.... ,..Iunded CU~Ufai prQJeCi&
The stretch of the river from Westminster Bridge to Tower Bridge is .... ,1 spl!SfM1I(J 1he
devetopment of one of
the most glaring example of unexploited opportunity. On its banks Europe·, flC'We5\ cult ural
dl$lrCIS. Gley ereas show
are located some of our most famous buildings and some of our IMeI1S;ty 01 pUblIC activltoe,.
The South 6!o"k
most important cultural institutions - from the Houses of Parliament relle"<81orllTl801 >Mil 'e"'1ahse
1WO 01 LonOorfs poore st
to the Tower of London . from Tower Bridge to the Festival Hall and borOUghS
4 RaCe,s Plltlnersl"p
from Southwark Cathedral to Westminster Abbey. It is also less than R...:;I)8W
136
500 metres from Covent Garden, St Paul"s. the Strand . the Old Vic
and the brilliant new Eu rostar station by Nicholas Grimshaw at
Waterloo. although we se ldom assoc iat e suc h places with the river.
Yet th is section of the Thames . at t he ve ry centre of the nation's
capital. remains wast efully unde rused.
The lac k of a riverside road and the ava il ab ility of sites for
redeve lop ment makes ttl e Sout h Bank an idea l area for
transformat ion into a vibrant cu ltu ral district t hat could regene ra te
the areas around it. Muc h of t he South Bank is already undergo ing
rad ica l transformatio n: the new Shakespeare Cent re, the new Tate
Museum of Mode rn Art at Ban ks ide, broad-ranging projects in
Southwark. commun ity development on Co in Street, t he Millenn ium
Fe rris wheel and a new aqua rium at County Ha ll.
At the hea rt of the South Ban k. on the bend of the river. li es Eu rope 's
largest cu ltu ral centre that includes conce rt ha lls, museums and
cinemas . In 1995 our practice won the co mm iss ion to revita lise and
greatly expand the use and divers ity of activit ies of the centre, with
the aim of more than doubling the number of visitors. The project
South Bank Redevelopment
consists of th ree disti nct strategies: first, construct ion of a large Ricilard Rogcrs Partncrsl,." p
undu lati ng crysta l canopy extend ing ove r existing bu ildings and • Comp ul er..re ndered dral"ng
of the proposed Cr,'sta l Roof
public spaces ; second, giving all the ground leve l now used as ove r t he H3ywa rd Ga ll ery,
Purce ll Room and Queen
service yards back to the people: third , creating new events and new El izabeth H~' I which wi ll crcal e
a co,. me~ rn l"e ' i n~ pl xc wilh
fac ilities. Together these elements wil l generate a vibrant twenty-fou r- coles. reSO ur an\s , l>oo kst>ops
ond galle ries. Tile glass rool
hour cu ltural desti natio n wh ich will draw an expected 3 m illion over the South ~" n~ Centre
amcl i ",~ \ es olimate ~n d
.'
visitors to the area. The glass str uctu re raises the tem perature of c,!e ncs the usable area to
create" yem-{ou nd people's
the open publ ic spaces below it: a 3°C increase cou ld give a cl imat e pl ace . and a IlQ 'N~ f or triplin g
the num l>er of . isit "'".
similar to Bordeaux, making t his stretch of the rivers ide usable Hayes Da vids on
The Thames m ust once more become the heart of the capita l and a
4 4
means of contact and commun ica tion rather than of separat ion. 139
138
Once cen tres of activity along its banks are established and th riving.
demand wi ll f ollow for trave l from one rive rsi de node to anothe r.
A riverbus system can be bu ilt for a fraction of the cost of a j, previ',",s page many more. If we emb race t his idea , we will need to improve the
Millennium Ma p, 1996
conven tiona l fixed transpor t system. Rive rbu s piers shou ld be Rk/)w d Rogers Partnersh ip city's public transpo rt and pedestrian routes t o cope with the extra
deve loped in each of the ninet ee n boroughs bordering t he Thames t o Reloc usi ng London on the Thames visitors. Lottery funds silou ld be used strategica lly to spea rhead th is
wi ll in tu rn r e g ~n cra t c the 19
form a coherent network of piers from Kew to Greenwich. These II poIIJ " Bo roughs_ transfo rmat ion of the city. The Thames provides a per fect highway to
sho uld be fine pieces of arch itectu re; they wou ld integrate the Plan shol'o' ng ~n <tCcu mulat ion 01 ca rr y visit ors bet ween t he eve nts: a necklace stringing t ogether all
S Ol ~ 1 1 prOjects arid
rive rbus syste m into the overa ll transport network and wou ld also pedest rianis31ion initiatives that the activities along the river. with extensions reac hing out to the
eQu id ret ocus London ont o il s
function as im portant commercia l hubs, reinfo rcing the eco nomic great R,,' ~' Tha mes , Rive, bus pu b lic spaces beyond. The National M ill en niu m Exhi bition at
piers linked into the overa ll publ ic
and socia l acti vity of their areas, Together, bridges and riverbus piers u ansport net wo I ~ IDlm t he he "'t Greenw ich wou ld serve as tile clasp of the necklace.
