Introduction

Water is one of the most vital elements necessary to sustain life. Although we have several
resources (seawater, glaciers, lakes, etc) readily available, or potable, water remains a constant
necessity.

When approximately 97.5% of the earth's water supply consists of saltwater, desalination
presents a functional and reliable solution.

Introduction

Desalination is the process of reducing the salt content, or other dissolved minerals from water
sources to render it fit for consumption. Desalination typically produces water with less than 500
mg/l (5000 parts per million, or ppm) dissolved solids, making it suitable for most domestic,
agricultural, and industrial uses.

Select each link to learn more.

 Domestic
 Agriculture
 Industry
Domestic

An estimated 8% of worldwide water is used for domestic purposes, such as drinking, cooking,
bathing, sanitation, and gardening.

Agriculture

About 70% of worldwater use is consumed by agriculture. Irrigation is necessary to grow crops.
Irrigation methods allow more profitable crops to grow, or increases crop yield.

Industry

Approximately 22% of worldwide water is used for industrial purposes. Power plants, refineries,
and manufacturing plants use water for several operational processes and production.

Distillation involves heating water to its boiling point to create water vapor. Then, the water
vapor is condensed to produce fresh water.
Desalination applies basic distillation concepts, with the application and removal of heat, as it
separates seawater into two parts-one with low salt concentration (distillate, or product water),
and the other with a higher salt concentration (brine, or concentrate).

There are several desalination processes. This lesson will only discuss the two main thermal
distillation processes: Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) and Multi-Effect Distillation (MED).
Thermal Desalination

More than 60% of the world's potable water is produced by using thermal desalination to distill
fresh water from seawater. In a desalination plant, seawater is heated to the boiling point to
generate the greatest amount of water vapor.

To economize this process, desalination plants control the boiling point by adjusting the ambient
pressure around the liquid. A pressure reduction reduces the necessary heat of vaporization
required to continue the boiling process. This lowers the liquid's boiling point below its existing
temperature. The liquid will now boil at its new boiling point, which is below that of its boiling
point at atmospheric pressure.

To reduce the amount of energy needed for vaporization, the desalination distillation process
applies a multiple boiling point method using a series of consecutive units, each maintained at a
lower temperature and pressure.

Both methods, MSF and MED, typically operate on the principle of reducing pressure to permit
boiling at lower temperatures without the use of additional heat. The main difference between
the methods is the heat source. MSF derives latent heat from the cooling of the evaporated liquid
from the previous stage. However, MED draws latent heat from both the cooling of the
evaporated liquid in the previous effect and the use of a compression cycle to draw additional
vacuum on subsequent effects, while adding heat of compression to the first effect.
Multi-Stage Flash Distillation

MSF distillation accounts for most of the desalting capacity, producing over 80% of all
desalinated water in the world. The MSF process is energy intensive so it is common for larger
MSF distillation plants to be combined with power plants to cogenerate water and power
production for thermal efficiency and economical reasons.

There are two MSF process arrangements:

 Once-through
 Brine recycling

In addition, MSF units are categorized by tube design:

 Long tube
 Cross tube
MSF Tube Design

MSF processes can be arranged in either a long tube or cross tube configuration. In the long tube
configuration, tubing runs parallel to the concentrate (brine) flow. In the cross tube
configuration, tubing runs perpendicular to the concentrate flow.
Multi-Effect Distillation

Multi-Effect Distillation occurs in a series of successive chambers, or "effects". Each effect is

maintained at a diminishing level of temperature and pressure from the previous effect to
maximize efficiency. This allows seawater to boil without supplying additional heat after the first
effect. The ability to recycle energy is a benefit of the MED distillation process.

Major Concerns for MSF and MED Plants

Most of the major concerns related to both MSF and MED type distillation plants typically
include:

 Energy requirement
 Cost
 Corrosion
 Waste disposal

Energy Requirement

Desalination processes are inherently energy intensive. Energy requirements vary according to
plant size, capacity, and expected output. Energy requirements and cost can be significantly
reduced if the desalination plant is co-located with a power generation plant.

Cost

Cost is a major concern for desalination plants, and is highly site specific. Common factors that
may affect cost include water source, energy cost, chemical use, and maintenance costs.

Corrosion

Corrosion is a major concern of any desalination plant. Harsh operating conditions expose plant
equipment to fouling, scaling, and other degrading problems, which may lead to equipment
reduced efficiency and costly maintenance or repair.

