Prog.EnergyCombust.Sci., 1984,Vol.10,pp. 319 339. 0360-1285/8450.

00+ -50
Printedin Great Britain.Allrightsreserved. Copyright© 1984PergamonPressLtd.

LAMINAR DIFFUSION FLAMELET MODELS

IN N O N - P R E M I X E D T U R B U L E N T C O M B U S T I O N
N . PETERS
lnstitutJh'r Allgemeine Mechanik, R W T H Aachen, F.R.G.

Abstract The laminar flamelet concept views a turbulent diffusion flame as an ensemble of laminar
diffusion flamelets. Work relevant to the flamelet concept is spread over various fields in the literature:
laminar flame studies, asymptotic analysis, theory of turbulence and percolation theory. This review tries to
gather and integrate this material in order to derive a self-consistent formulation. Under the assumption of
equal diffusivities a coordinate-free formulation of the flamelet structure is given. This assumption is relaxed
and flow dependent effects are considered. It is shown that the steady laminar counterflow diffusion flame
exhibits a very similar scalar structure as unsteady distorted mixing layers in a turbulent flow field.
Therefore the counterflow geometry is proposed to be the most representative steady flow field to study
chemistry models and molecular transport effects in laminar flamelets. The conserved scalar model is
interpreted as the most basic flamelet structure. Non-equilibrium calculations are reviewed.
The coupling between non-equilibrium chemistry and turbulence is achieved by the statistical description
of two parameters: the mixture fraction and the instantaneous scalar dissipation rate. The hypothesis of
statistical independence of these two parameters is discussed. Calculation methods for the marginal
distributions are reviewed. It is shown how local quenching of diffusion flamelets leads to a reduction of
burnable flamelets. However, there are burnable ftamelets in a turbulent flame which are not reached by an
ignition source. This phenomenon is described by percolation theory. Complementary approaches related
to local quenching effects and connectedness are combined to derive criteria for the stabilization of lifted
flames and to blow out. Further applications of the flamelet concept are reviewed and work to be done is
discussed.

NOMENCLATURE u component of local flame velocity vector

Uo nozzle exit velocity
a normalized temperature difference of the two feeds u: component of flow velocity vector
aij number of atoms of element j in a molecule of laminar flame velocity at stoichiometric mixture
species i vr
wl chemical production rate of species i
aq stagnation point velocity gradient at quenching x~ coordinate
as stagnation point velocity gradient y~ mass fraction of species i
B frequency factor Z~ mass fraction of element j
C Chapman-Rubesinparameter(pp)/(pp)o ~ Z z , Z 3 transformed coordinates
cp mean specific heat at constant pressure
small expansion coefficient
cvl specific heat of species i g
turbulent dissipation
D diffusion coefficient, defined by (2.3)
similarity coordinate
D~k multicomponent diffusion coefficient r/
2 thermal conductivity
d nozzle diameter dynamic viscosity
E activation energy v~,v~' stoichiometric coefficients
f non-dimensional stream function
_pv/(p~p~a~)l~2 P density
ff variance of the lognormal distribution
f' non-dimensional tangentialvelocity u/(asx )
variance of the velocity distribution
H stabilization height a~
transformed time coordinate
h enthalpy
instantaneous scalar dissipation rate
hi enthalpy of species i Z
Ji non-dimensionaldiffusion f l u x j i / ( p ~ u ~ a y / 2 Subscripts
j,~ diffusion flux of species i
C carbon element
k" kinetic energy of turbulence
F fuel, flame
Le Lewisnumber 2/(p%D)
H hydrogen element
Mi molecular weight of species i max at maximum temperature
)~ mean molecular weight O oxygen element
n number of species
02 oxygen
P probability density function q at quenching
Pb fraction of burnable flamelets ref reference value
Pc probability ofconnectedness st at stoichiometric mixture
p, probability that the local flame velocity exceeds the
local flow velocity
Pr Prandtl number/.t%/2 1. INTRODUCTION
qR radiative heat flux
T temperature C h e m i c a l l y reacting flows m a y p r o f i t a b l y be discussed
t time in t e r m s o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time scales r e q u i r e d for

319
320 N. PETEl~S
convection, diffusion and reaction. Non-premixed
combustion is generally associated with diffusion
flames which owe their name to the rate-controlling
step of these three processes--to diffusion. The con-
vective and diffusive time scales are in general of the
same order of magnitude but the chemical time scale is
very much smaller. Therefore the assumption of fast
chemistry (local chemical equilibrium) appears to be
self-explanatory. It is an assumption which introduces
an important simplification, since it eliminates many
parameters, those associated with chemical kinetics,
from the analysis.
This global comparison of time scales, however,
may not be sufficient in turbulent flows where local
diffusion time scales vary considerably. The fast
chemistry assumption is then locally not valid and
non-equilibrium effects must be taken into account. If
the average diffusion time scale approaches the order
of magnitude of the chemical time scale, local
quenching will occur. A further reduction of diffusion
time scales then leads to lift-off and even blow-off of
the entire turbulent flame. But already in globally
stable flames the variation of diffusion time scales may
interact selectively with the different chemical pro-
cesses occurring in the system. Their chemical time
scales may be quite different. For instance, the time
required for combustion and generation of heat is
much smaller than the time required for the formation
of pollutants such as NO x and soot. Technical flames
are usually operated such that the combustion
reactions are brought to completion with a minimum
of pollutants being formed. One may therefore say
that the art of technical combustion consist in con-
trolling the time scales within the non-equilibrium
range to meet the opposing requirements of fuel
burnout, stability and low pollutant emission.
1.1. Non-Equilibrium Effects in Diffusion Flames
Treated by other than Flamelet Models
Over many years the fast chemistry assumption has
been used in non-premixed combustion to predict
global properties of turbulent flames on the basis of
semi-empirical turbulence models. The essential
feature of the calculation is the introduction of a
chemistry-independent "conserved scalar" variable
called the mixture fraction. All scalars such as tem-
perature, concentrations and density are uniquely
related to the mixture fraction on the basis of the fast
chemistry assumption. The conserved scalar approach
has been reviewed by Bilger, ~'2 Williams and Libby; 3
and its computational implications by Jones 4 and
Jones and Whitelaw. 5 However, the fast chemistry
assumption fails whenever non-equilibriumeffects are
important. In semi-empirical turbulence models,
balance equations for the moments of the fluctuating
quantities are derived with unknown terms modelled
on the basis of experimental data. Non-equilibrium
effects need at least one additional "progress" variable
to be included and the equations for its moments to be
modelled. A two variable formulation has been
developed by Janicka and Kollmann6 to calculate NO
formation 7 and OH-profiles 8 in hydrogen-air dif-
fusion flames. Their formulation uses a three-body
recombination reaction as the only kinetic step and is
restricted to close-to-equilibrium Hz-flames. This
formulation has been extended by Bilger9 who uses a
large Damk6hler-number perturbation and expands
the mass fractions around their equilibrium value.
Exact equations are then derived for the perturba-
tions. The averaged forms of these equations contain
unknown terms that must in general be calculated on
the basis of a joint pdf. Bilger has shown how this
approach is simplified in the case of phototechnical
smog reactions and for hydrogen air flames? °
Recently Bilger and Sterner developed a two-variable
formulation11 and a three-variable formulation 12 for
hydrocarbon combustion to predict CO-burnout.
Large Damk6hler number perturbation techniques
are restricted to close-to-equilibrium combustion.
They cannot include far-from-equilibrium effects such
as flame extinction. However, extinction phenomena
are typical for all flames and a chemical mechanism
that does not predict them is clearly incomplete. For a
global one-step reaction it is known that extinction is
due to a large activation energy of the combustion
reaction. It has been demonstrated by Borghi 13 that
the closure of the chemical source term by moment
methods becomes intractable if the activation energy
is large. A presumed joint pdf for the conserved scalar
and the temperature as progress variable was used 1~
to derive a closed form expression for the mean
turbulent reaction rate in the limit of large activation
energies. Effects far-from-equilibriumwere included in
this study showing how quenching would reduce the
turbulent reaction rate.
As a different approach, Spalding's ESCIMO
model ~s (Engulfment, Stretching, Coherence, Interdif-
fusion, Moving-Observer) falls into the category of
non-equilibrium models. The model appears more
speculative than well-founded but it has some inter-
esting features that will be treated in a rigorous way in
the laminar flamelet formulation. It contains two
parts, the "biographic" part describing the chemistry
aspects associated with "folds" and the "demo-
graphic" part describing the fold distribution. The
biographic part may best be understood by relating
the folds to the flamelets described in this review: they
consist of an unsteady one-dimensional structure in
terms of a normalized space coordinate. For non-
premixed combustion, only the steady-state flame
sheet approximation which excludes non-equilibrium
chemistry, has been used so far,16 but chemical kinetic
effects can in principle be incorporated. This was
demonstrated for premixed flames by Tam? 7
"Stretching rate" and "age" appear as external
parameters in the equations. The demographic part
remains obscure, since it is difficult to see how the
formulation is related to basic balance equations in
chemical hydrodynamics. It closely resembles a pdf
transport equation formulation for the characteristic
time scales of the folds. It will be shown below how the
 Laminar diffusionflamelet models
effects of "stretching" and "aging" can be incorporated
within a single parameter, the instantaneous scalar
dissipation rate, in the laminar flamelet formulation,
and how straight-forward statistics relate its distribu-
tion to the properties of the turbulent flow field.
1.2. Outline
The objective of this review is to show how the
conserved scalar formulation can be extended to
include non-equilibrium effects. In Section 2 it will be
demonstrated that a general coordinate transforma-
tion, using the mixture fraction as independent vari-
able, leads to a one-dimensional quasi-steady struc-
ture of all scalar profiles in terms of the mixture
fraction. The essential non-equilibrium parameter is
the instantaneous scalar dissipation rate at stoichio-
metric conditions, Zst. The physical significance of this
quantity will be demonstrated. In Section 3 fast-
chemistry models and some modifications reported in
the literature will be interpreted as flamelet represen-
tations in the limit X~t-* 0. The construction of non-
equilibrium models either from numerical calcula-
tions or asymptotic analysis will be discussed.
Particular emphasis will be placed on conditions that
lead to local quenching events. The statistics of the
two parameters that appear in the flamelet formula-
tion, the mixture fraction and the instantaneous scalar
dissipation rate, are discussed in Section 4. Existing
theoretical predictions and experimental data are
collected and the underlying assumptions are
discussed. The fraction of burnable flamelets is
derived. Percolation theory is introduced to describe
situations where flamelets that are not reached by an
ignition source remain unignited although they could
burn. In Section 5 first applications of flamelet models
are presented. Finally, an outlook on work to be done
is given in Section 6.
2. THE LAMINAR FLAMELET F O R M U L A T I O N
The balance equations for species and enthalpy may
be written as
oY, or, oj,~
p ~t +PV~ +-- : I~ i
0x~ 0x~
0h 0 0h]
p ~ + p v ~ Ox~ c~x~\c e Ox~/
- c~x~i=,hi~p~X~ +ji~ + c t + q a "
In (2.2) the viscous dissipation term and spatial
pressure gradients have been neglected on the basis of
the low Mach number approximation. In open
diffusion flames the term t3p/c~t may be omitted as well.
In Diesel engine or stratified charge engine com-
bustion, which are both non-premixed systems with
changing bulk pressure, it can have a similar influence
321
on quenching conditions as the last term in (2.2),
which describes heat loss due to radiation. The effect
of pressure changes and the analogy between pressure
decrease and volumetric heat loss has been analysed
for premixed flames in Ref. 18.
Transport properties are often simplified by
neglecting the Dufour and Soret effect and by
replacing multicomponent diffusion by Fick's law
with a single diffusion coefficient
0Yi ,~
ji~ = - p D - - , pD - --, i.e. Le = 1. (2.3)
0.'¢ ~ cv
Such an approximation is unappealing on principle
grounds and may lead to considerable errors.
Systematic investigations of transport properties have
been performed for premixed flame calculations19 and
for diffusion flames, z° In the asymptotic theory of
premixed flames, using the limit of large activation
energies, it is shown that even small deviations from
the assumption of equal diffusivities leads to a qualita-
tively different description of stretch effects and
stability.21
In non-premixed combustion, however, (2.3) leads
to even greater analytical simplifications than in pre-
mixed combustion since it permits the introduction of
a single conserved scalar variable to which all element
mass fractions are linearly related. A further
assumption that is needed for the conserved scalar
formulation is that the flow consists of two feeds, the
fuel and the oxidizer, and that no-flux conditions
apply on all other bounding surfaces? The two-feed
assumption has been relaxed by Lockwood and
Salooja, 22 who consider three feeds, the fuel feed and
two oxidizer feeds with different oxygen-to-inert
ratios.
2.1. The Mixture Fraction
While reacting species are consumed or produced,
chemical elements are conserved during chemical
reactions. Therefore the mass fraction of the chemical
element j
aum j
Zj = i=1
L ~ Yi (2.4)
(2.1) obeys a conservation equation which is obtained by
summation over (2.1) according to (2.4). Introducing
the operator L this is
L ( Z j ) = - p ~ - + p v ~ Ox~ (
¢?x~ pD Ox~/
a " a i j M j f DSYi .
(2.2) - ox , l M, +;ff t25t
where the chemical source terms cancel identically. It
is seen that the r.h.s, of (2.5) and the first term on the
r.h.s, of (2.2) vanish if (2.3) is introduced.
Extending the notation of Zj to linear combinations
of element mass fractions, one may introduce fuel and
oxidizer element mass fractions. For fuels containing
322 N. PETERS