01 oo nscly d ~ v e l o pcd rive,s iue
co uld become econo mic and social magnets central t o the lives of r"l()UcS , ', orn \liese , links across
t il e rive, and inw t he hi nter land Th e riverbus wou ld bring the festi va l to the furthest boroughs of
thei r boroughs. capable of sti mulat ing new develo pment on the many IO'l;e city to rrver.
London, Spec ially designed fo r the Thames and carrying the latest
derelict riverside sites and over time creating a se ries of river-based River transport could ~ c t h<' Old,n
tran spo<tat ion l or a Lond on-wide technology to supply event information in many languages, riverbuses
compact urban centres . Mi llenni um Fest ival ta ~ i n & pl ace in
its majo, publ ic spoces , cu lt ura l cou ld be events in themselves , Go ing to the festiva l wou ld simply
and re ligious in sl it ul ions ~nd Jt
None of the above proj ects is beyond our mea ns. and they cou ld all the ma in NJ\LOn al Ex ll ibltlo" s,t e at ent ai l going to you r neares t pier and selecting your destination wh ile
GrCC r\wiC h , This approach wou ld
be brought into existe nce sooner rather t han late r - for the ap proach creat e a suff icient cmica l mass of you sa il . By making event s and sites more access ible. riverbu ses
sm all-sca le PfoJcct s to wea ,'e t he
of th e m illenn ium is providing London with a once-in-a-lifeti me Thame s ba c~ into t il e live s 01 could free tourists from dependence on organised tours; tou rism
Lond oners
opportun ity. We have for the first ti me in gene rations th e chance to wou ld be re defined f or bot h Britons and fore igners. and
generat e a sufficient crit ica l mass of arch it ectural projects , festi va ls. visit ing London would become a far more inte ractive and person al
exh ibitions and ce lebrations t o re-introduce the Thames into the lives expe ri ence .
of Londone rs.
Thi s app roach t o ce leb rat ing t he m ill enn ium wou ld leave a
Nationa l Lott ery awards wi ll be made to the National Mil lenn ium function ing riverbus se rvice and rive rba nks revitali sed with parks.
Exh ibition , marking the time/space st art of the thi rd m ille nnium on promenades, pie rs, float ing rest au rants and boa rdwalks. The
the Greenwictl merid ian, and to architec tu ra l projects th rougho ut the Thames rest ored to til e people an d t he linking of London's pub lic
capital, The challenge is to make these project s contribute t o a new spaces shou ld be the phys ica l legacy of the city's mill ennium
vision for London, to make the whole greater th an the su m of its ce lebrations - a t hriving public domain that strings t ogether our
par ts . With it s immense cu ltu ral. politica l and soc ial resources, nati onal monu ments and places , past and fu ture.
London cou ld beco me the city to visit in th e yea r 2000. it sho uld host
London has the oppo rtu nity to beco me a cu ltu re d, balanced and
a year-long mille nn ium celebrat ion of unriva ll ed qua lity and dive rsity
sustainable city. It is up t o Londo ners to demand an elected strategic
4 at Greenwich and th roughout the capita l. 4
body t o de liver its full potential.
142 143
If the Seville Expo of 1992 was able to draw 46 mill ion visit s in eight
months, one wou ld expect London 's mil lenniu m celebrati on to draw
5 The disseminati on of knowledge about t he globa l CriSiS has
generated world-wide recogn ition th at our environ ment is a fragile
and limited asset. Just as new technical knowledge transformed ttle
agrarian village into the induslrlal society. so mformation technology_
carrying with it new environmental knowledge. IS forcing the creation
of a globa l society a society that recognises the need to be
supremely mindful of the environmental and soc ial consequences of
ItS actions.
New techno logies are enab ling us to ex pand the use of our most
valuable and mo,,! par ti cu larly 11uman resource creative
im agination. or brain power. The increased or even prolific
consumption of this resource is subject to no limltmg faclors and
& ",('."<l~.' I' 'I:'
Cy ....,-Clt y has no downside : it is people and environmenHnendly. Whereas
"~, 100m bc~o"' " '~ O:h"~ h . industrial wealth depended on solid matter like coal and iron. the
e ll " ~ ",'" o"'~trcs tor
co ~eer: '~: IOr!i c' ' d~1 sustainable wealth on which the post·industnal soc iety will depend is
relwor·, o· (c .... ~ ~: e~s e d
,' rorm~' o~ S "'0"11) { r ~ grey matter.