Waste Disposal

Waste produced from desalination processes include solids, liquids, and gases. Waste produced
from chemical treatments, emissions, and brine reject present major concerns, especially in areas
of environmental impact and regulatory requirements.
Desalination plants typically operate in aggressive environments consisting of seawater,
particulates, corrosive materials, variable levels of temperature and pressure, and fluctuating
fluid flows. Harsh operating conditions expose plant equipment and processes to biofouling,
scale formation, corrosion, and other degradation problems, which may lead to:

 Equipment failure
 Loss of process efficiency
 Costly maintenance and repair
 Production shutdown
 Reduced heat transfer
 Safety concerns
 Environmental risks

Understanding seawater composition, maintaining proper water chemistry, and applying the
appropriate treatments can manage degradation of equipment, processes, and product.

This section will discuss typical types of fouling and corrosion and the effective treatment
solutions used for MSF or MED processes, before and after desalination.

Constituents in Seawater

The world's oceans have an average salinity of about 3.5 percent, which means every kilogram of
seawater consists of 35 grams (35,000 ppm) of dissolved salts. However, in areas where mixing
occurs with fresh water sources salinity is lower, whereas, areas with less exposure to fresh water
sources and higher evaporation rates yield higher concentrations of saline.
Desalination water treatment consists of pre-treating incoming seawater and circulating water,
and post-treating product water through a series of chemical dosing systems and cleaning
systems.

Prior to desalinating seawater, unwanted materials need to be removed or reduced to prevent

accumulation of unwanted materials and maintain acceptable levels. After desalination, product
water is also treated (remineralized), prior to distribution, to ensure it is fit for use and
consumption.

Fouling and Corrosion

In general, fouling refers to the deterioration of heat exchange surfaces, particularly heat
exchanger tubes, throughout the desalination plant (for example, brine heaters and the heat
recovery and rejection sections). Fouling reduces thermal conductivity which has a significant
effect on plant performance and production.

Corrosion is nature's way of returning processed metals (steel, copper, aluminum, zinc, etc) to
their native state. An electrochemical reaction occurs between the metal and its environment
causing deterioration. The graphic illustrates the oxidation of neutral iron atoms to positively
charged atoms, which is a common oxidation reaction in corrosion (for example, rust corrosion
on a metal surface).

There are several methods to reduce fouling and corrosion:

 Select the correct materials during design

 Apply protective coatings
 Perform passivation
 Use inhibitors
 Use cathodic protection.
 

Biofouling

Biofouling (biocorrosion) is caused by microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) that attach to

a surface, reproduce, and form slime or deposits. Biofouling can also be caused by
marine life entering the system. Forms of biocorrosion are not unique and may result in
other forms of corrosion (pitting, stress corrosion cracking, dealloying, and crevice
corrosion). Affected areas include, but are not limited to, piping and distribution systems,
water injection lines and storage tanks, cooling systems, and filtration systems.

Chlorination reduces or prevents biofouling corrosion by disinfecting the seawater. The

treatment is typically administered at the point of intake and can be in the form of gaseous
chlorine or biocides such as sodium hypochlorite. Dosage varies and depends on factors such as
plant location, temperature, turbidity, presence of existing chemicals, and biological activity.

Scale and Particulate Deposition

Scale formation is a major concern for both MSF and ME processes. Scale is crystallized,
inorganic salts formed directly on plant surfaces (pipes, tubing, heat exchangers, condensers,
evaporators, etc). Scale accumulation reduces thermal conductivity, and if not reduced or
removed, will result in further corrosion and reduced efficiency.

Managing scale formation with additives benefits the plant by:

 Preventing crystal growth

 Reducing temperature/salt concentration
 Removing scale-forming constituent

Currently, there is not an additive that will completely prevent scale formation. Instead, the
additives function as scale inhibitors, rather than scale preventors, to reduce the rate of scale
growth.
Typical additives used to inhibit scale-forming constituents (calcium carbonate, magnesium salts,
calcium sulfate) include:

 Acid
 Softeners
 Antiscalants

Desalination plants may be equipped with ball cleaning systems to mechanically remove scale or
acid dosing systems to administer these additives. In addition, cleaning/rinsing procedures
combining water and additives are also implemented before long shutdown periods to remove
salts and reduce scaling.

Foaming

During the desalination process, seawater movement or agitation, or a high concentration of

suspended solids may cause foam. Foam build-up can reduce flow and heat transfer, cause pump
cavitation, and other process interruptions on desalinating equipment (evaporators, condensing
tubes, brine heater, etc). Water quality, in terms of salinity may also be affected. Typically,
desalination systems are equipped with flow meters to detect foam accumulation. An indication
of foam will activate the anti-foam dosing system, commonly located in the make-up line
upstream of the deaerator, to administer antifoam agents.