only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as elements one oxidizer x2I

defines

Z r = ZC, F -[-ZH,F -~-Zo, F

(2.6)
Zo = Zc, o +ZH,o + Z o , o fuel
where Zj, F is the mass fraction o f e l e m e n t j in the
mixture originating from the fuel and Zj,o is the mass
fraction of element j in the mixture originating from Z=Zst
the oxidizer. Ze and Zo are defined such that they are FIG. 1. Schematic representation of the coordinate trans-
equal to the fuel and oxygen mass fractions in the formation.
corresponding non-reacting mixture. The general
definition of the conserved scalar ~ for a two-feed sufficiently high, a condition to be discussed below.
system (index 1 denoting the fuel stream and index 2 We will call this thin layer and the surrounding inert
the oxidizer stream) is mixing region a laminar diffusion flamelet. The
concept of laminar diffusion flamelets in a turbulent
ZF -- YF,2 Z o -- Yo,2
diffusion flame has been introduced by Williams. 24
YF, 1 - - YF,2 YO,1 -- Yo,2 Let us introduce a coordinate system attached to the
This definition includes the possibility that the fuel surface of stoichiometric mixture. We replace the
and oxidizer streams are partially premixed. To coordinate x 1 by the mixture fraction Z and define the
differentiate from this case we will use the notation Z original coordinate system such that the coordinate x 1
for the mixture fraction in unpremixed systems with does not lie within this surface (cf. Fig. 1). This is a
YF,2 = 0 , YO,1 = 0 coordinate transformation of the Crocco-type, who
expressed the temperature as a function of another
ZF Zo dependent variable, the velocity, in a fiat plate
Z- YF,1 - 1 - Yo,~" (2.7)
boundary layer. Here the scalars T and Y~ will be
In terms of Z the stoichiometric mixture is obtained as expressed as functions of the mixture fraction Z. By
definition, the new coordinate Z is locally normal to
YFlV,oMo.]_ 1 the surface of stoichiometric mixture. Using Z z = Xz,
Zst = 1 Y%,zV'FMF; (2.8) Z 3 = x 3, r = t as the other independent variables, we
obtain with the transformation rules
Assuming (2.3), it is seen that the mixture fraction
obeys the equation 0 8 8Z 8 8 8Z 8
L(Z) = 0. (2.9) 8t-0r I-0t 8 Z ' S x x 8x 1 8 Z

Also, using the definition of the enthalpy 8 0 OZ 0

8x k ~Z~k+~X~xkSZ , (k = 2,3) (2.13)

h= ~ hiYi, dh=cpdT+ ~ h, dYi (2.10) formally from (2.1) and (2.11) with (2.3) and (2.9) the
i=1 i-1
equations
the temperature equation can be derived from (2.1)-
8Y~ / S Z \ 2 82Y~ .
(2.3) as p ~ = pDkff~x~) ~ - + w , - R ( Y ~ ) (2.14)

i = 1 Cp Cp
= pD _ _\8x~,~] - - i E,7 --
e p w,'.