1r.· Cfl.'''·~C c,,~,,· :
[,or,,'" "!m",'~. '.I:>o1.~~'"
·It IS unarguably true rhat {here are only {IVa primary sources of
wealth available to US: what we get from the eart/J itself and what we
get from our own creative imaginations. Unless we starr relying less
on the former and much more on the latter, {hen It is inconceivable 5
i47
that we can sustain the growing population of the world with anything
approaching decent. civilised and broadly comparable slandards of
Il vmg.' {David Puttna m)
It IS in this context that th e role of techno logy is paramount. Micro- it is expected to inc rease fur tller. People born today can reasonably
electronics are producing a step-change in our abil ity to network look forwa rd to living for over 100 years.
people. their knowledge and their brain power ~ we are experiencing
For the first time since the industrial revolution the greater part of
a period of social revolution as significant as that engendered by the
human activity need not be dominated by either employment or
invention of Caxton"s printing press or the telegraph . The potential of
parenthood . Rather. work and parenthood have become 'intervals' in
the ind ividual brain is about to be expanded unquantifiably by the
a long life. Statistically. work now occupies under one third of an
networking of thinking.
adult's working life. which itself occupies on average only half of an
But the concept of network also offers advantages at the macro individual's lifespan. ThiS leaves an average twenty years of
scale. It has the potential to replace our exclusive and linear models retirement. The period spent 'parentlng' has also dropped as a
of planning and analySis with participatory and multi·dimenSlonal percentage of total lifespan. These trends are leaVing the greater
ones. The Net. just like the Swarm. offers a structure of part of one's time under-employed or retired - time available for non-
-
simultaneous possibilities . It is resilient. evolvable and boundless . vocational. free time activities.
ideal for supreme adaptability. As a system it is ultimately inclusive .
But while these develo pments bflng huge opportunities . they also
encompassing. as Kevin Kelly describes it. small failu res in order
0 engender conSiderab le cha lle nges and socia l cos ts - most notab le
tll at large fai lures do not happen . It ge nerat es contro l with out
autho rity, It embraces complexity. t'iH ,' ~I H amongst the m. un emp loyment. Robo tisati on is replac ing not o nly
1.900 2000 labo rio us wo rk but also th e worke rs them se lves . Life witl10ut work
It is my 110pe tha t tll is technological invent ion will playa central ro le can lack pu rpose. and living in the consume r society with out th e
in the tempering of our destructi ve potential. It is a t ool tha t offers
the posS ibility of creating infinite and sustainable wea lth. We are at
the threshold of a new interaction of people. knowledge and the
environment and the globa l city is at the heart of this new spatial and
economic order - the powerhouse at the centre of this web of
--
c::::::J
c::::::J
P •• ,." ,,.. ,
" ...."1':""
.....,.
f<>. . • ,,,,
wea lth derived fr om wo rk is deci ded ly ali enat ing. Some unio ns and
bUSinesses (such as Volkswagen and Hew lett·Packard)
attempting to share the limited amount of available work by reducing
the working week yet further. Ironically. we have gone from too much
work to too little .
are
sector into the complex matnx of sustainable accounting IS Apply this to fuel. Since the collapse of OPEC in 1986 the price of
desperately needed If we are to progress towards sustamable liVing. petrol has returned to its low pre-oil crisis level. Improvements in fue l
a fact which is now publicly recognised : economy in the vehicle sector that evolved post 1973 have gone 11110
5 reverse. Many vehicle owners. encouraged by low pelrol prices. are 5
'For development to be sustainable. environmental considerations 155
1 54 now choosing larger. heaVier cars with more powerful engines. Tax
must become a central part of the decision-making process within
created price increases would quickly discoufage consumers from
government and industry. For [his 10 happen. better information is
b uyi ng energy-guzzl ing vehicles and wou ld encourage
man ufactu re rs 10 imple me nt t he techno logical innovations that ca n
- But what looks good on paper igno res the full econo mic, soc ial and
reduce fuel consumption and pollution. environ mental impact of the change: buses that dally at bus stops
(choking the air with fumes, lengthening journey times and slowing
At present. taxation IS seen mainly as a way of raising revenue rather
traffic behind them): no assistance for the disabled. the elderly. the
than a tool that can influence corporate and individual behaViour.
tourist; no familiar face for young children: less feeling of security and
Taxation IS set at the levels deemed tolerable by the market and the
less animation created by the presence of the often
electorate. Thus the tax on fuel or vehicles is determined by the wish
'characterfur conductor: no sense of ownership of the passenger
to maximise revenue without disrupting the economic status quo
compartment - not to mention a few hundred unemployed bus
rather than by enVIronmental or social considerations.
conductors. We are given evidence that the buses are now run
Environmental policies that encourage greater 'resource productivity' cheaper and that profits from re-sale arc being shared with the
- more recycling and less waste - can produce virtuous circles. They remaining employees and managers. but there is no evidence that
lend to be more labour intensive and are predict ed to generate large· these changes have improved the overall public transport network or
scale urban job and business opportunities . Th is is quite logical. the that. more people are using the bus service more frequently. The
shift from waste disposal by dumping at sea . burning or landfill, for costs - in wasted time, wa sted fuel , congest ion, pollution and
examp le , to reprocess ing and recyc ling demands a greate r leve l of unemployment - are picke d up by soc iety. The savings gai ned by
ca re Reso urce productivity can be fur the r enco uraged by balanc ing societ y from this par ticu lar increase in prod uctivity are an illu sion
taxa tio n between peop le and mac hines. Gover nme nt taxatio t'
And this examp le represents ju st th e tip of the iceberg. The huge
po liCies ge nerally fa vour 'mec han isat ion' as a mea ns of increasing
'effic ienc ies ' created by th e multi natio nals who control some 50 per
production. As a result they t end to subs idise automat ion by creating
cent of all income mask th e social as well as the environ menta l
taxation structures tha t encourage 'tooling up' and discourage
footprrnts of consumerist cities. A recent article in the Guardian
labour·intensive processes, giving tax breaks for investment in
described how the Philippines were aiming at turning themselves into
technology while continuing to raise revenue from labour. However.