Corrosion

Harsh plant operating environments increase the risk of corrosion. Typically, corrosion occurs in
areas of high pressure and temperature, and areas where water changes to steam (evaporation).
The main types of corrosion are:

 General (Uniform)
 Localized
 Galvanic
 Stress-Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
  Erosion Corrosion
 Dealloying
 Intergranular

General (Uniform)

General (Uniform) corrosion is the most common and is the easiest to predict and control. It can
be described as a corrosive attack evenly dispersed over a surface area.

Localized

Localized corrosion occurs at discrete sites on the surface area and corrode at a faster rate than
the rest of the component. Occurrences of localized corrosion, in the form of pitting or crevice
corrosion, are prevalent in desalination plants.

Pitting is characterized by the formation of a cavity, or hole, on the surface area and is difficult to
detect because it is often covered with other types of corrosion.

Crevice corrosion is an aggressive form of localized corrosion. It results from an accumulation of

stagnant solution in typically concealed locations such as crevices, joints, and other shrouded
areas.

Galvanic

Galvanic corrosion occurs when two unlike metals are connected and exposed to water. One
metal becomes cathodic, and the other anodic. Corrosion occurs when ions move from the
anodized metal (weaker) to the cathodic metal (stronger).

Stress-Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

SCC is characterized by cracks along a surface's grain boundary and can seriously damage a
component beyond repair. This type of corrosion is a result of exposure to tensile stress,
combined with a corrosive environment.

Erosion Corrosion

Erosion corrosion typically affects plant piping and tubing. Corrosion is induced by the velocity
of the flow of water moving through the pipes or tubes. A high velocity can erode the metal, or
any protective film covering the metal. A low velocity allows contaminants to settle, further
corroding the metal.
Dealloying

Dealloying, or selective leaching, refers to corrosion caused by removing one element from an
alloy, leaving an unstable product.

Intergranular

Intergranular corrosion is a localized attack along, or adjacent to, the grain boundaries of metals
or alloys, while most of the grains remain unchanged. Poorly welded areas exposed to heat are
particularly susceptible.

This list is an example of the types of antifouling or anti-corrosion additives used in a

desalination plant.

Water produced from desalination requires post-treatment to render it fit for distribution and
consumption. The mineral content of the distillate is low, making it aggressive and corrosive.
Typical methods to post-treat distillate include stabilizing and remineralizing.

Remineralization is the process of restoring minerals and is used to improve health and taste, and
to prevent corrosion of distribution equipment such as piping. This process may include the
addition of lime, carbonates, caustic soda, or calcium. Quality requirements for any additives
used in treatment are mandated by organizations to ensure their addition will not administer
harmful levels of toxins to the product water (for example, the World Health Organization).

Plant Systems and Equipment

Desalination plant layouts vary in design; however, several components are common to both
MSF and MED desalination processes. The facility example presented in this section will
provide an overview of those similarities, as well as process specific systems and equipment. It is
a three-phase power station consisting of an MSF/combined cycle cogeneration plant, an
MED/combined cycle cogeneration plant, and a combined cycle plant used solely for power
generation.

Before we identify plant systems and equipment, let's discuss the typical flow and operation of
both desalination processes.

In the MSF process, seawater enters the unit and flows through the heat exchanger tubes, toward
the brine heater. The brine heater raises the seawater temperature to about 194°F -230°F. Then,
the seawater passes through the various stages where flashing occurs. The pressure in each stage
is maintained lower than the preceding stage so when the heated seawater enters each stage, a
rapid release of heat and vapor occurs (flashing). The vapor condenses into freshwater distillate
on the tube exchanger, located at the top of the stage and then moves through subsequent stages.
Concurrently, the unused concentrated seawater (brine), flows through subsequent stages. The
process repeats until the last (coldest) stage, where the distillate is extracted and collected, and
the brine is rejected. Part of the brine is used for plant make-up water, the rest discharges back
into the ocean.
In each MED effect, heated steam from a boiler flows within the tubes. The tubes are externally
cooled by spraying the top of the tubes with seawater. The steam inside the tubes condenses into
freshwater (distillate). Simultaneously, the heat generated by condensation warms the seawater
flowing over the tubes and partially evaporates it. This increases the salinity of the seawater
which produces brine. This process repeats in each of the subsequent effects. Brine and distillate
are collected from each effect and accumulate in the last effect, where they are removed by
centrifugal pumps

MSF and MED desalination facilities typically consist of these major systems:

 Evaporator and associated equipment

 Condensate system
 Seawater system
 Chemical dosing systems
 Brine blowdown system
 Electro-chlorination system
 Distillate system
 On load tube cleaning system
 Vacuum system
 Acid cleaning system
 Steam pressure reducing system

Note: Most of the systems and equipment included on the list are common to both MSF and
MED desalination; however, some may be process specific. Process specific items will be
identified as such.
Evaporator and Associated Equipment

Depending on design, an MED evaporator unit may be equipped with a thermocompressor. The
function of this component is to utilize the pressure of the available steam to improve its
performance. In the thermocompressor, incoming steam (motive steam) mixes with LP steam,
then compresses to the pressure of the first tube bundle. Heat produced from this process
recycles in the evaporator and is available for reuse, resulting in efficiency and energy savings.
Steam Transformer and Steam Transformer Preheater

In some MED plant designs, a steam transformer and steam transformer preheater may be
included. A steam transformer condenses primary steam received from a boiler. The steam
condenses inside a tube bundle as treated water is sprayed over the tubes. Steam produced in this
manner can be used as motive steam for the thermocompressor.

A steam transformer preheater heats make-up water or condensate before entering the evaporator
cells. The use of preheaters improves the overall efficiency of the plant.
Seawater System: Supply and Recirculation

The seawater system includes several components to supply and circulate seawater throughout
the facility. After the seawater enters the system via the seawater inlet, a common header (with a
branch for each evaporator unit) provides seawater supply to make-up, disposes of excess heat,
supplies cooling water to the vacuum system, and supplies flushing and cooling service for unit
pumps.

Each unit is equipped with a recirculation pump to recirculate some of the water from the heat
reject outlet to the heat reject inlet.

Additional components of the seawater system include:

 Seawater pumps
 Seawater traveling screens and filters

Select each component to learn more.

Seawater Pumps

Both MSF and MED desalination processes require significant volumes of seawater to maintain
continuous production. Seawater pumps, operating under vacuum, circulate and distribute
seawater throughout the system.
Seawater Traveling Screens and Filters

MSF and MED seawater intakes require pre-screening equipment to minimize the amount of
unwanted material or debris entering the system. Equipment such as traveling screens and filters
prevent damage or blockage to the system.

Make-Up/Blowdown and Brine Recirculation

Some of the cooling water from the evaporator's heat reject section serves as make-up water to
compensate for water exiting the unit as distillate or brine blowdown. This system is equipped
with brine blowdown pumps (typically one in operation, the other in standby) to manage water
level in the last stage of the unit by releasing some of the recirculation brine.

Each evaporator unit is equipped with brine recirculation pumps (both operating concurrently).
The last stage (MSF) or effect (MED) of each evaporator unit provides suction to pump brine
through the heat recovery section and the brine heater.
Steam Pressure Reducing Station

MSF units are equipped with a variety of control valves, pressure reducing valves, and
attemperators to manage steam pressure and temperature. A medium pressure (MP) to low
pressure (LP) steam reducing station is provided for each MSF unit to regulate and adjust the
quantity and pressure of steam. Prior to entering the brine heater, seawater is injected
downstream of the MP/LP steam reducing station, passing an attemperator, to help control steam
temperature. This reduces overheating of the brine which can cause boiling, dry out, and rapid
scale formation. In addition, steam traps are installed throughout the steam lines to prevent
condensate accumulation.

Distillate System

The distillate system collects distillate in a common manifold and distributes it for treatment.
Typically, there are two distillate pumps for each MSF or MED unit. During normal operation,
one pump is in operation while the other is in standby mode. The last stage (MSF) or effect
(MED) of the unit provides suction for the pumps.

An MSF distillate system may include a high purity distillate pump. The high purity distillate
pump provides high quality make-up water for the water cycle (Rankine cycle) of the heat
recovery steam generator and steam turbine.

Chemical Dosing Systems: Antiscale

The antiscale dosing system reduces scale accumulation which can lead to inefficiency, reduced
output, and high maintenance costs. The antiscale dosing system consists of:

 Storage tank
 Service tanks and agitators
 Dosing pumps
 Filling pump

Storage Tank

 A storage tank holds the antiscale agent for all MSF or MED units. It is equipped with
both a level indicator and level transmitter to observe and monitor tank levels either
locally, or from the Distributed Control and Information System (DCIS).