+ ¢pi 8Yi 8T 2 8% 8T
i/'=1 -Cp
- p D - -8Xa
--q 8Xo~ cp2 8x~ Sx~ "
+-- +qR
ep
(2.11)
where the operator R is defined as
For approximate solutions the last two terms in (2.11)
are in general neglected as being small compared to ( ~7-
0 ~ 8- - ) ~(pD) 8 8(pD) 8
R=p
the source term. /)2 v ~ 2 -1-/)3 t ~ 3 8X 2 8 Z 2 8x 3 8 Z 3
3 (SZ 02 02 )
2.2. Transformation into a Coordinate-Free System + ~-~2 • (2.16)
- - P D k E2= 2 8Xk OZOZ k 8Z k
We follow Ref. 23 and assume the mixture fraction
Equations (2.14) and (2.15) describe the flamelet
Z to be given in the flow field as a function of space
structure. In the thin inner reaction zone all terms
and time by solution of (2.9). Then the surface of
involving derivatives with respect to Z 2 and Z 3 are of
stoichiometric mixture can be determined from
lower order compared to the first term on the r.h.s, of
Z(xo~, t) = Zst. (2.12) (2.14) and (2.15). It can formally be shown by intro-
ducing a stretched coordinate
Combustion takes place in a thin layer in the vicinity
of this surface if the local mixture fraction gradient is ( = ( Z - Zst)/g (2.17)
 Laminar diffusionflameletmodels
reoction
ioerf oufer zone zone
Zsf
FIG. 2. Schematicrepresentation of the flamelet structure.
into (2.14)-(2.16), where e is the inverse of the non-
dimensional activation energy, that the operator R is
of higher order in e.23 For a one-step reaction with a
large activation energy the frozen flow structure of the
outer layers is to a leading order equal to the
equilibrium structure, which depends on Z only.
The flamelet formulation leads therefore to a one-
dimensional structure normal to the surface of
stoichiometric mixture. Applying the same arguments
to the unsteady terms in Eqs (2.14) and (2.15) shows
that these terms can be neglected in the inner reaction
zone as well. Exceptions to this quasi-steady burning
state may occur only close to quenching or if the
unsteady disturbances introduced by the turbulent
flow field occur on a very short time scale of order
O(re2).
The influence of the flow field is introduced into the
Eqs (2.14) and (2.15) by the instantaneous scalar
dissipation rate defined by
X=
2 ( zi2=2 ( zl2+( zl 2 ( zl2l
(2.18)
It has the dimension one per sec and may be interpreted
as the inverse of a characteristic diffusion time. Due
to the transformation it incorporates implicitly the
influence of convection and diffusion normal to the
surface of stoichiometric mixture. A schematic solution
for the temperature profile is shown in Fig. 2. The
flamelet structure consists essentially of a thin inner
reaction zone embedded between two chemically inert
outer zones. Since unsteady terms are of lower order
in the thin reaction zone, disturbances which act via Z
on the flame structure, are transmitted immediately to
the outer zones which are described by a balance of
the diffusion term and the unsteady term in Eqs (2.14)
and (2.15). Whether unsteady effects are important in
323
iner~ outer zono
Z~
the outer zones will depend on the amplitude of the
disturbances from the inner zone.
Saitoh and Otsuka 25 have analysed, both
numerically and experimentally, the frequency
response of counterflow diffusion flames to small
amplitude velocity oscillations. They observed a
frequency response of flame-zone oscillations that
compares well with a theory based on the flame sheet
approximation (cf. Section 3). In this case the scalar
profiles depend on Z only and the entire flamelet
structure is quasi-steady. The observed decrease of the
response of the amplitude with increasing frequencies
is therefore, essentially that of the mixture field to
velocity fluctuations, independent of chemistry. The
flame oscillates then with the mixture field with a
"flapping flame''26 behaviour. However, when the
flame was highly diluted, it was extinguished by low-
frequency flow field oscillations, indicating a large
amplitude interaction of external disturbances with
non-equilibriumeffects. We conclude that except close
to extinction, the unsteady terms in (2.14) and (2.15)
may be neglected in the entire structure, if the flamelet
is burning.
This leads to five different states of the flamelet:
1. The steady unreacted initial mixture.
2. The unsteady transition after ignition.
3. The quasi-steady burning state.
4. The unsteady transition after quenching.
5. The unsteady transition after re-ignition.
The possibility that quenched flamelets will not be
re-ignited with the consequence of unburnt fuel
emission is also contained in point 4.
The unreacted structure is simply given by (2.7) for
ZF, Zo in terms of Z. Equations for the quasi-steady
burning state have been derived by Bilger, 27'28 on the
basis of the a priori assumption, Yi= Yi(Z). The
324 N. PETERS
unsteady transitions require the specification of initial
conditions and depend therefore on a larger number of
parameters. This makes their statistical treatment in
an Eulerian frame of reference more difficult. As they
can be expected to occur less frequently than the
steady states in turbulent diffusion flames, their con-
tribution will be omitted.
By characterizing the flamelet structure by the in-
stantaneous value of z(Z, t) the analysis focuses on the
low frequency part of the ;(-spectrum. For high fre-
quencies the time average value of ;((Z, t) would be
more representative, but differences would only be
important if high-frequency oscillations of ;( were
accompanied by large amplitudes. Another
restriction, mentioned before, concerns the magnitude
of local mixture gradients and therefore the magni-
tude of Z. If ;( is too small, the neglection of higher
order terms in (2.14)-(2.15) is no longer justified.
When this happens, however, the equilibrium limit is
approached, where again the flamelet structure
depends on Z only.
In summary, the proposed flamelet structure con-
sists of two quasi-steady states, the unreacted initial
mixture and the burning state, both as a function of
the mixture fraction as independent variable. This
distinguishes it from previous formulations, in
particular the biographic part of ESCIMO, where an
unsteady fold structure in the one-dimensional
physical space is considered.
2.3. Physical Significance of the Instantaneous Scalar
Dissipation Rate
If we assume the flamelet to be burning and increase
;( (characterized by ;(st = ;((Zst)) with time, heat con-
duction from the reaction zone to both sides will
increase. Temperature profiles for different values of
;(~t are schematically shown in Fig. 3. There is a shift of
the reaction zone to larger values of Z if Z~t is small. If
;(~t is increased beyond the critical value ;(q heat con-
duction to both sides can no longer be balanced by
heat production due to chemical reaction and the
flamelet is quenched. This behaviour is illustrated by
the well-known S-shaped curve for the steady states
st
Z~
FIG. 3. Schematic representation of the temperature as a
function ol Z and Zst.
t
Tmox
-1 -1
Xq tog Xst~
FIG.4. The S-shaped curve showing quenching (Q) and
auto-ignition (1).
shown in Fig. 4. Here the maximum temperature is
plotted over the inverse of ;(st for given chemical
kinetics. Burning of the flamelet corresponds to the
upper branch of the curve. If ;(st is increased the curve
is traversed to the left until ;(q is reached, beyond
which only the lower, extinguished steady state exists.
The transition from the point Q to the lower state
corresponds to the unsteady transition described by
state 4. Auto-ignition, which would correspond to an
unsteady transition from the point I to the upper
curve, is unlikely to occur in diffusion flames, since the
required very large residence times (very small values
of ;(st) are not reached. Ignition of the initial mixture
or re-ignition of quenched flamelets will therefore
require an ignition source (cf. Section 4).
The parameter ;(q can be interpreted as a global
kinetic quantity describing non-equilibrium effects in
diffusion flames. It is the critical value where finite rate
kinetics just balance diffusion. In this sense it is
equivalent to the flame velocity in premixed flames
which also represents a global kinetic quantity. Both
quantities are in principle interrelated but care must
be taken to use the equivalent chemistry model for
both, premixed and diffusion flames. Numerical
values of ;(q will be given in Section 3.
To obtain a physical idea about the instantaneous
scalar dissipation rate let us consider a one-dimen-
sional laminar mixing layer governed by the equation
~z ,~ / ~z\
p ~ 7 = ~xLPD~x) (2.19)
with the initial and boundary conditions
t=O:Z=lforx<O, Z=Oforx>O
t > O : Z = 1 for x---~-oo, Z=Ofor x---++m.
(2.20)
With the assumption
p2D = (p2D)rer (2.21)
we obtain in terms of tile similarity coordinate
r/ = ~ (Dreft)- 1/2 P~ dx (2.22)
Pref
 Laminar diffusionftameletmodels
the solution
1
Z = ~erfc(q).
The instantaneous scalar dissipation rate is
1 hydrocarbon air flames Zst is typically around 0.05
z(Z, t) = 27t exp ( - 2r/2(Z)).
For small values of Z (large values of q) the comple-
mentary error function erfc may be replaced by
n - '/2r/- 1exp -r/2 such that Z can be expressed as
= 2Z 2[erfc- ~(2Z)]2/t
where erfc- ~ is the inverse (not the reciprocal) of the
complementary error function. With Z fixed, the
scalar dissipation rate is therefore inversely propor-
tional to time. This is equivalent to the "aging"
process in Ref. 15.
We may likewise consider a mixing layer that has
been distorted such that the surface at Z = 0.5 is given
by x 1 = xs (x2, x3, t). We postulate that the profile can
now be described by Eq. (2.19) in terms of the
coordinate x relative to the distorted surface
X = X 1 --XS(X2,x3, t ).
Then Z is calculated as
1 2 ~X S 2 OX s 2 tive for flamelets in turbulent flows. If the properties of
The last term in brackets describes the area increase of
the mixing layer with respect to the undisturbed case.
Compared with the model developed in Ref. 15 this
term can be interpreted as '"stretch". It should be
noted, however, that contrary to "ESCIMO" the
present ftamelet formulation treats both effects by a
single variable and therefore needs a statistical
description for this variable only.
2.4. Flow-Dependent Effects
An essential objective of the flamelet formulation is
to uncouple chemical kinetics from turbulence. It
should therefore be possible to evaluate the scalar
profiles from a laminar flow configuration and to use
them in a turbulent flow. This requires that:
1. the assumption (2.3), required by the definition
of the mixture fraction, leads to sufficiently good
approximations;
2. the Z-dependence of z(Z, t) agrees sufficiently
well for the laminar and turbulent flows con-
sidered.
With respect to the first point, a recent study of Law
and Chung 29 is of interest. These authors have
analysed the influence of fuel and oxidizer Lewis-
numbers different from unity, for three different flow
configurations using the limit of large activation
energies. They find a change of the maximum flame
temperature proportional to ( L e - 1) and therefore an
325
important influence on the quenching condition. This
effect is in principle flow dependent but the variation
(2.23) between different flows is less important than the effect
itself. The second point above becomes important due
to the shift of the reaction zone demonstrated in Fig. 2.
This shift may be considerable if Zst is small. For
(2.24)
and the reaction zone shifts to about two to three
times this value close to extinction if a one-step
reaction is considered. This case is analysed in Ref. 30.
However, the effect may be less important for real
kinetics.
(2.25) The use of laminar ftamelets in turbulent flows
requires a parametric representation of the g profile,
preferably by a single parameter. The value
Zst = x(Z~t) has been proposed in Ref. 23. This choice
was motivated by asymptotic analysis for large activa-
tion energies where the change ofx is considered to be
a higher order effect. It can also be justified by the fact
that Z~t is a known constant for any fuel-air mixture.
However, ~(stis not representative for the actual scalar
dissipation rate in the reaction zone. Liew et al. 31
recently suggested that the value of Zm~x at the
maximum temperature would be a better choice. We
will use both values in the following.
If flow dependent effects are important, one could
think of several laminar flow models to be representa-
all these different models were analysed, a weighted
average on the basis of their statistical representation
(2.26)
in turbulent flames could be calculated. This pro-
cedure, however, may not provide any better results
than the choice of a single laminar flow model, whose
properties are more representative than others. If one
assumes that flamelets of the mixing layer type are
predominant in turbulent diffusion flames, it seems
appropriate to choose a laminar flow configuration
that fulfils the following requirements:
1. it is a steady-state configuration that can be
investigated experimentally;
2. the Z dependence of the x-profile follows closely
that of unsteady mixing layers.
Such a configuratio~ is the counter-flow geometry
or stagnation-point flow. It has the additional advan-
tage that in recent years counter-flow diffusion flames
have been studied theoretically and experimentally
more often than any other diffusion flame configura-
tion, since the governing equations reduce via a
similarity transformation to one-dimensional
equations. In Ref. 23 it is shown that under certain
simplifying assumptions the z-profile is for small Z
Z = 4a~Z2[erfc 1(2Z)] 2 (2.27)
where as is the stagnation-point velocity gradient.
Comparison with (2.25) shows the same Z-depen-
dence as the unsteady mixing layer. We therefore
propose to use the counter-flow configuration as the
representative laminar flow model with arbitrarily
complicated transport properties and chemistry. The
steady, one-dimensional equations may be written in
326 N. PETERS

terms of the similarity coordinate The origin of the non-dimensional stream function is
fixed by
(2.28)
q \(PP)~) pdy
f = f~ f'd~/. (2.37)
as