an Asian Tiger on the back of an agricultural modernisation
the assumption in favour of machine as against less 'productive'
programme. Vast fruit plantations are replacing smallholdings. and
labour can be flawed: In some cases the employment of a person
multinationals are making them increasingly capital·intensive.
leads to broad social or environmental gains thai far outweigh the
Machines are replacing cutters, who now migrate to cities and well
apparent effiCiency of the machine.
their shanty towns, Land previously used for cultivating maize and
Take the apparently straightforward case of the London bus conductor rice for the domestic market is being forced by comparatively low
- now dose to extinction, Since rationalisation and privatlsation of the domestic prices to switch to luxury export crops for the industrial
5 5
156 bus routes and the 'efficiency' drive that followed, the duties of the world. The land devoted to cultivating maize and flce is now predicted
157
conductor were taken on by the driver, Bus companie s notionally to shrink by half within a few years. True, the cost of a Philippine
doubled their productivity overnight by running the same line with half pineapple on a table in Paris, London, New York or Tokyo is highly
the numbe rs of staff and a little more equipment. com petitive, but at what soc ial cost along the way?
Tile extent \0 Wllich these new 'efficiencies create costs for society
both at home and abroad should be carefully evaluated. Where
- Progress toward s sustalnability requires reforming the structure of
government itself. Today. governments still operate through
society incurs costs. profits should be shared With social and mmistries With individual agendas and without an overarching
educational programmes and not just distributed to shareholders environmental or social strategy: these agendas are often
and managers. As rObO\lsatlon is taking over from the worker incompatible with those of other minlstnes. Allowing department
because it is better at creating certain types of wealth. so taxation policies to pull in different directions is completely out of step with
must shift from the worker to the product. The ideal is to create a tile demands of modern urban life . In Britain. for example. the
t axat ion framework lil a! enco urages the efficient. environ menta ll y Depa rtm e nts of TriJnspo rt alld of Trade and Industry have
and soc ial ly s usta inab le inte ract ion of soc iety. nature and m8c ll ine. trad iti ona lly seen it as their responSib ility to promote car use. while
the departments of EnVironment and of Health have seen theirs as
Governments should make the purpose of sustarnability taxes
curbing It. We need holistiC government structures which recognise
transparent. In some cases, earmarking the revenue from green
the compleXity of the modern city.
taxes for specific sustainability projects makes them more
acceptable to the citizen: for example. using the revenue from raising A bold step was taken in 1992 when the French government set up
the lax on petrol to improve pubhc transport. Social security benefits Its Ministere des Villes to tackle the overlapping needs of Its poorest
should , where possible. be seen to be financing 'crea tl ve Ci ti zenship' citizens . Most of these live in deprived housing estates and suffer
initiat ives that til emselves crea te furth e r soc ial wea lth rather tha n from th e class ic sym ptoms of pove rty: bad edu ca tio n, bad
mai ntaining people in a st ate of depe nde ncy. envi ronment and bad l18a ltl1, as well as 11 igh rates of crime .
unemployment. dr ug abuse and soc ial isolation. The previous
land taxation should be designed to encourage urban consolidation
structure had meant that each government ministry could only react
rather Ihan urban sprawl. At presenl some land taxes and public
to the effects of poverty and not actively address its causes. The job
works actually promote urban sprawl and. as a consequence. inner·
of the new Ministere des Villes was to cQ-Qrdinate the actiVities of
city dereliction and social decay. For example. publicly financed roads
the traditional ministries, creating an atmosphere in which they
have transformed low value agricultural land into acceSSible and
networked ttleir resources and shared responsibility for the liVing
valuable commercial property. Land taxes on developments on out..of·
condi tions of disadvantaged citizens .
town sites sho uld refl ect the cost of publ ic ly financed infrastru ctu re
and til e cost s to soc iety of retai l and co mme rc e abandon ing the inne r Th is so rt of approach to planning for a susta inable c nvirO llm ent. so
city. This will increase the relative competitiveness of compact urban clearly proven to be advantageous in cities such as Curitiba. will need
sites and will encourage developers and retailers to consolidate city to underpin future government policy. Many countries are beginning
5 centres. Applications for development should be accompanied by the process by introducing legislation that cuts across traditional 5
15' rigorous studies of \llelr social and environmental impact. Taxes boundaries of responSibilities. Most Western governments are 159
should penalise schemes that generate unacceptable levels of social beginning to apply the environmental principle of ·the polluter pays'.