Service Tanks and Agitators

 Service tanks, each equipped with an electrically driven agitator, prepare and feed the
antiscale solution to the dosing pumps. The tanks are equipped with both a level indicator
and level transmitter to observe and monitor tank levels either locally, or from the
Distributed Control and Information System (DCIS).
Dosing Pumps

Each MSF or MED unit is equipped with dosing pumps. Pump capacity is controlled by an
electric actuator. The pumps are outfitted with double ball check valves and a safety relief valve
to prevent over-pressurization.

Filling Pump

The filling pump, common to all units, is a self-priming volumetric gear pump. This pump
transfers the antiscale agent from the drums into the storage tank.

Chemical Dosing Systems: Antifoam

Foam build-up can reduce flow and heat transfer, and cause other process interruptions on
desalinating equipment. The antifoam dosing system consists of diluting tanks and agitators,
dosing pumps, and a filling pump.

Diluting tanks service MSF or MED units and are used to prepare the antifoam solution. Each
tank is equipped with an electrically driven agitator, and a local level indicator for observation.

MSF and MED units are equipped with dosing pumps equipped with an electric actuator to
control pump capacity. The pumps are outfitted with double ball check valves and a safety relief
valve to prevent over-pressurization.

The filling pump, common to all units, is a self-priming volumetric gear pump. This pump is
used to transfer the antifoam from the drums into the diluting tanks.

Effective oxygen removal is essential to maintain system reliability. Protection from oxygen
corrosion can be obtained through deaeration and an oxygen scavenger additive. Sodium sulphite
is the most frequently used scavenger in desalination processes. Sodium sulphite dosing systems
include:

 Diluting tanks
 Dosing pumps

Diluting Tanks

Diluting tanks are used to prepare the sodium sulphite solution. Each tank is equipped with an
electrically driven agitator, and a local level indicator for observation.

A venting filter, equipped with an extraction fan, is installed on the top of each diluting tank to
trap the dust formed during transfer.
Dosing Pumps

Each MSF or MED unit is equipped with electrically driven, reciprocating type dosing pumps.
Pump capacity is controlled by an electric actuator. The pumps are outfitted with double ball
check valves and a safety relief valve to prevent over-pressurization.

Seawater contains significant volumes of microbiological fluids that cause biofouling on

equipment surfaces and within piping. Chlorine is the most commonly used disinfectant to
prevent biofouling. Typically, MSF and MED systems use an electrolysis process to generate
sodium hypochlorite.

During the electrolysis process, seawater passes through the electrolyser cells fitted with
stable electrodes. When DC power is passed through the electrolyser cells, a chemical
reaction occurs and converts sodium chloride in the seawater to sodium hypochlorite.
Storage tanks and pumps are additional system components used to store and distribute
the treatment.

On-Load Tube Cleaning System

An MSF facility is typically equipped with an on-load tube cleaning system to reduce fouling
and scaling of tubes during unit operation. The system, equipped with a control panel, cleans the
tubes of the heat recovery section and the brine heater by a constant circulation of sponge balls
having a diameter slightly larger than the tube diameter. Major components of the system
include:

 Ball recirculation pump

 Ball collector
 Strainer

Ball Recirculation Pump

The ball recirculation pump is an electrically driven, centrifugal, volute type pump. Its specially
designed impeller and volute casing are constructed to circulate the sponge balls without causing
damage.

Ball Collector

The ball collector gathers the sponge balls prior to backwashing the strainers. It is a cylindrical
unit equipped with a manhole hinged to the casing. It is also equipped with inlet and vent nozzles
located at the top, and discharge and drain nozzles located at the bottom. A mesh collection
basket is located within the unit.
Strainer

The strainer removes the sponge balls from the liquid after passing through the evaporator tubes.
It is constructed with a cylindrical body equipped with two angled strainer screens and ball
extraction tubes used to remove the sponge balls. A pressure differential indicator indicates when
the screens are blocked with accumulated debris.

Acid Cleaning System

As part of a maintenance program, MSF and MED desalination systems require cleaning at
regular intervals to remove accumulated alkaline scale. This process usually involves circulating
a diluted acid solution through the loop to be cleaned.

Depending on plant design, an acid cleaning system may be positioned permanently within the
plant, or arranged on a trailer so it can be easily located near the distiller unit requiring the
treatment. The acid cleaning system consists of:

 Dosing tank
 Filling pump
 Dosing pump

Dosing Tank

The dosing tank stores the acid solution and is equipped with a level indicator to allow for
observations of tank level.

Filling Pump

The filling pump transfers the hydrochloric acid solution from the drums to the dosing tank. It is
a self-priming, horizontal single stage centrifugal type pump.

Dosing Pump

The dosing pump transfers the hydrochloric solution from the dosing tank into the acid cleaning
circuit. It is a horizontal centrifugal type pump, with its casing and impeller made of acid
resistant material.

