The main body of most fungi is made up of fine, branching, usually

colourless threads called hyphae. Each fungus will have vast numbers
of these hyphae, all intertwining to make up a tangled web called
the mycelium.

The mycelium is generally too fine to be seen by the naked eye, except
where the hyphae are very closely packed together. The picture on the
left was taken through a microscope. The hyphae are magnified 100
times life size.

Some fungi, such as Honey Fungus, which is a parasite

of woodland trees, have hyphae collected together into
long cables, called rhizomorphs. Because there are so
many hyphae packed together, they are easily seen,
forming black 'bootlaces'. These can spread through a
woodland infecting neighboring trees.

Fungal mycelium is mostly hidden from human view, not only because of its small size, but
also as a result of its location. The tangled mycelial mass is usually hidden deep within its food
sources, such as rotting matter in the soil, leaf litter, rotting wood, or dead animals. The mycelium
remains undetected until it develops one or more fruiting bodies, containing the reproductive
spores.

They are usually produced at the surface of the food source, rather than
hidden within it, to allow the spores to be shed and carried away by the
wind, or by water, or animals. The fruiting bodies are usually the only
indication we have that a fungus is present. Like icebergs, they
represent a tiny fraction of the whole fungus, with most of it being
hidden from view.

If you are looking for fungi in Britain, the best time to look is in the
autumn. The fungal mycelia have then had a long, relatively warm
period to grow extensively over the summer. With the coming of wetter
weather in the autumn, damp warm conditions are created which are
ideal for fungi to fruit. Many fungi have fruiting seasons in late summer
to autumn. However, don't ignore the Spring. This is a good time to look
for fungi such as Morels and other cup fungi. Little will be found in cold
winter months with frosts, although Oyster mushrooms will continue to
grow through most of the winter, as will Jew's Ear.

What Are Fungi

What are fungi
Fungi are neither plant nor animal, but have some characteristics of each. They
cannot move about like an animal, do consume organic matter, have
no chlorophyll as do plants, and cannot manufacture their own energy. They have a
true nucleus in their cells and are able to sexually reproduce by combining like
strains of nucleus. They can also reproduce by spores similar to some of the more
primitive plants e.g. Ferns, Liverworts and Mosses. Modern molecular studies have
shown that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.
Structure
The structures of fungi are microscopic and not visible to the
naked eye. Some are unicellular like yeast, but most string their
cells together in long, thread-like strands called hypha. Most
fungi produce an extensive system of hyphae, which may be
visible when growing thickly in a mass
called mycelium (commonly referred to as mould). Mycelium
can be of any size from tiny clusters to massive acre wide
systems, which effectively form the feeding and growing
body of the fungus.

Feeding
Hyphaespread widely through soil, rotten wood, etc., feeding
on organic remains by secreting enzymes to dissolve the
organic matter, then reabsorbing the nutrients. They
continue accumulating nutrients until the internal and
external conditions are right for the production of fruiting.

Reproduction
Fungi, as do other simple plants such as mosses and ferns,
reproduce primarily by single celled spores. The lower fungi,
or micro fungi, form asexual spore dust on their surface where
it grows simply by budding off from hyphal tips and does not
produce any visible structures. The vast majority of fungi are
of this type.

When a higher fungi or macro fungi are ready to reproduce,

thehyphae from two different parents form into a solid tightly
fused ball of tissue from which the sporocarp, grows. Within, or
on thesporocarp the sexual spores are formed after a fusion
of nucleifrom the different parents.

These sexual spores develop in a special layer called

ahymenium. The final stage of expansion to full size may take
place very rapidly without any further absorption of food
materials or even water. The fungi can pop up over night as
if by magic. The whole reason for the fruiting body is to help
in the dispersal of thespores, which are spread in various
ways. Most are lost but a few may germinate and grow into
new hyphae.

Identification
The manner of spore production and their individual properties, as well as
the sporocarp structure are all used for identification and classification of fungi.