segregation. congestion or pollution. The German government. for Instance, has passed new laws
targeting domestic waste: the Materials Recirculation Law makes
- This policy has been tremendously successful. It has raised public
industrial producers responsible for the disposal of the products they awareness of architecture and has led to countless good
manufacture - a responsibility normally falling on the end-user or the contemporary buildings throughout the country that have revitalised
local authority. This type of law will have a dramatic effect on the local communities. France's new buildings and parks have attracted
altitudes of manufacturers towards packaging and recycling. and Will enormous international acclaim and boosted tourism. France's
begin to close the loop between production and consumption, rapidly architectural profession. which in the Sixties and seventies enjoyed
improving the efficiency of the city's metabolis m little intern atio nal acclaim , i s today univers<) lly admired. wit h
inn ovat ive yo ung arc lli tects an d planne rs l ike Jea n Nouvel ,
Good public in/orm at ion is essen tial if env ironm ent al po lic ies are t o
Do miniq ue Perrault and Cluis\ ian de Por t zampa rk. Mitterra nd' s
be implemented and properly pol iced Govern ments that have
cultural programme produced a dynamic atmosphere and an open·
committed themselves to ecological targets must suffer penalties If
minded attit ude to the future.
these targets are not reached. Self· policing is vital. The UK. for
example. has committed itself to complying with the WHO standards Governments can ensure that they procure quality urban projects.
for ozone pollution by the year 2000: but. having made this encouragmg innovation and experimentation. Simply by acting as
commitment, it has repeatedly failed even to report those occasions mformed patrons of arChitecture. ministers can set national
when ozone level s have exceeded the slanda rds . standards for quality in the environment. Citizens have ttle righ t to
expect the ir government to procure pub li c bu ildings of til e best
Citizens will be able t o apply rea l pressure on thei r governm ents if
arch it ectura l qua lity because they are so cruc ial to ou r everyday lives:
agreed internationa l standards for measuring the envi ronmental
arch itecture is the physical expression of an urban society'S cultural
performance of Cities are established . targets for improvements set
development and social concerns. Governments could directly
and their progress monitored and publicly published. If this information
improve the quality of the environment and of the profeSSions by
is made publicly available through the Internet a clear and accessible
seeking out the young. talented and imaginative. and encouraging
global picture will emerge. International penalties and aid could be
them to work on our schools, hospitals and public housing.
targeted at nations whose cities are failing sustainabillty criteria.
Where there used to be two major economic partners - business and
Governmen t s mus t ensu re theot the ir own enor mous direct
national govern ments - the re is now a t hird : globa l cit ies. The
purc hasing power be nefits envi ronment al and social sustainability.
inform at ion t echno logies tl)at have made th e globa l eco nomy
Government procurement policies could promote in novation in all
possible have creat ed intense communication networks centred on
areas of sustainable design. from electric cars to low·energy
the city. Firms that operate globally depend on the service
bUIldings and inspiring educational environments .
Infrastructures and skilled human resources that exist only in cities _ 5
5
160 This has concentrated massive resources in urban areas and 161
For the last twenty·five years France has used its publiC bUlldmg
procurement budgets to commiSSion quality public buildmgs eoS a created the new network of global cities _ The transfer of economic
means of increasing community. pride and cultural acl)levement. power to cities has also been accompanied by the transfer of PUblic
services from government control to city control. The cities have scale accommodation and more on the city 's mfrastructure and local
become major economic and political powerhouses. and as services. The shift of emphasIs from large COr~X)f8te operations to
technopoles they are the primary means by which nations interface networks of small ones reduces the need for people to work in large.
with the global economy. static groups and prompts the emergence of local workplaces scattered
throughout the city. complemented by concentrations of formal and
'Rathcr than becoming obsolete because of the dispersal made informal meeting-places . This process will have an important impoc! on
possible by information techn%gics. cities concentrate command the behavi our of the city. Tile Iluge rush·hour peaks into and out of til e
func ti ons in th e glo bal economy.' (Saskia Sassen) centres will grad ually shift towards a 1110rc even distribution of mobil ity
The new Informatio n tec hno logy is transformi ng th e eco nomy at all tll rougllout the day and throughout the city. Til is 1,','111 produce a greater
levels. Citizens' minds and sophisticated technologies are replacing dependence and 1110re even and effic ient use of urban transport.
raw materials and brawn. The networking of creativity is now driving A finer and more diverse texture of city will increase demand for those
the new 'creative' economy. Exchanges between art and technology cultural activities and cIvil services which overlap rather than segregate.
- the exchange of ideas rather than of commodi ties - are becoming These trends provide economiC justifications for planning cities around
the life-blood of the new economy and of our future prosperity. These compact and ecologicilily sustainable communi ties.
changes directly affect the shape of the city because the Information Doing business - presenting and exchanging ideas - IS recognlsably
supe r!li gh way, chea p computing power and sophi sticated revertin g to being both a social and econo mic act ivity. This
ma nLlfactu ring robotics re volu ti on iSe work practi ces . New tec ll l1 ology blurring of the bou nda ry between work and the rest of daily life will
is li berating learning and work from their tradit ional locat ions. The focus the city into more compac t and mixed social nUClei . a
clean-cut bOundaries of yesterday's activities - the factory. the precondition for urban sustainability. In a world where wealth is
office, the university - are bemg replace d by networked. flexible generated by the creativity of citizens and where innovation will be
connections to sources of Information. People will mcreaslngly use prompted by the unpredictable and the spontaneous. city authorities
knowledge when they want it and not Just where It is will need to develop new policies that sustain the competitiveness and
institutionalised : one will be able to plug in and participate whether productiVity of their citizens . How can the design of cities encourage
at home . at the care or in ttle pa rk. Learn ing. living and working will the creat ive economy? Compan ies th at can locate any.vhere they want
co ntinuously ove rla p. wil l go whe re tll ey can attract good people in good pl aces , The new
These innovations could spur the restructuring of the ci ty along econo my will fl ourish in cities that have the right mixture of publ ic life ,
sustainable lines. Tile industrial city of the nineteentll century evolved mobility. life-long education and accessible cultural facilit ies.