Plant Process Control

A Unit Coordinator (UC) and Distiller Unit Coordinators (DUCs) exchange information to
manage the functional areas during operation.

The operating conditions at a typical desalination facility are maintained at specific values with
the use of various regulating equipment. All plant process conditions can be controlled (manually
or automatically) with instrumentation. A control room, equipped with operator stations, is
provided.

An electronic analogue process control system controls, measures, and monitors each process
condition by a discrete set of instruments (loop). This allows isolation of the condition in the
event of an instrument failure. Essentially, a plant is automatically protected from the effects of
equipment malfunction or incorrect operating sequences. These protection systems will be
discussed later in this section.

Automation of desalination plants is typically based on the following four levels, each
corresponding to a functional plant unit:

 Drive level
 Sub-group level
 Group level
 Coordinator level

Each level interacts with a level subdivision. Interactions are generated by a manual command
(command/control instrument on DCIS), or by an automatic command request (ON/OFF
program).

Drive Level

 Includes single open and closed control loops

 Operates on single drive (motor, valve, control device)
 Performs interlocking function of single drivers

Sub-group Level

 Includes grouped drives (for example, groups of pumps and their suction/isolation valves)
 Performs coordinator functions for automatic start/stop, or standby functions

Group Level

 Includes functional groups

 Defines interconnections between subgroups
 Coordinates subgroups to corresponding plant start-up/shutdown requirements

Coordinator Level

 Coordinates functional groups and sub-groups

 Generates automatic setpoints
 Coordinates various functional areas during operating or load modification phase
Protection Systems: Alarms and Interlocks

Each desalination facility (MSF and MED) employs a protection system to protect from the
effects of equipment malfunction or incorrect operating sequences. A dedicated interlock and
alarm system provides an essential safety function.

Select each link to learn more.

 Interlocks
 Emergency Shut-Down
 Alarms

Interlocks

Interlocks are provided to ensure plant systems or equipment cannot be operated if all the
interlocks guaranteeing safe operation are not present. In the event of malfunction or failure,
interlocks are used to shutdown areas of the plant to a failsafe condition. For example, interlocks
are provided so that certain valves cannot be opened unless the interlocked valve is in a specific
position (closed, partially open, or fully open).

Emergency Shut-down

In case of emergency, the operator can initiate an emergency shut down for each unit by using
either the control room emergency stop push button, or the site emergency stop push button.

Alarms

Alarms, audible or visible, are provided in conjunction with interlocks and process control loops
to notify operators of deviations from the process. Operators must know how to respond
effectively to these alarms.

Knowledge Check

Match each component to its function.

Steam reducing station : Regulates and adjusts the quantity and Steam reducing station
pressure of steam
Hogging ejector: A large capacity air ejector used during start-up Hogging ejector
when large volumes of air must be removed
Brine heater: Heats the seawater before it enters the 1st stage Brine heater
(MSF) or effect (MED)
Air ejector condenser: Reduce ejector inefficiencies by removing Air ejector condenser
most of the water vapor carried by the vacuum system
Plant Safety

As with any other type of industrial facility, desalination plants have a high potential for
accidents and injuries.

However, all accidents and injuries are preventable if safety rules are followed and good
judgment is practiced.

Always follow the four general safety rules in an industrial site.

In general, each individual is responsible for his/her own safety. Some of the common plant
safety hazards to consider include:

 High voltage
 Extremely hot or cold surfaces
 Slip, fall, and collision hazards
 Elevated/confined spaces
 High noise areas
 Lockout/tagout areas
 Hazardous chemicals
 Moving vehicles and heavy equipment
 Respiratory hazards (fumes, dust, and airborne particles)
 Fires and explosions
 Rotating equipment or moving parts

Training and preparation are critical to safety, and can greatly reduce the risks of accidents and
injuries that may occur as a result of those hazards.
 Environmental Concerns

There are several environmental concerns associated with the operation of a desalination plant.
Discharges produced from desalination treatment processes may generate pollutants that can
affect the air, water, land, and other aspects. Careful planning, waste management, and proper
effluent control can minimize overall impact.

The list below outlines some of the typical environmental concerns.

 Impact on marine environment

 Waste from treatment additives
 Waste from cogeneration

Impact on Marine Environment

A major ecological concern involves the intake areas of the desalination plant. Organisms living
near these areas can be drawn into the equipment.