The only fluid mechanical parameter in these

0 /'c0f'~ f0f' p~ f,2
~t ~)+ ~+7- = 0 (2.29) equations is the stagnation-point velocity gradient as.
Once these equations have been solved, there appears
~Ji ~Yi " the problem of how to define the mixture fraction Z
I-f~-q+W~ = 0 ( i = 1,2 ..... n)
@ and how to calculate z(Z). Bilger28 has faced this
problem when he analysed experimental data. He
(2.30)
noticed important differences of the normalized

c~Tt,,~qqJ+f~-&li=aL
( J' + Pr
4
& l J = O.
element mass fractions in the flame front due to
differential diffusion and proposed to use the element
mass fraction of carbon Zc, to represent Z. Other
(2.31) definitions, such as the average value of all element
The diffusion flux may be expressed either by a binary mass fractions could also be appropriate. The scalar
diffusion law dissipation rate, z(Z), is then to be evaluated with
D = , ~ / C p p =- D(T, Yi) calculated as a function of Z.
J~ = - C pD~ ~Y~ C - Pp (2.32) The temperature dependence of D may not be as
@ ' (p~)~
critical as it first appears. For time-dependent one-
or by a multicomponent diffusion law dimensional flows, or plane two-dimensional steady
boundary-layer flows, a density transformation of the
pDik 3 _ form of (2.22) or (2.28) and the use of the assumption
Ji = ~ L C ~ - ~ (MY,) (2.33)
k=l (2.21) or C -= I leads to the same governing equations
as in the constant density case. This implies that a
where thermo-diffusion effects as well as Dufour decrease of density due to combustion decreases the
effects have been neglected. The non-dimensional scalar gradient by a factor P/Pr~f which for a constant
reaction rate is Prandtl number cancels with the increase of D in
X ~ D~2Z/c~Y 2. The variation of Z with Z is therefore
W~= #~ (2.34) not expected to differ very much from (2.27) for small
Pa,
values of Z. The values Z~t and Zmax can then be
and the boundary conditions are calculated. Again an approximate relation between
tl= - o o : f" = ( p j p _ ~ ) a / 2 , y~= Y ~ _ ~ , h = h _ ~ ~(max and ;(st is given by (2.27) if the shift from Zst to
Zmax is known. It may also be noted that the form
(2.35)
rl = + oo : f' = l, Y~= Y~oo,h = h ~. (2.36) X = ~ e x p { - 2 [ e r f c - 1(2Z)] 2} (2.38)

I
T 2000 I
['el I .... chemico[ equilibrium
, \ I
I -- non equilibrium
// ", tI --,-- experimentol doto
1500 I
Lsco[e spill

1000

500

0
f'
0 0.0~, ] 0.68
stoich
0.'12 0.'16 0.2 o'.4 o'.6 o', 12o
Z~

FIG. 5, Temperature profiles over Z for the counter flow diffusion flame in Ref. 35.
 Laminar diffusion flamelet models 327

0.2 I 1.0
. . . . equilibrium I /
-- non equilibrium I sca[e split / /
0.16 --.-- experimental data , ~ 0.8

012 / 0.6

008

0.04

-J, , , 1 .-"--'-~:-~--7
- - - ~ •

004 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.B

stoich Z
Fla. 6. Fuel and oxygen profiles over Z for the flame in Ref. 35.

I
. . . . chemical equilibrium I ~',
r/ ~,
0.2
..__ H20 /", "
0.16-
%%\\\ ii I "sk

0.12- ;k"
H xlO//' \~ \ "~
0~)8- Ii x I ~-" ~ x \

// --
LU2 ,/ .--'" \ r s c o l e Spilt ', ",, \.

0.04- / ." ,,9 "

i /,/ I ~, - ~ . --%~ x x,,x

,,/ " ""

_.;;;/ I ........ "- "-J-'--

o641 I
008 0112 0116 0.2 0 ./,.. 0.6 08 I
stoich Z
FIG. 7. Chemical equilibrium product profiles over Z for the flame in Ref. 35.

I
I 0.2 J
Yi non equilibrium I

1 :
calculation i
0.16 i scnte split

I
H20 I
0.12 I

I
0.08

0.04
y
o.641 068 o12 o'16 02 ok 0'6 o18 i
stoich Z
FIG. 8. Non-equilibrium product profiles over Z for the flame in Ref. 35.

Jpzcs I0:3-C
328 N. PETERS

I
r
[
0.2
Experimental data I
I

I
0.16 I
~scnle split
I
/ i
0.12

0.08

0.0t~

0 .
0.64[ t 008 0'12 0'16 0.2 016 018 i
stoich Z - -

FIG. 9. Experimental product profiles and the modified flame sheet model over Z for the flame in Ref. 35.