around rail access or supplies of coal and steel. The city of the late
5
twentieth century was planned and developed around zones of single
The Impact of accelerating change on the physical form of the city is
radical. Institutions have shorter and shorter lives - railway stations
•
1 63
1 62
activity. In the twenty-first century city the economy's reliance on small- are converted into museums. power plants Into art gallenes. churches
scale employment and creative exchange will generate far more diverse into night-clubs. warehouses mto homes - and it is now commonplace
and personal needs. Small companies are less dependent on large-
-
to anticipate that a building will outlive the purpose for which It is built the market to monopolise change requ ire the broadest vigilance from
in a matter of a few years. Modern life can no longer be defined in the citizens and governments .
long term and consequently cannot be cOnlained within a static order
We must bUild cities fo r fleXibility and openness. working with and not
of symbolic buildings and spaces . The classical order of architectural
against tile now inevitable process whereby cities are subject to
symbolism is no longe r releva nt. The viewe r is no longer able to read
consta nt change. As homes . schools. ent ert ainment and work·places
the functions of buildings : the church. the town hall. the pa lace, the
become less defined by their single function. one basic structure,
market. the factory. Buildings no longer symbolise a stallC hierarchical
linked to a common communication network. can accommodate
order: instead. they have become flexible containers for use by a
learning, work and leisure. Aesthetics are all but freed from
dynamic society. However. it is the arrangement of buildings In space
associat ion with the functIOn that the building encloses . The building
- the networ'rl. of the city as a whole that has come to be the
system itse lf - its craftsma nsh i p, responSiveness and bea uty - is f ast
domina nt re fl ection of modern urban soc iety.
becoming th e dominant criterion. The aestll etics of response. change
As traditional ways of living give way 10 the onslaught of modern life. and modulation have replaced the fixed order of architecture.
change can be painful and accompanied by further problems. The
Architecture is changing In response to environmental demands and
giant city of TOkyo - where the work ethos dominates life. where
the development of new high·performance and b io-responsive
zoning and exorbitant land values have banished homes hours away
materials. Le Corbu sier described arctl itecture as the 'masterly
from down tow n work - has seen cu lt ural t rad it ion s shift ing
co rr ect and l1, agn ificcnt play of masses brougllt toge ther in light' . In
dramaticili ly. Home life in the reside ntial are as has bee n ma rgin ali sed
the future. however. buildings will tend to dematerialise. It will be an
and left for Sundays. Downtown urban space is shaped to satisfy both
age not of mass but of transparency and veils: of indeterminate.
business and the weekday domestic needs of the marooned workers.
adaptable and floating structures that respond to daily changes in
Residential and urban functions begin to meld into one another and
the environment and patterns of use The bu ildings of the future -
the relationship between inside and outside has been revised, so that
already fores hadowed by til e work of Will Alsop , Future Systems .
the city centre beco mes the house. Eati ng, sleeping and bath ing are
Za ha Hadid , Re m Koolhaas, Dan iel Li bes kind , Coop Himmerblau and
now carried out downtown: the living room hdS been replaced by
Toyo Ito - will be less like the immutable classical temples of the
cafes, bars. clubs and karaoke establishments; the dining room and
past and more like moving. thinking. organiC robots. This new
the kitchen by counter eateries and fast food restaurants: the
architecture will change the character of the publ ic domain. As
bathroom by sports clubs . saunas and spas: and the bedroom by
structures become lighter. bui ldings will become more permeable
inns, hostels and love hotels. The downtown area has a twenty fo ur·
and pedestri ans will move th rough the m ra tll er tl1an around tllem.
hour vitality tll at is awesome to experience, but the rest of one of the
•
16.
world 's largest metropol itan areas is soulless and chaotic. This is Just
The street and th e park may be part of t il e build ing, or the buildll1g
might hover above them. The architect Cedric Price once said that
•
16 •
one example of how the shape and functioning of a city IS constantly
the main problem With ci ties is that the buildings get in the way. In
revised and adapted. The complexity of the forces and the power of
the future. this will be less inevitable.
It is transport tha t will make or break the sustainabili t,' of a city.
Compact mixed-use communities Sil0uld be grouped round pub lic
transport hubs Wittl ttle individual community planned around
T of tra nspor t systems Cit izens will have access to a transport
internet that wi lt inst antaneously ana lyse the entire network. map
the fastest route across town and tetl them when and where the
walking and cycling distances. Some metropolitan authoYitles are closest vehicle witl arrive . ThiS witl enable the citizen to get about
already taking a radical new look at transport in their cilies. In faster. more often and to more places.