Another major concern is discharge waste. Approximately half of the seawater pumped from the
ocean is converted to produce potable water. The remaining brine returns to the ocean. The
salinity and temperature of the brine is higher than that of the seawater. This may corrode the
marine environment and cause fish to migrate and unwanted marine life, such as algae, to
propagate.

To reduce these impacts, temperature levels can be monitored and controlled by cooling
processes. Also, brine salinity and temperature can be diluted with the application of diffusion
methods.
Waste from Treatment Additives (Fouling and Corrosion)

Desalination requires treatment additives to reduce or prevent fouling and corrosion. To inhibit
corrosion, oxygen levels are intentionally reduced with the use of oxygen scavengers or
deaerators which can be toxic to marine life. Aeration prior to discharge is recommended.

Chlorine is often added to seawater to prevent fouling. Residual chlorine and by-products can
cause environmental and health problems. To remedy this, alternative methods to disinfect and
eliminate micro-organisms may be applied (alternative biocides, ultraviolet light).

Waste from Treatment Additives (Scaling and Foaming)

Antiscalants are added to seawater to prevent scale formation. Although these chemicals
typically have a low toxicity, due to poor chemical breakdown, residuals may present a concern.
Monitoring dosage will keep the environmental risk relatively low.

Antifoaming agents are added to the seawater. These additives have a low toxicity, however, low
dosage levels and sufficient dilution methods are required to minimize adverse effects due to low
degradability.

Waste from Cogeneration

High energy requirements can produce significant amounts of greenhouse gases. Energy used for
the desalination process primarily consists of electricity and heat. Desalination plants are often
combined with a power plant to economically cogenerate electricity and water. Power plants
present environmental concerns of their own as a result of power generation processes, however,
the waste and pollution produced by these plants are controlled by environmental standards

Knowledge Check

Correctly match each environmental concern to its description.

Oxygen scavengers: Inhibits corrosion by reducing oxygen levels Oxygen scavengers

which can be toxic to marine life
Antiscalants: Prevents scaling; however, due to poor chemical
breakdown, residuals may present a concern, therefore dosage Antiscalants
monitoring is required
Chlorine biocides: Presents environmental and health problems Chlorine biocides
due to residual levels in effluent
Salinity and temperature: Causes fish to migrate or unwanted
marine life to spread if levels are high, however, dilution/diffusion Salinity and temperature
methods can reduce impact
Operational Challenges and Production Optimization

Desalination processes are energy intensive and are typically associated with high operational
costs. Plant success relies on achieving a balance between overcoming operational challenges
and optimizing production. Accomplishing this balance results in:

 Improved capacity and quality

 Reduced production costs
 Minimum consumption of energy, chemicals, and water
 Reliability of equipment and systems

Operational Considerations

The primary objective of optimization is to identify the best operating condition to yield the best
product at the lowest cost. Some of the challenges that influence desalination plant optimization
exist in both short and long-term operation planning and typically include:

 Minimizing energy and fuel consumption

 Preventing fouling or corrosion
 Decreasing chemical consumption
 Maintaining stable operating conditions

Minimizing Energy and Fuel Consumption

Energy and fuel consumption represent the largest expense incurred during desalination. This is
also true of the power generation industry. In Gulf countries, it is common to combine power and
water production (cogeneration) to simultaneously generate electricity and fresh water to
economically manage costs.

Preventing Fouling and Corrosion

The accumulation of foul and corrosive constituents on plant surfaces cause heat transfer loss. In
addition, fouling and corrosion can lead to poor equipment performance and efficiency and
consequently equipment failure requiring costly repairs, replacement, or shutdown.

Decreasing Chemical Consumption

Although fouling and corrosion management are top priorities, chemical consumption is also a
substantial concern with respect to overall cost and environmental waste.
Maintaining Stable Operating Conditions

To ensure efficiency, operating procedures (including start-up, normal operations, and shut-
down) should be maintained for each system. These procedures recognize system/equipment
operating limits, sequencing, and limitations. Operator workload limitations and safety
procedures are also considered.

Optimization can be achieved by technological advances and operational advances.