should be used instead of (2.27) for C = 1 if Z is not
small. This form is to be compared with Eq. (2.24).
3. C H E M I S T R Y MODELS
The coordinate-free formulation of diffusion
flamelets allows the use of arbitrarily complicated
chemistry including pollutant formation like N O x and
soot. The turbulent flow field acts upon the flamelet
structure only through Xst. Since fairly accurate
kinetic data are available today for hydrogen and
hydrocarbon flames 32'33 and non-intrusive measure-
ment techniques such as Raman scattering are suf-
ficiently reliable for steady laminar flames, it is only a
matter of choice and of available resources to deter-
mine the flamelet structure. Tsuji 34 has recently
reviewed experimental data of counter-flow diffusion
flames in this journal. One of the most complete set of
profiles is probably still Tsuji and Yamaoka's data
from the 13th Symposium on Combustion. 35 A flow
field calculation for these data based on the flame
sheet approximation has been performed by
Takeno. 36 A numerical analysis for the same
conditions has been performed, 37 comparing a full
equilibrium and a non-equilibrium calculation with
the experimental profiles. The results have been re-
plotted in mixture fraction space in Figs 5-9. These
figures shall serve as a guideline for the discussion of
the different models to follow.
3.1. Conserved Scalar Models
In the past these models have been widely used,
mainly for two reasons: (1) they describe the flamelet
structure as a function of a single variable, the mixture
fraction Z, and require therefore statistics of this
variable only; (2) application has not focused on
flames where non-equilibrium effects were important.
3.1.1. The flame-sheet model
The oldest conserved scalar model is the flame-
sheet model by Burke and Schumann. 38 It is based on
the assumption of a one-step irreversible reaction with
fast chemistry and complete combustion. It has been
used by Becker, 39 Lockwood and Naguib 4° and many
others. It also incorporates an essential feature found
in non-equilibrium flames: the fact that the fuel
diffuses nearly unreacted to the surface of stoichio-
metric mixture. It has the disadvantage that inter-
mediate products such as CO and H 2 are not
predicted. A modification based on the equation
v~ F + vb2 0 2~ VCO C O -1- V~l 2 H 2 + V~o: C O 2
+ v~i2oH 2 0 + radicals (3.1)
would yield such intermediates but requires the speci-
fication of the stoichiometric coefficients of the
products. F r o m an examination of the water-gas
partial equilibrium in diffusion flames (cf. Refs 28 and
41), follows the ratio
K -
v~o "V~2o 3. (3.2)
v~o2 " vi~2
Likewise, the ratio
v'fi~
K 1 = - - ~
0.2 (3.3)
v'fi~o
can be deduced from the experimental data in Fig. 9. A
further inspection shows that the elemental C/H ratio
is reduced to about 1/3 due to H-atoms contained in
radicals and a faster differential diffusion of atomic
and molecular hydrogen out of the reaction zone. This
leads to the stoichiometric coefficients, v~o = 3/8,
v'fi2 = 1/4, v~o2 = 5/8 and v'fi~o= 5/4, and with v'd2 =
23/16 to a flame surface located at ZF = 0.075 instead
of Z~t = 0.055. The resulting linear product profiles are
included in Fig. 9.
 Laminar diffusionflameletmodels
3.1.2. The chemical equilibrium model
An alternative to the flame-sheet model is the
assumption of full chemical equilibrium which corre-
sponds to the exact limit Zst~ 0. The local equilibrium
as a function of the mixture fraction may be calculated
with the aid of an equilibrium program. 42 This has
been done successfully by Kent and Bilger43 for
hydrogen flames. Difficulties arise, when the equi-
librium model is applied to hydrocarbon flames. Jones
and McGuirk 44 and Jones and Priddin 45 tried to
predict the combustion in gas-turbine combustion
chambers. They find an overprediction of CO and H 2
levels resulting from the equilibrium values which are
too large in the fuel-rich mixture. This becomes
evident from the comparison of the profiles in Figs
7 9. It is seen that the equilibrium profiles of H 2 and
CO have very strong peaks in the fuel-rich region
around Z = 0.2-0.3, which are not present in the non-
equilibrium calculation or the experimental data. To
this peak corresponds the consumption of CH 4 in the
entire region Z < 0.2 seen in Fig. 6 which also is
unrealistic. It seems unlikely that local diffusion time
scales in turbulent flames will ever be large enough to
allow for local chemical equilibrium to be reached.
3.1.3. Partial equilibrium models
An evident alternative to the equilibrium model is
the assumption of partial equilibrium for some species
and non-equilibrium for others. It may be noted that
this is implicitly done in equilibrium calculations by
excluding species like NO, NO 2 and solid carbon.
Partial equilibrium for other than flamelet models was
considered in Refs 11 and 12.
A partial equilibrium model of the flamelet type was
developed by Eickhoff and Grethe. 46 This model uses
the early idea of Libby and Economos 47 of an equi-
librium flame zone in the centre part of a laminar
diffusion flame, which is embedded within frozen flow
zones on both sides. The picture of freezing of the
chemical reaction and the transition from chemical
equilibrium to frozen flow had been shown to be a
large activation energy phenomenon where the transi-
tion zones have the structure of premixed flames. 48''.9
Eickhoff and Grethe 46 arbitrarily truncate the full
equilibrium at a mixture fraction of about Z = 0.13
and obtain discontinuous profiles at this value. The
first-order discontinuity in the profiles is clearly un-
realistic and unnecessary in view of Refs 47-49.
Nevertheless, in contrast to the full equilibrium model,
the model is found to predict CO and H z in the fuel-
rich part of a turbulent jet flame quite well.
Conserved scalar models that assume the com-
bustion reactions in chemical equilibrium, but treat
the NO formation as a finite rate process, may also be
considered as partial equilibrium models. Models of
this type have been developed. ~°'~1 The NO forma-
tion was based on the Zeldovich mechanism exploit-
ing the fact that it has a very large activation energy. A
closed-form expression was derived in Ref. 50 for the
mean NO formation rate in turbulent diffusion flames.
It was applied 51 to turbulent jet flames and compared
329
with experimental data. This comparison revealed
systematic differences between predicted and experi-
mental data, that require further investigation.
3.1.4. Conserved scalar models, based on experimental
data
Several laminar diffusion flame experiments have
been plotted over the mixture fraction as independent
variables by Bilger, 28 in order to determine reaction
rates. The first to use experimental data in the context
ofa flamelet model were Liew, Bray and Moss 52 using
data by Mitchell et al. ~a They showed an improve-
ment compared to full equilibrium calculations for an
open turbulent methane-air flame by Hassan et al. 54
The analysis uses the mixture fraction as the only
variable and assumes implicitly that the instantaneous
scalar dissipation rate in the laminar experiment is
such that its variations in the turbulent flame are
unimportant. Other experimental data that could be
used are those from counter-flow diffusion flames of
Tsuji and Yamaoka. 35 For the same configuration
there also exist profiles for CH4, 02, CO 2, CO, H20,
N 2 and temperature in methane flames by Langkau.55
The velocity gradient in his experiments was
as = 40 sec. In these experiments the effect of pre-
heating of air to 245°C was also investigated, but no
dramatic change was observed.
3.2. Non-Equilibrium Models
Non-equilibrium models need to take into account,
in addition to the mixture fraction, a non-equilibrium
parameter, preferably Xst. They can be constructed
from numerical non-equilibrium calculations based
on experimental data or, if the general structure is of
interest, more rigorously by asymptotic methods.
Each of these methods has its advantages and disad-
vantages. The numerical method has the advantage of
being able to include realistic chemistry, but the com-
putational effort can be high. It suffers from remaining
inaccuracies in elementary kinetic schemes and kinetic
parameters, in particular with respect to pyrolysis
reactions in the fuel-rich region. The asymptotic
method is restricted to a relatively small number of
reactions but it provides, in general, closed form solu-
tions which allow one to check various effects analyti-
cally.
3.2.1. Numerical calculations with elementary kinetics
Non-equilibrium calculations of laminar diffusion
flames with a large number of elementary reactions
have first been performed in Ref. 37 and for the
counter-flow flame in Ref. 35. A total number of 36
elementary reactions was used. These calculations are
replotted in Figs 5, 6 and 8 showing a good agreement
with the experiment for the temperature, CH4, 0 2,
CO 2 and H 2 0 but too low values for H 2 and CO. This
is probably due to the inaccuracy of the kinetic data
and to the neglect of pyrolysis reactions. More recent
kinetic calculations were performed by Mitchell, 56
Hahn et al. 57 and Hahn and Wendt. 5s In the context
330 N. PETERS
of laminar flamelet models for turbulent diffusion
flames there are non-equilibrium calculations in the
thesis by Grethe 59 and in the recent thesis by L[ew.6°
Both use the same one-dimensional time-dependent
equations that Spalding 15 has proposed for the
"biographic" part of his ESCIMO-model. Grethe 59
considers methane-air diffusion flames and partially
premixed diffusion flames with Le = 1 using 29
elementary reactions. Some results are given by Eick-
hoffand Grethe 61 and in a recent review by Eickhoff. 62
Unfortunately the conserved scalar profiles are not
given so that the actual value of)~t cannot be deduced.
Liew 6° uses binary diffusion coefficients with
respect to the mixture, uses 38 reactions and calculates
Zmax. He compares his calculations for constant and
decreasing fold thickness with the methane flame by
Mitchell, Clomburg and Sarofim. 53 These results are
reported in Ref. 31. He observed the shift of maximum
temperature towards larger values of Z with in-
creasing Xmax. This is consistent with the schematic
representation in Fig. 3 and the results obtained by
activation energy asymptotics.l 4,63
3.2.2. Asymptotic flamelet models
Lifi/m 64 was the first to use the method of matched
asymptotic expansions to describe the interaction of
diffusion and finite rate kinetics for a one-step irrever-
sible reaction in the inner zone of a laminar diffusion
flame. He, and later Fendell6s used the limit of large
Damk6hler numbers where the activation energy is
assumed to be an order-one quantity. Clarke, 66"67
Clarke and Moss 68 and Allison and Clarke 69 have
considered this limit for more realistic multiple
reaction kinetics, to model hydrogen/oxygen diffusion
flames. An analysis for a two-step chain reaction was
performed by Bush and Fendell.7° Extinction con-
ditions, however, cannot be derived in this limit since
the plot of the temperature over the characteristic
Damk6hler number does not exhibit a turning point
as shown in Fig. 4. Lifi~n63 showed that activation
energy asymptotics is a suitable tool to study
extinction phenomena in steady state diffusion flames.
Lifi~m and Crespo TM studied the unsteady transition
from auto-ignition, premixed burning to a diffusion
flame structure in a non-premixed system. Allison and
Clarke v2 used activation energy asymptotics for a
kinetic scheme of six elementary reactions for
hydrogen-oxygen flames. Sohrab et al. 7 3 investigated
the effect of radiant heat loss on extinction. Lifi/tn TM
also analysed the effect of a Lewis number different
from unity for counter-flow diffusion flames within the
framework of the "premixed flame regime". A comple-
mentary analysis was performed by Law and Chung 29