Strasbourg. for example. the visionary mayor. Catherine Trautmann.
Given the witl to create them. cities of the future could provide the
has pursued radical transport policies. Private cars are now banned
foundation for a soc iety in which everyone participates in health.
from the city centre: there is a state-of-the-art tram system. and mini-
security. inspiration and justice. New technology could be creatively
electric vehicles arc available for rent by the hour. day or week.
exploited to give our cities a new lease of life: a more SOCiable. more
Canals arc used for transportation and their banks turned mto
beautiful and more exciting hfe. above atl a life determmed by its
landscaped pedestrian rou tes criss-crossmg the clly. Curitiba in
citizenry.
Brazil has also transformed public perceptions of the transport
system by restricting key routes to buses only. by designing buses The concept of the sustainable city recognises that the city needs to
thai load and unload the ir passengers like subway trains . and by meet our social, environmental, political and cultural objectives as
co mmiss ion ing space age glass bus stations built to the 11ighest well as our economic and phys ica l ones. It is a clyna mi c organis m as
spec ificati ons As a resu lt. bus trave l is popula r wll h eve ryo ne comp lex as the society il se lf and responsive eno ugtl to react swittly
because it is pe rce ived as safe , quick and smart. to it s cha nge s The sust aina ble city IS a c ity of many face t s
Thro ugho ut I he world l11ega·urba n regions based on increas ingly - A j ust City wh ere j ustice . food. s helter, educatio n. 11ealtl1 and hope
rapid and efficiellt mectlanica l transport ati on systems are forming, are fairly distribut ed and where al l people par tiCipate in government:
Tra ins can already travel at nearly 300 kilometres per hour. and soon
- A Beaut iful City, where art. architecture and landscape spark the
the Introduction of Magnet-levitation trains Will double that speed. In
Imagination and move the spirit;
europe and ASia. the expanding network of international high speed
trains is linking cities. remforcing their importance as hubs of A Creative City. where open mindedness and experimentation
communication and providing corridors for new compact mobi lises the full potential of ItS human resources and aUows a fast
development. response to change:
The present POlluling and obstructive aulOmobile technology - the - An Ecological City. which 11111111111ses Its ecological impact. where
car - could be re·engineered to cause no damage to the landscape and built form are balanced and where buildings and
5 enVIronment. It could even become fully robotised : self guided along infras\(uctures are safe and resource·efficient: 5
166 urban expressways. Cars in the future wi ll be 'clean', but it will be
cheaper. faster and more fun to travel by public transport. The car
- A City of Easy Contact and Mobility. where information is exchanged '"
both face-Ie-face and electronically:
will be seen as a minor component of a complex and flex ible network
- A Compact and Polycen tric City. which prot ects th e countrys ide.
focuses and integrates communities withm neighbourhoods and
maXi mises prOXimity:
The world·wide env ironmental and social crisis of our cities has
focused minds. The call for sustainability has revived the need for
considered urban planning and has demanded a rethink of its basic
principles and objectives. The crisis of modern civilisation demands
that governments plan for sustainable cities.
In Euro pe , cities such as Ba rce lona . Lyon and Gla sgow are forging Nolwo.k cll~
lin ks with othe r dynamic cit ies and sett ing targets ari d implementing ~ "",t "I I I", ~ I d) ,I """"'Ol~
0 1 C li eS: (J rope ,,~ n ~hl
po lic ies to improve the qual ity of urba n life and limit til e ecologica l '/0'. 1. 5,.".",,«,,, ~ ,' ·;t rI,'o'~ .".
",'""~IRr,'""': Se'ene! P"'Ci to
impact of the ir cities . Tll ese po licies, which often echo th e ambitions L,ero.')
It is my contention that the developed world with its Networks of cities across the world - shanng knowledge.
disproportionate ownership of wealth. contro l of technology and technologies. services and recycled resources. and framing Jomt
influence over the means of production - bears an inescapable policies that both respect local cultures and implement common
responSibility to make ItS own economies and cities sustainable. We environmental objectives - could provide the structure and power to
must now implement real efficiencies that lower levels of achieve real change. As the awareness of our common dependence
consumption. How can a fairer distribution of resources be on the global ecology spreads. and as modern communications bring
achieved? the world's problems Into sharper and more personal focus. there
Sustainability is about finding more socially cohesive . economically can be liaison, ca-operation and support between first and third
the va lue of goods he ld in co mmon th e enviro nment and th e int ernati onal ap proach es t o environ mental Issues , Til e magnitude of
commun it y - and about recognising ou r mutu al dependence on both th is ta sk should not be underest imated , but no r Sllou ld it dete r
pOSitive act ion.
Til e planet is perfectly capable of sust aining all humanity if we
respect the demands of nature and focus our use of technology. Ou r aim must be to achieve a new and dynamic eqUil ibrium between
'Science now finds there is ample for all, but only if (he sovereign society. cities and nature. Participation , education and innovation
fences are completely removed. The basic you-or·me·/Jot·e/Jough- are the driving forces of the sustainable society.
for-botll·ergo ·someone·muS(·dle·tenets ... are extinct .. Sustainable policies are already reaping visible rewards. On the back
(Buckmmster Fuller) of this success and With popular determination sustainability could
The dedicated application of sustainability in the developed world will become the dominant philosophy of our age. In thiS way. Cities. the
lead to a dramatic reduction of the giant and damaging ecological habitat of humanity. could be once more woven into the cycle of
nature.
footprints of the consumerist cities. It will set new mternatlonal
standards and pioneer the development of sustainable technologies.