Vegetative (nonreproductive) Structures of Fungi

• Body of a fungus made of tiny filaments or tubes called hyphae

• Hyphae contain cytoplasm & nuclei and has a cell wall of chitin
• Each hyphae is one continuous cell
• Hyphae continually grow & branch
• Septum (septa-plural) are cross walls with pores to allow the
movement of cytoplasm in hyphae
• Hyphae with septa are called septate hyphae
• Hyphae without septa are called coenocytic hyphae
• Tangled mats of hyphae are known as mycelium
• All hyphae within a mycelium share the same cytoplasm so materials
move quickly
• Hyphae grow rapidly from the tips by cell division
• Stolon is a horizontal hyphae that connects groups of hyphae to each
other
• Rhizoids are rootlike parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus

Classification of Fungi
 • Fungi are classified by their reproductive structures
• The 4 phyla of fungi are Basidiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, &
Deuteromycota

Zygomycota

• Called sporangium fungi or common molds

• Includes molds & blights such as Rhizopus stolonifer (bread mold)
•

No septa in hyphae (coenocytic)

• Asexual reproductive structure called sporangium &
produces sporangiospores
• Rhizoids anchor the mold, release digestive enzymes, & absorb food
• Asexual reproductive structure called sporangium &
produces sporangiospores
• Sexual spore produced by conjugation when (+) hyphae & (-) fuse is
called zygospore
• Zygospores can endure harsh environments until conditions improve & new
sporangium
 Basidiomycota

• Called club fungi

• Includes mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, bracket fungi, shelf fungi,
stinkhorns, rusts, & smuts
• Some are used as food (mushroom) & others cause crop damage (rusts
& smuts)
• Seldom reproduce asexually
• Basdiocarp made up of stalk called the stipe & a flattened cap
• Stipe may have a skirt like ring below cap called the annulus
• Gills are found on the underside of the cap & are lined with basidia
• Basidium – sexual reproductive structure that make basidiospores
• Basidiospores are released from the gills & germinate to form new
hyphae & mycelia
• Vegetative structures found below ground & include rhizoids (anchor & absorb
nutrients), hyphae, & mycelia
 Asco
mycota

• Called sac fungi

• Includes yeast, cup fungi, truffles, powdery mildew, & morels
• Some are parasites causing Dutch elm disease & chestnut blight
• Sac Fungi can reproduce both sexually and asexually
• Yeast reproduce asexually by budding (form small, bud-like cells that
break off & make more yeasts)
• Asexual spores called conidia form on the tips of specialized hyphae
called condiophores
• Ascocarp – specialized hyphae formed by parent fungi during sexual
reproduction
• Ascus – sacs within the ascocarp that form spores called ascospores

Lichens

• Symbiotic association between a sac fungus & a photosynthetic green

algae or cyanobacteria
• Both organisms benefit (algae makes food & fungus supplies moisture,
shelter, & anchorage)
• Grow on rocks, trees, buildings, etc. & help form soil
 • Crustose lichens grow on rocks & trees; fructose lichens grow shrub-like; foliose
lichens grow mat-like on the soil

Mycorrhizae

• Symbiotic association of a fungus living on plant roots

• Most plants have mycorrhizae on their roots
• Fungus absorbs sugars made by plant
• Plants absorb more water & minerals with aid of the fungus

Importance of Fungi

• Fungal spores cause allergies

• Molds, mildew, rusts, & smuts damage crops
• Yeasts are used to make beer & bread
• Antibiotic penicillin
• Decomposers & recyclers of nutrients
• Mushrooms eaten as food
• Help form blue cheeses
• Aspergillus is used to make soy sauce
• Cause athlete’s foot & ringworm
• Amanita is poisonous mushroom
• Can cause yeast infections

Classification of fungi

Mycelial fungi, or moulds, are classified according to both their macro- and micro-morphology.
Yeasts are structurally more simple and therefore display a limited range of morphologies. This
creates difficulties in the classification of yeasts, and this group is subdivided partly on the basis
of their reactions in biochemical tests.

There is no universally accepted classification scheme for fungi. In some classification schemes
the fungal divisions are referred to as phyla. Also, some have realigned the fungi grouped in the
Phycomycetes. Members of the Myxomycota and Mastigomycotina have been regrouped into the
kingdom Protoctista, which also includes protozoa and nucleated algae, and are not considered
by some to be true fungi. Fungi in the Zygomycotina are retained as a group in the fungal
kingdom and referred to as the Zygomycota.