within the framework of Lifi/m's "diffusion flame
regime". The interaction of reverse reactions with the
main reaction is studied in Ref. 75.
Asymptotic analysis can also clarify a question
related to boundary conditions. In Section 2 flamelets
were assumed to be extended in mixture fraction space
from Z = 0 to Z = 1. In turbulent flames this is un-
likely to be the case. The mixture fraction between two
adjacent surfaces of stoichiometric mixture may
change sufficiently to separate the flame zones in
physical space, but will not necessarily reach 0 or 1.
For instance, we may assume the flame zones to be
separated by a rich mixture and separate the flamelets
at the maximum value of Z. Then boundary condi-
tions are to be applied at this value of Z. For a one-
step irreversible reaction this situation has been
analysed in detail in Ref. 76. It is shown that the
diffusion flamelets are disconnected, if the variation of
the mixture fraction is large enough such that the
corresponding flame temperature is lower than a
characteristic freezing temperature. The flamelets may
then be treated as partially premixed diffusion
flamelets. It is interesting to note that they are more
sensitive to flame stretch than non-premixed diffusion
flamelets and that extinction occurs at a lower value of
the scalar dissipation rate.
3.3. The Influence of the Instantaneous Scalar
Dissipation Rate on Flamelet Profiles
The qualitative influence of the scalar dissipation
rate has already been discussed in paragraph 2.3.
Figure 4 shows schematically, that the temperature of
the burning state is relatively insensitive to changes of
the actual value of Xst. In evaluating the experimental
data of Abdel-Khalik,v7 Bilger 2s finds the mass
fractions of the fuel C7H16 , 0 2 and CO2 to be
insensitive to changes of X by three orders of magni-
tude. He finds certain influences on intermediates such
as CH 4 and C z H 4 and notes that radicals such as OH,
O, H may show a much greater variation.
The last argument is certainly also valid for the
formation of NO. The temperature-sensitivity of the
NO formation reactions based on the Zeldovich-
mechanism is well known (cf. Refs 49 and 50). Small
changes in the maximum flame temperature will
therefore lead to large changes in the NO formation
rate. One of the future objectives of non-equilibrium
models will be to determine the influence of X on the
NO formation rate. Another important future field of
research is related to soot formation in diffusion
flames. 78 It is easily observed that a laminar (or
turbulent) diffusion flame changes colour from yellow
to blue if the flow velocity is increased, indicating that
the local residence time is too small to permit the
formation of radiating soot particles. Since the
increase of flow velocity corresponds to an increase of
)~, the colour of a diffusion flamelet is a measure of the
local scalar dissipation rate.
Soot formation in turbulent acetylene diffusion
flames has recently been investigated by Kent and
Bastin. 79 They find that soot volume profiles scale
with the flame time d/u. (For dimensional reasons, the
flame time is inversely proportional to the mean scalar
dissipation rate.) Soot formation and oxidation rates
are mixing-controlled at low flow rates and kinetically
controlled at high flow rates, as is to be expected from
the arguments given above. A more detailed analysis
by Kent and Wagner 8° of sooting laminar flames shows
 Laminar diffusion flamelet models
400
t 14 I
Oq
ool
200 -
100
016 0.18
FIG. 10. Evaluation ofxg for nitrogen-diluted methane flames from data. s2
a very great sensitivity on the local soot temperature.
A temperature drop by radiation freezes the soot
burnout at about 1300K. The same phenomena is
observed in turbulent flames. 79
3.4. Local Quenching of DifJusion Flamelets
Another phenomenon related to the scalar dissipa-
tion rate is the local quenching of diffusion flamelets.
This has also been discussed in paragraph 2.3
following Fig. 4. If quenching occurs, all reactions
including pollutant formation reactions cease
abruptly. It is therefore very important to have
quantitative data on diffusion flame quenching in
terms of Zst. In Ref. 23 a closed form expression has
been derived for Zq for a one-step irreversible reaction
in the limit of a large activation energy.
4Z2t(X-Zst)2vb2Bpst e x p - ( a + T~t).
Zq = f12(1 +a(1 - Z ~ t ) ) M r
(3.5)
This expression shows the influence of characteristic
parameters, for instance a dependence on Z~t, but it
does not allow one to calculate Zq, since the frequency
factor, B, and the activation energy, E, are not known.
Also, the effects of radiation, 73 differential diffusion 29
and reverse reactions 75 would change the asymptotic
result by factors of order one. Therefore another
approach to determine Zq was proposed. 23 It consists
of analysing experimental data of counter flow dif-
fusion flames. Such an analysis based on Tsuji and
Yamaoka's data 81 yields a value of Zq = 7.8/sec for
methane using the approximate formula (2.38). Simi-
larly, a value of Z0 ~ 9.7/sec can be derived for
p r o p a n e - a i r flames. Recent data on extinction of
331
×q
12
10
oo 97// 97
020
X02
counter-flow diffusion flames of Ishizuka and Tsuji s2
have been interpolated s3 to derive values of Zq for
methane air flames diluted with nitrogen. These
curves are shown in Fig. 10 as a function of the mole
fraction of oxygen in the oxidizer stream. They were
constructed for constant values of Z~t, implying that
both, the fuel and the oxidizer streams were diluted.
The value OfZq = 7.8/sec is to be compared with the
numerical calculation of Liew et al. 62 who estimate a
value of ~q,max 50sec, where Zq,max is evaluated at
~
the maximum temperature. The shift of thc reaction
zone may account for part of the difference between Zq
and Zq. . . . but not for this discrepancy. The
explanation lies probably in the unsteady numerical
approach used in Ref. 62. Bilger deduced a value Zq =
8/sec for methane based on a perturbation analysis
for a simplified reaction scheme. 12 F r o m his Z-profile
and the approximation of D 28 and the original space
coordinate, 34 a value of Z~t = 3.0/sec can be deduced
for the stable methane flame with a s = 100/sec. Since
quenching occurs at aq = 320/sec and a shift away
from Zst is to be observed, 34 this agrees with the
estimate of Zq ~ 8/sec.
4. STATISTICSOF DIFFUSION FLAMELETSIN
TURBULENT FLOWS
If the approximations discussed in Sections 2 and 3
are acceptable, the flamelet depends only on two
parameters: Z and Zst- In a turbulent flow field these
parameters are statistically distributed. To predict
non-equilibrium effects in turbulent diffusion flames,
it is therefore necessary to predict the joint distribu-
tion function of Z and Zst. In this chapter we will
present some known properties of the joint proba-
bility density function (pdf) of Z and Zst and propose
332 N. PETERS
methods to predict it. We will also discuss conse-
quences of the statistical description related to flame
lift-off and blow-off based on percolation theory.
4.1. Joint Statistics of the Conserved Scalar and Scalar
Dissipation
Using Bayes' theorem the joint pdf of Z and Z can
be written
Pzx(Z,z) = Pz(Z)Pz(zlZ). (4.1)
Here Pz (Z) is the marginal distribution
Pz (Z) = f o pzz (Z, Z) d?z (4.2)
while P~(zIZ) is the conditioned pdf of Z for a fixed
value of Z. Since it is more convenient to use Favre-
averaged statistics than conventional time-averages
in turbulent combustion,1 we specify the pdf's by a
tilde as Favre-probability-density functions. We will
denote the conditioned pdf at Z = Z~t by
Px(Zst) = P,(zlZ = zst). (4.3)
If z and g were statistically independent, (4.1) would
reduce to
/3zz (Z, Z) = Pz (Z)Px (Z) (4.4)
where
Cl
Pz (z) = J0 Pz~ (z, z) dZ (4.5)
is the marginal distribution. Then the joint pdf can be
predicted by using the properties of Pz (Z) and Px O0
to be discussed below,
The assumption of statistical independence, how-
ever, remains questionable. Bilger2 has argued in
favour of such an assumption. Meyers and O'Briena4
studied the evolution of the joint pdf of Z and Z. They
found that the turbulent transport term introduces
weak statistical dependence between Z and g at
moderate turbulent Reynolds numbers. In Ref. 85 a
pdf transport equation for Pz (Z) has been used to
calculate the conditioned mean
;z = f 0 Z/3z(xIZ)dz (4.6)
on the basis of an a priori assumption about Pz(Z) in
a round turbulent methane jet. It was found that the
result was insensitive to the choice of Pz(Z). The
comparison between the conditioned mean at
2 = Zst = 0.055 and the unconditioned mean shows
fairly large differences at x/d = 10 and 20 but good
agreement further downstream.
However, all these evaluations rely on statistical
assumptions about other quantities. A more direct
calculation of a turbulent mixing layer developing in
time was recently performed by Ashurst et al. 86 using
the discrete vortex method combined with a very
accurate finite difference calculation of the scalar field.
Their results show a strong statistical dependence
between Z and ;(. The dissipation rate is found to be
approximately lognormal with a Z-dependence of the
mean value that can be derived on the basis of Eqs
(2.24) and (2.26). The mixing layer ensemble can be
expected to represent the early part of a jet, where )~
and Z would be statistically dependent. This is con-
sistent with the results of Ref. 85.
4.1.1. Conserved scalar pdf models
Since prediction methods for turbulent flows are
generally based on moments rather than on the pdf
itself, a convenient method to determine the pdf is to
assume an n-parameter function and to relate the first
n moments to these parameters. As Z is bounded
between 0 and 1, the choice is reduced to a small
number of physically realistic functions. Richardson et
al. 8v were the first to use a beta-function distribution,
Spalding88 used a sinusoidal pdf, Lockwood and
Naguib 89 a "clipped Gauss" distribution and Rhodes
and Harsha 9° a triangular pdf. The beta-function
distribution has been most widely used in recent
years. 6'91'92 It has the advantage that its two
parameters can be related algebraically to the first two
moments. It has the disadvantage that it cannot
approximate bimodal pdfs which are frequently ob-
served in intermittent free shear flows. Pope 93 has
determined the statistically-most-likely pdf and con-
cludes that at least three moments are needed to
represent a number of experimentally observed scalar
pdfs.
A characteristic feature of the scalar pdf is the
appearance of an intermittency spike in the outer part
of free shear flows. The bimodal structure of the pdf in
this region is therefore essentially due to contributions
from the fully turbulent part of the flow and from the
intermittent outer flow. These two are separated by a
transition layer that has been called the viscous super-
layer by Corrsin and Kistler. 94 In the early part of the
jet flame most of the combustion is expected to take
place within this superlayer. Recently, a composite
model has been developed that takes the three parts
separately into account. 95 An evaluation of the scalar
pdf data by La Rue and Libby96 shows an un-
expectedly large contribution from the superlayer,
indicating that an important part of the scalar field is
contained in regions with large local gradients. This is
consistent with Kolmogorov's third hypothesis, 97'98
which states that the small-scale structures of turbul-
ence become less and less space filling as the scale size
decreases. A simple dynamical model called the
fl-model, that gives a plausible description of the
theory, was developed by Frisch et al. 99
4.1.2. Unconditioned scalar dissipation pdf models
Kolmogorov's third hypothesis can be extended to
scalar fields and provides a first guess about the shape
of the scalar dissipation pdf. It then states that Z is
lognormally distributed. Lognormality of a scalar was