It will create the opportunity to distribute global wealth Cities that are beautiful. safe and equitable are Within our grasp.
5
5
174 democratically and help the sprawling mega·cities of the developing 175
world cope with the astounding demands of their own growth.
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f ..'!o'~ "I 1(;>\Or. ",'.,,,~:,,,,.' ,~t (I~,:,er Pe"gu ~ 1%'. '~P'''':C:J 'lJ'
Pel ear [l.oo~s 1965 W i :~s , s'u~" ,,,,,I,, :lIi~ ,,"C !lx,,'J romorr~ .. , PlUtO P'e"
Co loc,i01 1~3
',"~'" c.: '5, :61 \T,,",.," tLchro~c" 0';...0. ~~ Cw i., "11
Index
," i
g",,,",,,,,,~-,l. ',.'h ,UUltu',·S 01 E9--<OO. 10-2. :68 . ,2 .• l~, \1;1'." .IS lI',,·\·, .• ~ ~,-I, ," ""'lI','" '. '.'. 2: St>~'tI. W. ")"'g'on, 2:)
G..., .. ,e, iI">:: en:. 16. : 52 \1". P\~:'~I \1 ""'"fS,,,-,·,,,,. 1'1?f: S~"r':r ,', ':'2 . .13. ~~
G~"'~1!IW, .. :rola1. ar:t leet. :30 \1," K" ;>1 ? 0, I 01; " po<) ~~ -5_ .,j5---~'_ ol) 32-3
(;~m"'"' J,~'~ S~'''tld'\' or s"':... 1:3 1 33 \1.~. \~ ~,,_ New v,,"_ (. f;.'. r;, ,I',.", ,1',,,,,,""-;' SF_;;75':!').62
\t';'l~r als Rc'ClJo~ '" on W·.·. 6e,,'" lEI S "II" C',,,·,
~1. J2_1
J dp"C!p1 ",'," .'i! H·'·.I d I ""'. ,,,~ ~"Ct. :65 M,,~r·'~. ;{~,~ k{l'",.-., H;, ~I'''')I ..g • ,,' "~ .)". l' Icy.', 122
oj In. P< 1(" ~,,,f" (~ol urn"" <Ie gr 116 Me. ~o C t,. 2 ... 27. 2n. ~,,_ 1.,2 Sen~_I~eC.mp<>_ Hi
AI.,'~ ,/,'1. "chl"CI. :36165
'\I''')~ 6", .. -, ~'C''''~;' 10<> .11 2 13 oj "·" I~t· .~. ~c<>QO 7R II' cro:>-cl""'-'nr <s. :.ll-!i ~~~, .,," '&1-. Jt>. '::9. 96
ojd'~~(la <.L (v,, I, <Jus ,·"lIe," ,., M 'i~-' "":. rnnCQl5. I rene" Prcs,ec1\. .8. ~;;1 S~'a,I>O"'i, 1)';, 1ft
A'ch !{"IU,e Ccr:'Cs. lC7--8
A'i""( -". """> "">C.~"s , ~b
-i -'<nCobl~~, Coop."d (~~I 165 son O,,~k.l~roon, lJJ :38, tJ5
"J(O<"\Omc~s ~OJ't , .. se",:" fYoJe<:I , bb f:J rl()P~.",., M'C'Je ,,~(I O~ ,to, mc~ !ec!s 1:;6 N •. ·,",· ,I G;"le,', lcrdJ~ , 71. 7;), 73 ~u"' ''' '''''k I). (,X'tlrej, :07- 8
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A(M('1S 124
1 r."'A li o~ ·1 , 156 rOU" ,1~ ,82 , 116-19 NI'-'"'' .lnG" (1)0' 118 "'"' 'i!\~u ll 1\,,5,23.24-63 6':-101 I 3) ~ , I!>~ 60
rlO~"lo n, T ~.~s , lJ , 14 I , , · I ~·'''''U) · ''. '':J I , . "~7 1.;.6 1r,1 4 , : il :72 , ;75
Hcw3'C , S' ( 1:"' 0"'# ' :o·~·" " '"r ocr 17 32 N"" C" ~~crra . CIl,1lH~1 CHII"e, c);J 1,;<,, 11 0' 127, 1'4, 1~~ fl ''i~
SI " e~rL , msn i t""'-"'~~ ir ee r, 8~
11." ,
n.l·"' I ' ~'; l I ~ 19 )(\, 170 11U""W "f~r! S 152, 168 Now Vorl<, Celt'~1 Po," , 70 , ' : 1"" ' It 'pl"~),, I"t ,1M' lo>(: 01, 21 22, /l <;=" ~?, A,l 91 101
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BL"~""\ \1," SI'.l ll, "'W"', 21 2
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1)I>I:"t~. Cr; (mlh" 5t". 5 8
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