It is common practice for desalination plants to conduct trials and pilot tests during the first few
years of operation to modify and optimize plant operation. Simulating, modeling, and testing
establishes operational data, analyzes and optimizes performance, and trains personnel.
Although, processes for optimization vary by plant, typical elements include:

 Load scheduling
 Process optimization
 Work process optimization

As mentioned earlier, cogenerating power and water optimizes cost. A major challenge for desalination
plants is balancing seasonal power supply with water demand. Desalination plants function during
winter/summer and day/night operating conditions. Although power demand fluctuates based on
seasonal operating factors or time of day, water demand remains constant.
Maintenance is essential to plant operation and safety. Implementing a suitable maintenance
program ensures optimal performance and reduces operational challenges. There are two types of
maintenance:

 Preventive maintenance
 Corrective maintenance

Preventive Maintenance

The main focus of preventive maintenance is to avoid equipment breakdowns and failures before
they occur to maintain continuous operation. Preventive maintenance is performed at scheduled
intervals and can include activities such as equipment inspections and routine repair or
replacement. In addition, plants are typically equipped with monitoring systems to help diagnose
or detect equipment condition and deterioration before failure. An effective preventive
maintenance program, in conjunction with well-trained staff, can maintain optimal performance
and provide:

 Improved reliability
 Decreased maintenance costs
 Decreased downtime

Corrective Maintenance

Corrective maintenance refers to the action(s) taken in response to an equipment deficiency or

failure that negatively impacts safe and efficient operation. Its primary purpose is to restore the
system to operation within the shortest amount of time. Unlike preventative maintenance, it is
performed at unpredictable intervals since the time of equipment failure is not determinable.
Typically, this type of maintenance consists of three steps:

 Diagnosis-determine cause and identify affected equipment

 Repair/Replace-take action to correct failure
 Verification-confirm proper operation after corrective action
Knowledge Check

The primary purpose of __________maintenance is to restore the system to operation within the
shortest amount of time.

Select the correct choice, then select the Submit button.

Replacement
Preventive
Diagnostic
Corrective

Summary

Water is a vital component to sustain life. Water is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial
purposes; all typically requiring potable water to function.
As population and industrialization continue to grow, the world's potable water supply decreases.
Desalination provides a significant source of consumable water to replenish water supply.

The two primary methods of desalination, Multi-Stage Flash and Multi-Effect, follow basic
distillation principles. Seawater is boiled to create water vapor, which is then condensed to
produce fresh water for use.

Select each link to review.

 Multi-Stage Flash Distillation

 Multi-Effect Distillation

Multi-Stage Flash Distillation

MSF distillation accounts for most of the desalting capacity, producing over 80% of all
desalinated water in the world.

MSF units are categorized by tube design (long tube or cross tube). MSF is further categorized
into 2 different applications: once-through or brine recycling. In the more commonly used brine
recycling process, the evaporator is broken into two distinct sections: heat rejection section
("heat sink") and heat recovery section (raises recycled stream temperature). This process mixes
50%-70% of the brine from the last stage with incoming seawater. Then, the stream recirculates
through the heat recovery sections and flashes through the subsequent stages, repeating the cycle.
Multi-Effect Distillation

Multi-Effect Distillation occurs in a series of successive chambers, or "effects". Each effect is

maintained at a diminishing level of temperature and pressure from the previous effect to
maximize efficiency. This allows seawater to boil without supplying additional heat after the first
effect. The ability to recycle energy is a benefit of the MED distillation process.

As with any manufacturing process, there are several considerations to ensure safe and efficient
operation during desalination. These include:

 Water Chemistry and Treatment

 Plant Systems and Equipment
 Safety and the Environment

Water Chemistry and Treatment

Treatment processes are dependent on water source, contaminants that require removal, and
desalination process. Typically, MSF and MED desalination require extensive pretreatment, post
treatment, and subsequent remineralization.

Treatment (pre and post), includes all the necessary steps, to ensure water quality is acceptable
for use and consumption.

Desalination plants typically operate in harsh environments that can cause a variety of
undesirable consequences (equipment loss, unplanned shutdowns, costly maintenance, or
contamination). Employing an effective treatment plan and controlling water chemistry
parameters stabilizes plant and equipment life cycles by increasing efficiency and decreasing
maintenance.

Plant Systems and Equipment

Desalination plant layouts vary in design, however, several components are common to both
MSF and MED desalination processes. MSF and MED desalination facilities typically consist of
these major systems:

 Evaporator and associated equipment

 Condensate system
 Seawater system
 Chemical dosing systems
  Brine blowdown system
 Electro-chlorination system
 Distillate system
 On load tube cleaning system
 Vacuum system
 Acid cleaning system
 Steam pressure reducing system

Safety and the Environment

Desalination plants have a high potential for accidents and injuries. However, all accidents and
injuries are preventable if safety rules are followed and good judgment is practiced.

In addition to safety concerns, environmental concerns are also associated with the operation of a
desalination plant. Discharges produced from desalination treatment processes may generate
pollutants that can affect the air, water, land, and other aspects. Careful planning, waste
management, and proper effluent control can minimize overall impact.