tested by Massiello 1°° on the center line of a round jet
at x / d = 50 (cf. Gibson and Masiellol°l), and by
Sreenivasan et al. 1°2 and Antonia and Sreenivasanm3
 Laminar diffusionflameletmodels
in the inner part of a turbulent boundary layer. It was
found that the distribution of g is close to lognormal
even at relatively small Reynolds numbers. Recent
numerical calculations by Kerstein and Ashurst ~°4
also confirm the lognormality assumption of the
scalar and show that it is insensitive to certain
assumptions about the flow field. One may therefore
write
P(Z) = Z a ~ exp - (ln Z-/~)2
where the parameters ~ and a are related to the first
and second moment of Z by
)~ = exp (# +½a2)
= ~2 (exp a z - 1).
Therefore the pdf of g is known if Z and a are calcu-
lated. In principle, two-equation models of turbulence
provide the mean, either by relating it to the scalar
fluctuations and the turbulent time scale, g/F, by the
modelling assumption ~
~ criterion for burning to that proposed in Ref. 23. We
; = c, e~
where the common estimate is cz = 2.0, or by deriving
a modelled equation for Z (Borghi and Dutoya, 1°5
Elgobashi and Launder1°6). The variance a can be
deduced from Refs 100 and 102. Both find for com-
pletely different flows, for the component of Z in the
flow direction a value ofa~ ~ 4.0, while in Ref. 102 the
sum of three components yields ~r2 = 2.0. This value
certainly presents only a first guess which may be
expected to he valid in the fully turbulent part of shear
flows. In the intermittent parts of free shear flows
substantial changes of a and of Z from (4.7) may be
expected. The influence of large coherent structures,
which are not predicted by two-equation models of
turbulence, may also affect the scalar field consider-
ably? °7
4.2. The Fraction of Burnable Flamelets
From the discussion in Section 3 we know that
laminar flamelets are extinguished, if the instan-
taneous scalar dissipation rate exceeds the quenching
value, Zq- We may therefore calculate the fraction of
burnable flamelets as the probability that Zst < AVq
Pb = t~ q Pz (Zst) dZst
l lerf(!nzq/;~t+½as2t.~
, /
If statistical independence was assumed, the choice of
Zq,max (evaluated at Z m a x rather than Zst as proposed
in Ref. 31 would influence the result. However, the
numerical results of Ref. 86 indicate a comparable
shift of the mean value Zz as Z increases, as the shift of
Zmax. Also for mathematical reasons it seems more
333
convenient to choose Z~t and ~q which are fixed con-
stants rather than Zmaxand Zq,max which vary with Z.
4.3. Introduction of Percolation Theory
The probability Pb measures the ability of flamelets
to burn, if an ignition source is available. This is not
evident in an inhomogeneous turbulent flow field. If,
for instance, a flamelet has been quenched locally by a
(4.7) temporary value Zst > Zq and it is carried away from
the turbulent flame brush, it will not re-ignite when
the instantaneous scalar dissipation rate decreases
below Zq again. Also there may be flamelets that were
not yet reached by an ignition source and stay
unignited. Even within the turbulent flame brush there
(4.8)
may be burnable yet unignited clusters of flamelets
that are not connected to the burning flamelets. A
theory that is able to account for such a situation is
percolation theory. It has been introduced 23 into
combustion theory and has in the following been
applied by Kerstein and Law1°8 to spray combustion.
Kerstein 1°9 has also derived a complementary
(4.7)
will discuss both criteria below.
Percolation theory describes the conduction in ran-
domly distributed networks (cf. Kirkpatrick 11°). For
example, if two opposite planes are connected by a
three-dimensional electric network and an increasing
number of connections between adjacent net points is
successively and randomly interrupted, a threshold is
finally reached, beyond which no current flows
through the network in the statistical average. This
"percolation" threshold lies around a critical prob-
ability of Pc = Pcrit = 0.25 for the number of con-
ducting bonds. If the network is two-dimensional, the
probability Pcrit is around 0.5. The first criterion to be
discussed is related to local quenching of diffusion
flamelets. We may view the surface of stoichiometric
mixture in a turbulent diffusion flame as a two-dimen-
sional system. Local quenching events due to Zst > gq
correspond to holes, that have been punched ran-
domly into the surface. Such a system has been studied
experimentally by Last and Thouless 111 using con-
ducting graphite paper. They find conduction to drop
to zero if the fraction of the remaining surface reaches
Pcrit= 0.62. More recent theoretical work ~12 shows
that Pcrit should be around 0.718. By analogy it follows
that flame propagation along the surface of stoichio-
metric mixture will only be possible if the fraction of
burnable flamelets Pb exceeds Pcrit- However, percola-
tion theory considers in general, homogeneous
systems at rest. In a turbulent flow field where the
mean flow velocity may be directed in an opposite
(4.8)
direction to flame propagation, this corresponds to
the limit of an infinite propagation velocity. Since this
is apparently not the case in diffusion flames, propaga-
tion against the mean flow direction, say xa, takes
place only if the local velocity va does not exceed the
x~-component ul of the local flame velocity vector,
directed opposite to v1. At the surface of stoichio-
metric mixture such events would have the same effect
334
as local quenching events: those parts of the surface
which are advected downstream at too large a velocity
may be interpreted as interruptions of the network. To
account for this effect, a conditioned joint probability
density of Z, va and u 1 has been discussed in Ref. 23.
Shortly, the analogy between flame propagation in
non-premixed systems and percolation theory leads,
under certain rough assumptions, to the condition
that the critical value must be less than the product of
Pb and Pu
Pb, =- PbPu< Pcrit,2D 0.718 = (4.9)
where pu describes the probability that the local flame
velocity exceeds the local propagation velocity
1 1 ~{VF--fl~
P, = ~ + ~ e r l l - - / -
\ c% /
The other criterion, derived by Kerstein a°9 con-
siders the degree of connectedness of the surface of
stoichiometric mixture. Here the system is considered
as an ensemble of three-dimensional subsystems. If a
randomly-defined subsystem is internally connected it
is said to "percolate". All percolating subsystems are
called the "medium", all non-percolating subsystems
the "void". It is shown that the surface of stoichio-
metric mixture is the boundary of the medium and
also the boundary of the void. If either the medium or
the void are disconnected, then their mutual
boundary, the surface of stoichiometric mixture, is
disconnected. It follows from Ref. 109 that the prob-
ability of connectedness Pc can be defined as the
volume fraction of the region where Z < Z~t
j
Pc "= .z~,
o P(Z) dZ.
The system percolates if
Pc > Pcrit,3D = 0.25
and, due to symmetry between medium and void, if
also
1 -Pc > Pcrit,3D,Pc < 0.75.
The first condition would hold for mixtures which are
fuel lean in the average, while the second condition
would hold for fuel-rich mixtures.
Equations (4.9), (4.12) and (4.13) can be used to
construct the envelope of the burning part of a
diffusion flame. This is schematically shown for a jet
H Lst
°'<-....~
• \
/ " ~ Z = ~
FIG. 11. The burning region of a liftedjet flame constructed
with conditions from percolation theory.
N. PETERS
flame in Fig. 11. The general behaviour of Pb, Pu and Pc
can be estimated from the mean values in the jet. On
the centreline the mean scalar dissipation rate in-
creases after the potential core, to a maximum around
x/d ~ 10 and decays proportionally to (x/d) 4 in the
similarity region. 85 Therefore Pb increases to one
according to (4.8) as Z and similarly .~st decreases. As
the mean velocity vl also decreases, but proportion-
ally to (x/d) 1, the probability pu is expected to show a
similar behaviour. The mean value of the mixture
fraction stays constant in the potential core of the jet
and decays as (x/d)-~ in the similarity region. There-
fore Pc is close to one in the fuel-rich region of the
jet and decays to zero as it passes across the surface
of mean stoichiometric mixture. The condition,
(4.10) pb,(X, r ) = 0.718, yields then the dashed line in Fig. 11
while the conditions, Pc = 0.25 and Pc = 0.75, lead to
the solid lines. The burning region of the flame is given
by the intersection of the three curves. It is seen that
the stabilization height, H, is essentially determined
by the criterion related to local quenching of diffusion
flamelets while most of the remaining flame envelope
is determined by the criterion related to connected-
ness. The theoretical flame length, Lst, is defined by
the point on the axis where Z = Z~t.
Within the burning region, Pb, and Pc are not equal
to one and we therefore expect clusters of burnable
but unignited flamelets to remain in this region. This
effect is enhanced when the flow velocity is increased
and the stabilization height shifts downstream. The
lowering of the mean temperature in the burning
region acts upon the density and mixture fraction
field, leading to a lower theoretical flame length. Thus,
(4.11) the burning region shifts upstream. Blow-off of the
entire flame will occur, if the remaining burning region
becomes the size of a large coherent structure that
carries it downstream. This blow-off mechanism has
(4.12) been postulated in Ref. 113. Other influences may be
due to the finite size of the percolating region com-
pared to the finite size of the "holes".
(4.13)
5. APPLICATIONOF NON-EQUILIBRIUMFLAMELET
MODELSTO TURBULENTDIFFUSIONFLAMES
The present definition of non-equilibrium diffusion
flamelets implies the use of the mixture fraction and
the instantaneous scalar dissipation rate to describe
the flamelet structure. This formulation is very recent
and the author knows only two attempts to apply it:
L one is the work by Liew 6° who uses numerically
calculated non-equilibrium flamelets and the other is
a series of works on lift-off characteristics of diffusion
flames.a 13,85,83
5.1. Liew's Work
In Section 7 of his thesis, Liew 6° uses the two steady
states of a diffusion flamelet discussed in paragraph
Burning 2.2 to split the Favre average of a scalar q5defined by
region
~= ff fo~PZ,(Z,z)dzdZ (5.1)
 Laminar diffusionflameletmodels
into a burning phase F and a non-burning phase I by
assuming that ~bis independent of Z within each phase.
With ~bv(Z) and ~bl(Z) given, it follows by integration
of (5.1) over Z from 0 to ~(qand from Xqto ~ that
= Pb~)F + (1 --Pb)~' (5.2)
where
~F = f £ C~FP(Z)dZ
and (5.3)
~, = f~ q~FP(Z)dZ.
Similar definitions are derived for the second
moment of q~. He uses Zmax instead of Zst in the
definition of Pb and the assumption of statistical inde-
pendence between Z and Z. He also reviews experi-
mental data on •, calculates it with (4.7) on the basis of
a ~'-gmodel and estimates a 2 = 1.15 from Ref. 101. He
shows that the results are not sensitive to the value of
a z. He uses a beta-function model for the conserved
scalar pdf and varies Zq.... between 20/sec and 60/sec.
Solving the turbulent flow field equations numeri-
cally he compares mean velocity and scalar calcula-
tions (the latter based on (5.2)) with recent experi-
mental work by Hassan et al., 54 E1 Banhawy et al., x ~
Lockwood and Moneib 115 and Lenze and
Gtinther.116 He finds fair agreement for velocity, CH4,
CO and temperature profiles and a weak sensitivity of
these results on Z0,max" However, the challenging
feature in the experiments in Refs 54 and 116 is the
occurrence of 02 on the axis of the flame. Lenze and
Giinther had stabilized their flame with oxygen from
an annulus surrounding the fuel jet while Hassan,