The Myxomycotina or slime moulds are characterized by an amoeboid vegetative stage.

However, under appropriate conditions the amoeboid cells congregate and differentiate to form
reproductive structures that resemble other fungi. For this reason, members of the group
including Dictostelium discoideum and Physarum polycephalum are intensively studied by
developmental biologists. Slime moulds are common free-living organisms found in habitats such
as leaf litter and soils, but some species are parasitic. The parasites are frequently found in
association with higher plants, algae including marine algae, and other fungi. The symptomless
parasite Polymyxa graminis is frequently found associated with the roots of cereal crops, and can
act as the vector of virus diseases.

The Mastigomycotina are zoospore-forming fungi. They may form branched chains of cells that
attach to their substrate by a root-like structure called a rhizoid. Many are soil saprophytes where
they are found as important decomposers. Alternatively, they are found in freshwater habitats,
and may be associated with water that is polluted with sewage. Some species are found as
parasites of plants or algae, and a few are parasites of insects or fish. The downy mildews are
obligate parasites unable to grow in standard laboratory cultures. The group includes important
plant pathogens, such as Phytophthora infestans. This is the cause of potato blight.

The Zygomycotina are common soil saprophytes and several species are associated with animal
dung. Species of the genus Entomophthora are parasites of aphids and houseflies. The
Zygomycotina also include a very important group of fungi that can form symbiotic associations
with higher plants that are known as mycorrhizas. These structures involve the intimate
association of a fungus and the root system of its associated plant. For example orchids have
mycorrhizal associations in their roots. The fungus derives its organic nutrients from the plant and
thus, in return, is provided with mineral nutrients that the mycorrhiza extracts from the
surrounding soil. Fungi that form mycorrhizal associations may be impossible to grow in artificial
culture.

The Ascomycotina include yeasts such as those of the genus Saccharomyces. These include
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This yeast forms the basis of the baking and brewing industries, and
is of immense economic importance. Yeasts are frequently found associated with fruits, but can
also be found in freshwater and marine environments. The mycelial Ascomycotina are common
soil saprophytes, or are associated with animal dung. Fungi of the genus Tuber form mycorrhizal
associations with the roots of trees. Their fruiting bodies are harvested as truffles that are highly
prized culinary delicacies. In France, pigs are specially trained to hunt out truffles by the smell
that they emit. Not all of the Ascomycotina are benign. Dutch elm disease, responsible for the
decimation of elm trees in England is caused by Ceratocystis ulmi, and the mildews ofroses are
caused by other ascomycete fungi. The dermatophyte fungi that cause diseases such
as ringworm and athlete's footare classified as members of the Ascomycotina.

The Basidiomycotina includes many fungi that live in association with plants. Some cause
disease, but most are saprophytes that grow in leaf litter, composts, soil or dung. Fungi such as
those of the genus Agaricus form fairy rings. Many of these fungi form mycorrhizas with trees.
Merulius lacrymans is the cause of dry-rot in timber. Basidiomycotina of the class Teliomycetes
include fungi that are responsible for plant rusts or smuts, and these are also very important
economically, since they frequently affect cereal crops. Those of the order Gasteromycetes, as
the name implies, include the edible fungi.

The Deuteromycotina or Fungi Imperfecti, of necessity, include a wide variety of saprophytic and
parasitic fungi. Many, like those of the genera Aspergillus, Cladosporium and Penicillium are
important food spoilage fungi. Aspergillus flavus and related species of fungus are responsible for
aflatoxin production. The presence of aflatoxin in foodstuffs is of great concern since aflatoxins
are among the most powerful carcinogens so far discovered. Aspergillus fumigatus is responsible
for the human disease aspergillosis, some forms of which cause serious and often fatal infection
in immunocompromised individuals such as transplant patients. However, Aspergillus niger is of
economic benefit, since it is used in the industrial production of citric acid. Similarly, members of
the genus Penicillium are important in the production of antibiotics. Penicillium chrysogenum is
used in the industrial production of the antibacterial penicillin family of antibiotics, and Penicillium
griseofulvum is used to produce the antifungal agent griseofulvin.