Lockwood and Moneib used hydrogen as stabilizer.
In both cases the flame would have lifted if it had not
been stabilized. This indicates that the scalar dissi-
pation rate around x/d = 10-20 was large enough to
provide local quenching events which would allow O z
to traverse the surface of stoichiometric mixture and
reach the axis. Liew 6° predicts a strong oxygen peak
with a maximum of around 3 ~o on the axis between
x/d = 10-20 where Pb is small. The predicted peak is
stronger than in the experiment and does not extend
down to x/d ~ 80 as the experiment does. Liew 6°
attributes the difference to unsteady post-extinction
effects and discusses the necessity and numerical
implications of a Lagrangian approach. Another and
still Eulerian approach would be the use of percola-
tion theory.
5.2. Prediction and Experiments on Stabilization
Heights of Lifted Turbulent Jet Flames
The theory of local quenching of diffusion flamelets
was used in Ref. 113 and subsequently in Ref. 85, to
predict stabilization heights of lifted jet flames. The
approach is an alternative concept to the popular view
(cf. Vanquickenborne and van Tiggelen,~17 Brzustow-
ski la 8) which treats the stabilization mechanism in a
JPECS I0:3-C*
335
turbulent diffusion flame as if it occurred in a tur-
bulent premixed flame. A characteristic of premixed
flames is the existence of a flame velocity at which the
flame propagates with respect to the unburnt mixture.
In the diffusion flame, mixing is considered to occur
prior to the onset of combustion, and the base of the
diffusion flame is assumed to be stabilized by propa-
gation ofa premixed flame into the mixture.
Recent experimental investigations by Hall et al. 119
and Gfinther et al. 12° follow this concept and deter-
mine the turbulent flame velocity as a function of the
local turbulent Reynolds number. They find the same
linear dependence on the turbulent Reynolds number
as Andrews et al., t2' but a proportionality coefficient
that is only half the one found in premixed flames.
This seems to indicate that mixing has not occurred
down to the molecular level. In Ref. 113 the time
required for the turbulent mixing of a fluid element to
approach local uniformity was estimated. It was con-
cluded that a sufficient amount of premixing at the
molecular scale seems unlikely to justify the use of the
premixed-flame concept.
The question whether premixed flame propagation
or diffusion flamelet quenching is the correct physical
description of the stabilization mechanism has again
been investigated.76 It was found that the answer
depends on the variance of the mixture field around
Zst as well as on the scalar dissipation rate. An
essential concept in the analysis is the freezing of the
reaction at sufficiently low adiabatic flame tempera-
tures. The relation between freezing and premixed
burning has been established# 9
Assume the instantaneous mixture fraction field to
be given locally. Two traverses through the flow field
and the corresponding adiabatic temperature profiles
are shown schematically in Fig. 12. In both cases the
same Favre mean value of ~ Z - ~ and there~fore the
same mean ~st is assumed, but the variance, Zs{2, of the
mixture fraction around stoichiometric is different.
For large excursions from Zst the corresponding
adiabatic flame temperature drops below the rich
and/or the lean freezing temperature, such that the
reaction zones are separated and individual diffusion
flamelets may exist. On the other hand, this is less
ZsIt~-
FIG. 12. Schematic representation of mixture fraction pro-
files and the corresponding adiabatic flame temperature.
336
~
z,,2
,min=T c for taking into account the radial position at which X
seporofed
diffusion flome[efs
floraepropogofion
log Xsf ~ )(q
FIG. 13. Schematic representation of regions of premixed
flame propagation and separated diffusionflamelets.
likely to occur for the small variance case in the right
hand part of Fig. 12. The reaction zone is connected
and a premixed flame may travel through the slightly
inhomogeneous mixture. If the mixture fraction
gradient is larger than the assumed value, ;~t increases
and the Damk6hler number decreases resulting in
higher freezing temperatures. Then freezing would
occar even at smaller variances. Finally, when )~t is of
the order of the quenching value of diffusion flamelets,
Zq, a small but finite variance Z ~ exists for which
freezing events become unlikely. This is schematically
shown in Fig. 13 where the curve, Tad,mi~ = T~, which
equates the minimum adiabatic temperatures and the
corresponding freezing temperatures of Fig. 12,
separates the regions of premixed flame propagation
and diffusion flamelets. With respect to the contro-
versy about lift-off in turbulent jet diffusion flames, it
is important to realize that both, Z~t and ~77, are large
at about x / d = 10 and decrease subsequently. There-
fore the diffusion flamelet description seems to be
valid for an initially unpremixed jet into air. The more
detailed analysis shows that the R.M.S. fluctuation of
the mixture fraction around stoichiometric, needs to
be less than about 10% for premixed flame propaga-
tion. Otherwise local quenching occurs in the diffusion
flame regime.
Equation (4.8) has been used in the limit of
~r----~0 ~13,85 to obtain the simplified stabilization con-
dition
)~st = Zq
which is independent of Pcrit. It can be shown that the
error induced by this approximation is small for
cr < 0.5. Since Kolmogorov's third hypothesis predicts
a decrease of czwith increasing size of the volume over
which the average is taken, a volume average of Z~t
was used in Ref. 85 instead of the local value.
The order of magnitude of the average scalar dissi-
pation rate was calculated ~3 on the basis of a
similarity solution for a turbulent round jet with
variable density. S~ The influence of intermittency was
estimated on the basis of Wygnanski and Fiedler's ~22
experimental data and statistical independence
between Z and Z was assumed. For the purpose of
N. PETERS
comparison, three different methods were employed
is to be evaluated. The differences between the
resulting curves illustrates the uncertainty involved in
defining the average scalar dissipation rate appropri-
ately.
A more precise calculation of the average scalar
dissipation rate was performed in Ref. 85 using a pdf
transport equation (cf. paragraph 4.1). A ~-g model
was used to calculate 7~,t without the assumption of
statistical independence. The comparison between
measured stabilization heights for natural gas by
Horch ~23 showed good agreement for small lift-off
heights but discrepancies for values H i d > 15. The
reason for these discrepancies was sought in the in-
homogeneity of the turbulent flow. It was argued that
instantaneous peaks of the scalar dissipation rate that
arise during the merging process of large coherent
structures could influence local quenching events in a
way that cannot be represented by an average scalar
dissipation rate.
To investigate the discrepancies between theory
and experiments further, measurements of stabil-
ization heights in round methane-air jet flames
diluted with nitrogen were performed, s3 Flow condi-
tions were varied using nozzle diameters between 2
and 10 mm and exit velocities ranging up to 140 m/sec.
It was shown that some of the differences found s5
were simply due to the fact that the natural gas used
by Horch ~23 contained about 15% nitrogen which
reduces the residence time d/u o at quenching by a
factor of about 2. In Fig. 14 theoretical and experi-
mental values of the non-dimensionaldissipation rate,
Z * = zd/uo, are plotted over the non-dimensional
stabilization height H/d. The measured stabilization
heights are, however, still larger than predicted by the
theory. The more recent theory v6 has shown that
partial premixing makes the flamelet more sensitive to
flame stretch. The remaining discrepancies can there-
fore also be explained by premixing.
The main aim in Ref. 83 was, however, to check the
t 7
~i"
Zst=O0.5B
Z* x°2
-I • o2~o
- o 0 205
5 ~L • o 200
~1 • o79s
(5.4) 9, o ~ ,o
&
• ° 0 175
3 _ v o 17o
~\ + 0 210 V a n q u ; c k e n b o r n e /
2
• Ii+
1
0
10 20 30 z,o 50
Hid
FIG. 14. Non-dimensional stabilization heights H/d as a
function of the non-dimensional dissipation rate--~* =
zd/u o theoretical curve assuming statistical independence;
dashed area: statistical independence, both from Ref. 85;
data points: Y.* Zqd/u measured in Ref. 83.
=
 Laminar diffusion flamelet models
basic property of the laminar flamelet concept: the use
of laminar non-equilibrium data in turbulent diffusion
flames. Experimental residence times in the turbulent
flames were scaled with Zq-values derived from
laminar counterflow experiments 52 (cf. paragraph
3.4). This made the curves for different dilution and
different residence times collapse into one curve with,
however, considerable experimental scatter. The
scaling was performed for two values of Zst, 0.0548
and 0.0697, in order to compare with previous data by
Vanquickenborne and van Tiggelen 11 v and Horch.123
It was concluded that stabilization of lifted turbulent
diffusion flames can be described on the basis of a
laminar flamelet model using Zq as the essential
parameter.
6. DISCUSSION AND OUTLOOK ON WORK
TO BE DONE
The laminar flamelet formulation splits the problem
of turbulence-chemistry interaction in non-premixed
combustion into two parts: (a) a deterministic calcula-
tion of the quasi-steady one-dimensional laminar
diffusion flamelet structure in terms of the conserved
scalar; and (b) a probabilistic description of the occur-
rence of such structures in turbulent flames. The
laminar calculation is straight-forward, once the com-
plexity of the chemistry model has been chosen. Then
it depends only on the accuracy of the kinetic data and
the molecular transport mechanism. Fundamental
aspects, related to the possibility of an unsteady
response of the structure to external disturbances,
need further investigation.
The coupling between non-equilibrium effects and
turbulence is ascribed to a single parameter, the
instantaneous scalar dissipation rate. It appears as an
external parameter in the equations describing the
laminar flamelet structure. The introduction of
laminar flamelets into a turbulent flow is performed
by considering the joint statistics of the mixture
fraction and the scalar dissipation rate. More investi-
gations on questions like statistical independence and
the shapes of the probability density functions are
necessary to improve the predictions. However, an
important simplification of the flamelet formulation is
due to the fact that the mean value of the scalar
dissipation rate appears in prediction methods using
two-equation models of turbulence. Problems associ-
ated with these models were not discussed in this
review since they have been reviewed elsewhere? 5
However, it is worth mentioning that these models are
not primarily interested in dissipation rates, which
they use rather as an auxiliary variable to calculate
turbulent transport. The models are calibrated with
profiles for the mean scalar, and the error in scalar
dissipation may be up to a factor 2. In this context,
intermittency with respect to the outer flow, as well
as in the sense of Kolmogorov's third hypothesis--
will be important.
A hardly explored question that has come up with
the flamelet formulation is related to ignition of
337
flamelets. This was treated by introducing percolation
theory. This area clearly needs further investigation. It
is likely that some aspects of percolation theory, which
are already known to specialists, could improve our
understanding of cluster burning in diffusion flames.
In summary, the author believes that the laminar
flamelet concept is a promising tool in studying non-
equilibrium effects in turbulent diffusion flames.
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